Copyright

by

Lan Li

2020

The Thesis Committee for Lan Li

Certifies that this is the approved version of the following Thesis:

Future Information Professionals’ Perspectives on the Impact of AI on

the Future of Their Profession

APPROVED BY

SUPERVISING COMMITTEE:

Kenneth R. Fleischmann, Supervisor

Amelia Acker

Future Information Professionals’ Perspectives on the Impact of AI on

the Future of Their Profession

by

Lan Li

Thesis

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of

The University of Texas at Austin

in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Master of Science in Information Studies

The University of Texas at Austin

August 2020

Dedication

I would like to thank my parents and husband for their loving support during my

time in the master’s program.

v

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge and give my sincerest thanks to Dr. Ken

Fleischmann, not only for his support in completing this work, but for his guidance

throughout my time at UT. This work would not be where it is without his tireless

support along every step of the way. Thanks also to Dr. Amelia Acker for providing

helpful and timely feedback throughout this process. I would also like to thank all of the

master’s students within the information studies program who volunteered their time and

energy to participate in my study. Through working on this thesis, I’ve gained a deep

respect for my peers who have made the choice to become librarians and archivists.

vi

Abstract

Future Information Professionals’ Perspectives on the Impact of AI on

the Future of Their Profession

Lan Li, M.S. Info. Stds

The University of Texas at Austin, 2020

Supervisor: Kenneth R. Fleischmann

The field of library and information science (LIS) has always shaped and been

shaped by the changing tides of technology. Given that recent developments in AI appear

to be the next technological wave that may bring major disruption for the future of

information professionals, how are students in ALA-accredited master’s programs reacting

to these changes? This paper reports findings from interviews with students pursuing

studies in librarianship and archival studies about their educational experiences with

artificial intelligence (AI) and their expectations about how AI will impact their future

careers as librarians and archivists. Key themes that emerge from this analysis include

structural and professional changes in libraries and archives, the loss of human elements in

libraries and archives, and ethical challenges of AI in libraries and archives.

Recommendations based on these findings include ways to adapt LIS education to better

prepare students, such as developing courses that combine the technical aspects of how to

leverage AI that is content and context relevant to libraries and archives, to ensure that

vii

librarians and archivists can have active roles in leveraging AI to better accomplish their

goals of serving patrons’ information needs and wants and preserving the past.

viii

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE FUTURE OF WORK ..................................................3

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES ............................................4

METHODS.............................................................................................................................7

Research Questions ..............................................................................................................7

Recruitment ..........................................................................................................................8

Data Collection ....................................................................................................................8

Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................9

FINDINGS..............................................................................................................................9

Structural and Professional Changes in Libraries and Archives ........................................11

AI in Libraries and Archives ....................................................................................12

Changing Definition of Libraries and Archives .......................................................13

Demand for New Skills.............................................................................................15

Challenges in Career and Educational Pursuit ..........................................................15

Displacement of Jobs ................................................................................................17

Ethical Challenges ....................................................................................................19

The Loss of the Human Elements in Libraries and Archives ............................................20

Loss of Understanding ..............................................................................................20

Loss of Empathy .......................................................................................................20

Loss of Agency .........................................................................................................21

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Professional Identity and Ethics.........................................................................................22

DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................25

Technical Training for Librarians and Archivists ..............................................................25

Career implications for future information professionals ..................................................26

The Need for Librarians and Archivists.............................................................................28

LIMITATIONS .....................................................................................................................30

FUTURE WORK ..................................................................................................................31

CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................31

APPENDIX A – THE SCREENER SURVEY ......................................................................34

APPENDIX B – THE INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT ..................................................................40

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................45

1

INTRODUCTION

From clay tablets (Wellisch, 1981) to Android tablets (Derr & Tolppanen, 2015),

libraries have always shaped and been shaped by technological progress (Fleischmann,

2010). Given that recent developments in AI appear to be the next technological wave that

will bring major disruption for the future of the information profession (Slota et al., 2020),

how are information school (iSchool) students reacting to these changes? The goal of this

study is to examine how students training in iSchools perceive the future of AI and the

impact that it will have on their careers and professions, with a focus on students pursuing

studies in librarianship and archives (Dillon, 2012). This case study of future librarians and

archivists can also provide insights into how students in professional programs in general

are coping with AI-induced stress in navigating both the career and the educational fronts

(Corrales et al., 2018; Glauser, 2017). The choices made by these future information

professionals, in the midst of AI development and implementation in information

institutions, will have great impact on the long-term health and longevity of the fields of

which they ultimately hope to become a part.

Librarians’ and archivists’ primary goals are to serve the information needs and

wants of their communities, (Brown, 2004) preserving and providing access to evidence of

the past (Gracy, 1987). As information technology reshape the ways in which we search,

consume, and preserve information, what do library and archives students see as the

implications of AI on their fields? How are these students coping with the potential impacts

that AI may have on their careers and professions? With upskilling and re-education as the

oft cited solutions to the widely hyped potential for job displacement due to AI (Alic,

2018), this study seeks to understand how AI impacts people’s behavior in relation to their

educational development. In addition, by understanding future information professionals’

2

perspectives on AI, iSchool master’s programs1 and ALA-accredited programs in general,

can better adjust and reinvent themselves to provide the best possible education for their

students.

Aside from Woods and Evans (2018) and Cox et al. (2019), there are few studies

examining how libraries and archives will cope with the potential changes that AI might

bring. Those studies identified perceptions of changes within academic libraries’ core

functions such as search and resource discovery as well as possible displacement and/or

creation of new roles. There is a particular need for studies that explore the topic from the

perspective of students within ALA-accredited master’s programs, who will make up the

future of the library and archives workforce. Students are a crucial population because they

are actively engaged in the process of deciding how they intend to shape their future

careers. By making the commitment to earn an ALA-accredited master’s degree, students

are making a commitment to move into fields that are rapidly changing. Whether or not

their graduate education can meet the continual challenges that libraries and archives will

face is crucial for the long-term health of the profession.

1 Not all iSchools are ALA accredited, and not all ALA accredited master’s programs are iSchools.

3

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE FUTURE OF WORK

AI can be understood as “a branch of computer science that studies the properties

of intelligence by synthesizing intelligence” (Stone et al., 2016, p. 13). As the advancement

of AI continues to progress at an accelerated pace, and AI systems are capable of a wider

range of human tasks in fields ranging from healthcare (Yu et al., 2018) to law (Surden,

2019), AI’s potential impact on the future of work becomes an ever more salient concern

among both techno-optimists and pessimists (Wilson, 2017). Within the information field,

where the process of digitization has increasingly made library and archival resources

accessible via the web, similar concerns exist about how far and how much information

technology will encroach into the roles of librarians and archivists. As technology

continues to integrate into the information profession, educators within the information

field are tasks with waves of challenges related to student preparation. How can educators

prepare students to engage in fields where the necessary skills are shifting, and the

boundary between what can be done by librarians and archivists versus technology is

blurring.

General anxieties that surround the continual availability of work amidst the

automatization of work is nothing new. During the industrial revolution, many artisans

feared that machines that took over factories will make them obsolete. But throughout the

industrial revolution, more jobs were added to the job market through the mechanization

process. Similar questions arise in the present moment as artificial intelligence becomes an

ever more pervasive part of modern life. As such, the debate about how artificial

intelligence will once again reshape professions is of wide-ranging interest (Arntz et al.,

2016; Brougham & Haar, 2018; Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2014). Regardless of what the

eventual outcome of the future will look like, the increasing integration between human

4

work and AI will reshape the nature of work across many professions (Latham & Humberd,

2018). How we choose to educate and build a work environment that integrates both

humans and technology will be of crucial importance to future informational professionals’

ability to delivery those services to patrons.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES

Related research in technological developments within libraries suggest that some

of the most prominent uses of AI within the library context arise in the form of AI-based

chatbot systems for reference services. Williams (2019) noted that despite the rich

resources available within subscription-based databases at academic libraries, the ease of

use factor of commercial tools such as the Google Scholar search engine has upended the

more traditional catalog search methods done within library supported tools. Furthermore,

our everyday interactions with consumer AI virtual assistants such as Alexa, Siri, and

Cortana are reshaping our behaviors around how search is being conducted on a daily basis

(Golden & Fleischmann, 2018; Guy, 2016; Yi et al., 2020). While reference librarians are

doing their best in trying to convince others of the criticality of expert knowledge of how

to conduct information searches, including nuanced but sophisticated approaches to

constructing Boolean queries, the habit of quick searches have changed the expectations of

users, and thus to adapt, libraries are also increasingly introducing more convenient means

of search, such as the single search box (Lown, Sierra, & Boyer, 2013) and virtual agents

(McNeal & Newyear, 2013), into the library search and resource discovery process.

Beyond search, libraries are increasingly experimenting with inclusion of technologies

such as VR (Massis, 2015) and 3D printing (Michele Moorefield-Lang, 2014). The new

technologies introduced via makerspaces have reinvigorated the services provided by the

5

library (Willett, 2016). Frey (2018) drew up a host of new developments that could be

coming to libraries in the future decade, including AI. Indeed, libraries provide the ideal

testing site for evaluating the user experience of new information technologies.

While recent adoption of technology within libraries has increased patron

engagement, acceptance of technology wasn’t always embraced by the profession with

open arms. For librarians, facing new changes to the profession is nothing new, especially

challenges that arise due to the development of new technology. When the internet first

arrived, there was a flurry of anxiety that came as users moved towards search through the

use of search engines and finding information from online encyclopedias such as

Wikipedia. Melchionda (2007) described a subset of concerns librarians had towards

technology, which included a sense of menace, technostress, and fear of change. Young

(1996) discussed such anxieties expressed by librarians back in the 1990s. In the 1990s,

there was already concern that librarians might be replaced by what Young termed

“cyberspace navigators”. For some librarians, new technology represents a potential for

loss of control over within their domain of expertise. But throughout the years, libraries

have nevertheless embraced each and every new wave brought on by technological

changes. What will this new technological wave, propelled by AI, look like for the future

generation of librarians?

Within archives, internet and other major technological developments have also

significantly increased the challenges faced by archivists. With the growing veracity,

volume, and velocity of born-digital records, the material-based archival profession is also

shifting towards the digital realm. As the gatekeepers of records, similar to libraries, the

sheer volume of information and the creation of it, has dramatically shifted the archival

landscape. Through the integration of machine learning techniques, video, text, and audio-

based formats all have the potential to increase the discoverability and accessibility of

6

archival items (Padilla, 2019). Computer vision techniques has the potential to improve

textual description of video footages. For text-based materials, optical character

recognition (OCR) systems are capable of digitizing at an increasing speed and accuracy,

even automating processes such as metadata tagging. Furthermore, text materials could

benefit from summarization techniques enabled by machine learning. Text-to-Speech

systems (TTS) systems could enable creations of audio formats from text-based sources.

On the other hand, audio material can similarly benefit from Speech-to-Text (STT). With

improvements in machine translation capabilities, more works can be made available in an

increasing number of languages. Crowdsourced metadata creation, also known as

folksonomy (Suster, 2006), is expanding the archival process to a broader set of audiences.

Instead of a top down method of assigning metadata to records, a bottom up tagging system

is emerging through usage of online communities such as Delicious, Flickr, Technorati and

more. As discussed by Stevenson (2008), the shift in technology and user behavior is

similarly raising questions and challenges for those in the archival profession.

A major tension around the discussion of AI has been around the impact it may

have on jobs across a wide range of fields, including libraries and archives. In a study

examining the impact computerization will have on a wide range of occupations (Frey &

Osborne, 2017), librarians were calculated to have a 64% probability of being

computerized, and archivists have a 76% probability. Out of the 702 occupations Frey and

Osborne examined, librarians and archivists ranked 360th and 415th, respectively (the 702nd

occupation, predicted as most likely to be completely computerized, is telemarketers; the

least likely to be computerized, rated 1st, are recreational therapists). According to the

Bureau of Labor and Statistics (BLS) (2019), with average job growth rate of 5%, BLS

estimates that from 2018 to 2028, there would be a 6% (approximately average) job

7

increase for librarians, and a 9% (faster than average) job increase for archivists, curators,

and museum workers.

The State of America’s Library report (2019) identified advances in AI and the

development of intelligent libraries as future trends for the field. However, Wood and

Evans (2018) found that librarians do not exhibit much awareness of, or concern about AI,

noting that there was little interest in engaging with the topic either through workshops or

related research from the field. Furthermore, work by Cox, Pinfield, and Rutter (2019)

show that on the topic of AI, leaders within the library field do not share a common view

on its potential impact for the profession. Of those who believe that AI will have an impact

on academic libraries, AI is predicted to have the most impact on search and discovery,

scholarly communication, and teaching and learning. This study seeks to augment current

discussion around the impact of AI on the information profession by listening to the

students who will become future librarians and archivists.

METHODS

Research Questions

This study explores three research questions:

RQ1: What are future librarians’ and archivists’ perspectives on AI?

RQ2: How do these perceptions shape future career decisions for graduates who are in the

library and archives fields?

RQ3: How do these perceptions shape decisions of specialization for graduates who are in

the library and archives fields?

Further, using semi-structured interviews, this study seeks to uncover who these

students are, what motivated them to pursue information studies in the first place, what

8

their perceptions of artificial intelligence are, and how they foresee their future library and

archives careers.

Recruitment

This study reports findings from semi-structured interviews with eight current

graduate students in an ALA accredited 2-year master’s program. The students interviewed

were at various stages of their master’s program. Half of them were in their first year and

the other half were in their second year. Their ages ranged from 24 to 35, 87.5% were

female, and 87.5% were white. Half indicated archives as their area of study, a quarter

indicated librarianship, and a quarter indicated both archives and librarianship.

Participating students had to have taken librarianship and archival courses during their time

at the program. Students voluntarily joined the study through recruitment solicitation

through program listservs and in-class recruitment calls.

Data Collection

Between October 2019 and February 2020, eight individual interviews were

conducted with students enrolled in an ALA-accredited master’s program pursuing studies

in librarianship and/or archives (See Appendix A for the screener survey and Appendix B

for the interview questions). Interviews ranged from 30-45 minutes in length; 75% were

conducted in-person and 25% were conducted remotely. Interviews were transcribed and

shared with the students post interview. Because this research involved human subjects, it

underwent and received approval through The University of Texas at Austin’s institutional

review board (IRB) review process and human subject research training was completed

prior to the interviews.

9

The interview instrument consisted of three parts. First, an exploration of the

backgrounds of the students interviewed. Second, questions aimed at understanding

students’ knowledge and their perceptions of artificial intelligence in general, as well as

how it relates to their intended careers in libraries and archives. The third part of the

interview explored students’ educational pursuits and career aspirations.

Data Analysis

Google Cloud Speech-To-Text API generated the initial raw transcripts. Each

transcript was then manually proofread for accuracy. All audio files were deleted from.

Transcripts were shared with each interviewee. Proofread versions of the interview were

then used in the subsequent data analysis process. The data analysis follows the thematic

analysis process described by Braun and Clarke (2006). The analysis process used NVivo

12 qualitative analysis software. During the initial code generation phase, 67 unique codes

were generated. During a second pass of the code generation, 179 unique codes were

generated. From these 179 codes, a cohesive set of themes emerged from students’

responses.

FINDINGS

Through the course of the interviews, on the topic of AI, students reported some

uncertainty about what AI is and how it is defined. As one student put it:

“I feel like technology is just becoming more prevalent, but I don’t

know how much of it is specifically AI.”

10

Students expressed self-consciousness when discussing the topic of AI due to

concerns about their lack of expertise on the topic. Despite the ambiguity around what

constitutes AI, when asked about their opinions regarding AI, particularly in relation to its

use within society, the students interviewed held a generally pessimistic perspective. One

student described the development of AI and its impact on society as follows:

“It terrifies me. It totally terrifies me. I don’t want to live in this world,

but I recognize that it's not black and white, it's not all good and bad. I

think I actively, for the longest time, tried to avoid learning about those

things because I didn't like the way that it was changing my thinking.”

Although the student described a strong negative opinion toward the development of AI,

it’s not without a nuanced consideration of why they feel this way. The student continued:

“...I think there are good sides to having all this digitized information,

better being able to link between archival repositories, and digitizing

all this stuff that you wouldn't be able to have access to or wouldn’t be

able to go visit...but at the same time I worry about what it's doing to

people's critical thinking skills, so much of the way people think it's just

simple answers or snippets of information and not the sort of this

relationship between them and the ability to think critically and to

question the system that you're using to instead of just blindly following

it and not looking at how it’s structured outside, politically, and how

the corporations are affecting our lives and our livelihoods and also

just the opaqueness of it, not knowing how it works and what's being

taken from you in terms of like privacy, and your time, so I do, it really

it does scare me a lot.”

In describing the reasons for holding a negative opinion towards AI, the student examined

the question through a humanistic lens; specifically, looking at issues related to mental

health, critical thinking skills, and concerns for privacy. Here, another student provided

their opinion in contrast:

“I generally feel better about it than a lot of people at this school

definitely, in this program, that's at least my perception. I think it just

kind of seems like a lot of people having a knee-jerk reaction to

associate it with evil and there's definitely a lot of bad stuff with that,

11

like algorithmic bias, that is talked about and those are really

important things to talk about, but yeah my opinion is that I think a lot

of, as long as people like people from the iSchool keep working in these

fields and being part of the development ecosystem, it will end up being

overall positive...”

It is interesting to note that this student had taken computer science courses before, while

many other interviewees had not. Perceiving that their point of view might differ from

those of their peers, this student acknowledged that concerns regarding AI’s negative

impacts are important to consider in moving its future development along a positive

trajectory.

Students were asked about their perceptions of the short-term and long-term

impacts of AI on libraries and archives. In response, students generally described the future

impacts based upon their prior experiences volunteering and working in libraries and

archival settings. The impacts of AI described by these students include:

• Structural and professional changes in libraries and archives

• The loss of the human element in libraries and archives

Structural and Professional Changes in Libraries and Archives

Many students perceived that AI will be incorporated into libraries and archives

due to funding concerns. Students voiced concern that cost-cutting incentives might drive

upper management to find AI-based solutions for running libraries and archives, effectively

using the technology as a cost-cutting tool to replace human workers. In contrast, others

argued that only the most well-funded libraries will receive benefits that come from

integrating AI into their institutions, smaller institutions will not be able to afford such

implementations, thus widening the gap between the select few institutions and the rest:

12

“...any technologies that advance the use of AI in archival settings are

only going to apply to the top 10 of our partner institutions, and maybe

in like 20-25 years, it will trickle down to the rest of them if they still

exist.”

This student believed that the distribution of AI technology will be unevenly applied across

archival institutions, and that only those with already robust funding support will be able

to benefit from the technology.

AI IN LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES

A wide spectrum of technologies was discussed by various students when thinking

about how AI could come into play within libraries and archives. The discussions were not

always strictly related to AI, but included technologies such as automation systems, VR

systems, 3D printing machines, etc. Within libraries, students mentioned automated book

retrieval systems, self-checkout carrels, online reference services, online recommendation

systems as few concrete examples of where AI could be, or is already, integrated into

libraries. Within the archives setting, students mentioned tools such as optical character

recognition (OCR) system and AI-based translation services. Each of these services has the

potential to improve the efficiency of certain tasks or provide patrons with more ways to

engage with libraries and archives, outside of the physical settings. For example, several

students mentioned that online chat systems currently staffed by library assistants could

potentially be powered by AI chatbots. Within the archival context, student discussions

were tied mainly around OCR technology, with a few individuals citing other technologies

such as machine translations tools. As one student discussed:

“I do think there is a role for AI, especially when it comes to OCR.

...software isn’t perfect yet, but AI is increasing the capabilities of

translation as well as optical character recognition software. So,

documents and text and images which are becoming digitized and

accessed via an archival portal for a specific archive or a library, these

13

new AI-based machine learning systems do enhance the capability of

scholars to access and read text in different languages.”

Despite the fact that this student held a more pessimistic view on AI overall, they

nevertheless recognized the potential benefits of AI.

CHANGING DEFINITION OF LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES

As technology reshapes the landscape of libraries and archives, students began to

ask, what is a library? What is an archive? As technologies such as automated book

retrieval systems, self-checkout kiosks, and online reference service begin to enter

libraries, the physical space within the library also changes. Within public libraries,

students noted the increasing presence of computer labs and makerspaces being

incorporated into the library. In academic libraries, traditional library stacks are making

way for collaboration zones for students to work together. One student described the

changing functionality within the library in these terms:

“I think that (common study area) is probably already really the

number one use of libraries, and I don't think, again I guess in about

the coming generations, I don't think that, I don't think that new college

students would mind now going into a library without there not being

any librarian. They might hardly notice.”

In plain terms, the student noted a potential future of libraries to exist without any librarians

due to a combination of technological changes as well as behavioral changes from the

upcoming generation of college students using the academic library, observing that the

current generation of college students might already have a different notion of what a

library is.

As the physical makeup of the library changes, the professional roles of librarians

and archivists change as well. In archives, students similarly raised the question of what it

14

means to be an archivist, if and when the underlying set of tasks associated with the

profession is being reshaped by technology itself:

“I think if things do change a lot, and people are using AI systems and

there might be some kind of, a sense of instability maybe in the field, if

people are like, what it means to be an archivist has really changed,

what it means for me, and the identity shift, but that’s not necessarily a

bad thing, but it’s just a different thing...”

As the student sketched out the potential professional impacts AI may have for archives,

they described the potential instability that it might bring to the profession itself. As a

student, the identity shift may not be as difficult of a hurdle to overcome, ‘it’s a different

thing’, which may stand in contrast to responses from veterans of the profession.

For roles within libraries that is potentially an area of growth within the library, the

nature of what those librarians do are also shifting. An example of this, as one student

mentioned, is related to the emerging field of digital humanities. Increasingly, researchers

seek to utilize the potential of AI to advance scholarship in the humanities. The emerging

field of digital humanities is one of the areas in which the library is experiencing an increase

in demand as researchers and faculties are expressing interest in bootstrapping their

research with the added capabilities that data science and machine learning holds. The

nature of the library research services is shifting as a result, research service positions are

morphing into technology liaison positions. As one student described:

“one thing that I’ve thought about is things like research services that

have kind of already been transferred to technological positions, those

things, just kind of the nature of them, seems pretty fluid right now and

what you have to know.”

Echoing the archival student before, this student similarly spoke of the fluidity that exist

within the profession as it undergoes changes, especially within emerging areas and roles

at the library.

15

DEMAND FOR NEW SKILLS

As library and archival institutions continue to adapt new technologies to meet the

changing needs of patrons today, students are further faced with the challenge of keeping

abreast of these new and rapidly evolving set of skills and demands. As data science

seminars, digital humanities workshops, peer production workshops, 3-D printing,

augmented reality, and makerspaces become a part of the library experience, one student

described the challenges in this way:

“I think the whole thing with technology librarianship and

technological expertise is definitely something that in the long-term, is

going to be abstracted out in a lot of ways. I think that like 3D printing

is another example of that, where right now having 3D printing

knowledge is definitely a marketable skill but who knows where that

technology will go and how easy it will be to set up and use the 3D

printer.”

This student sees the nature of technology as ever simplifying. As librarians, if the goal of

keeping abreast is to chase the latest wave of technology, the chase would be difficult as

the technology cycle is constantly churning, new knowledge become stale quickly. While

there are a great number of immediate benefits to being open to learning new technology,

this student wonders where this would lead in the long run?

CHALLENGES IN CAREER AND EDUCATIONAL PURSUIT

Within libraries and archives, students are aware of the need to have more technical

skill sets while seeking out career opportunities within libraries and archives. Although

students appreciate that technology focused courses have helped them gain hard skills,

many still express a desire to take more traditional library and archives courses. Students

were asked whether or not AI shaped how they have chosen to pursue their current

16

education. Some students did not see any necessity in choosing more technology-centered

courses:

“Not really. I think it's fun to think about for me, but I don't consider it

a huge part of what I want my curriculum to be.”

However, there are many who were stepping outside of their comfort zone, looking to gain

more hard skills in technology:

“I’ve realized that it’s foolish to just try to ignore this obviously and I

think it's changed the path that I'm going to take because I feel like I

need to learn more about this stuff, more about AI, and I think it's

important because it's like okay if I have these issues with it, shouldn't I

understand it because I think that's where a lot of fear comes from, it’s

the unknown you know.”

While the desire to delve deeper into understanding how technology works is present

among many students, this student noted the challenges that comes with learning technical

skills:

“I hope to feel competent in a job, I think I feel like the imposter stuff

pretty heavy and the fact that even now I am just like some of this

information stuff can be good for me, feels like so late in life it's hard to

jump in because I feel like technology stuff is like math, it’s like

cumulative, so it’s hard to just like let me jump in at this point because

there’s so much assume knowledge that you need to know”

Acknowledging that learning about technology could be beneficial, given this student’s

background in the humanities, the idea of becoming a technology-savvy librarian is fraught

with potential challenges which might not readily suit the core strengths of what the student

brings.

Other adaptive career strategies were more in line with trends students see archives

and libraries going. Some students made choices about where to refine their focus in the

17

field, and which areas within the field would hold more promises in the future. As one

library student described:

“I think about being a reference librarian, and I would think, well I

probably could still be reference librarian right now if I personally

could get a job doing that, there’re definitely still reference librarians’

positions. And I would take one of those without worrying about being

fired immediately or laid off, I guess. But it is, I think it's something

that I would just not look into as much because I know there are less

positions now than there were 5 years ago, probably?”

Other students preferred to focus on people-facing roles within libraries because

community programming requires people to run them. As one student put it:

“I know the thing that I would consider is going into a more person-

based situation, doing more programming, or teen services and stuff

and more education-based, which is another thing that is definitely

relevant in the short to medium-term I think.”

For those who, perhaps acknowledge that technical skills are not their strong suit, hopes to

find aspects of the library profession that may require less technical know-how and focus

mainly on their areas of strength.

DISPLACEMENT OF JOBS

As the introduction of increasingly advanced technology continues to reshape the

skills needed within the profession, what will happen to existing roles in libraries and

archives? Many students described the possibility of existing roles being potentially

displaced by the inclusion of technology. For example, the reference librarianship role

(American Library Association, 2020), a role that historically, is about serving library

patrons through answering questions related to patron’s informational needs could be

impacted by AI. On the potential displacement of reference librarian roles, one student

said:

18

“...short term for libraries I think definitely, a big one, is reference and

the way that artificial intelligence in well both in like searching the

ways in which search engines and voice assistants are getting so much

better and then also the way in which chat assistant are getting so

much better and will continue to get so much better. So, I think that's a

big area where for reference services which has traditionally been a

pretty big part of the library, that stuff continued to take up a lot of

service hours. AI can be a more viable tool for good reference service

and I think the effect of that obviously is that libraries are not going to

hire as many reference people because the AI will be really good at

answering people's questions and even questions that are more and

more qualitative...”

This student weighs the potential benefits of AI in terms of its ability to provide more

flexibility, convenience, and scalable service to patrons.

Similarly, students discussed the incorporation of automated book retrieval systems

within the library, as well as self-checkout carrells in the library. The common theme

echoed across these automation systems that are already making their way into libraries is

that they are potentially displacing entry-level positions within the library, such as library

assistants who normally manage the library front-desk and library pages who retrieve and

reshelf books, as well as possibly taking away opportunities for individuals within the

community to volunteer at the library. As one student said:

“I wasn’t sure if that would be considered AI, but I’ve seen those kinds

of things before and it’s really cool because all the stacks are

contained into one integrated system and all of the space is left open

and accessible to the public. Yeah it does keep everything contained

and then you know exactly where everything is, or the robot knows. You

set it up but then after that the space allocation is maintained by the

robot which is pretty cool. So, I guess yeah it does do good for the

higher-ups at the library because that system maintains itself, but it

does eliminate the need for a library page or volunteers.”

All of the students, in some form or another, discussed the potential displacement

of librarianship and/or archival positions due to AI. Due to the intrinsically sensitive nature

19

of this topic, the potential for displacing library jobs makes it difficult to fully embrace the

technologies such as AI. The number of job opening are declining due to the decrease in

budget and potential increase in reliance on technology.

ETHICAL CHALLENGES

When considering the ethical challenges that AI may pose within libraries and

archives, most students touched on issues such as patron privacy, censorship, algorithmic

bias, and misinformation, as one student said:

“I understand that there are positive benefits to AI in terms of

computing and processing, but I think there is a very high societal cost

for AI and this also comes from my own values and understanding of AI

but I think like many things in society, artificial intelligence and

computing kind of heavily impacts specific communities, racially and

class-based. At least for me AI is viewed, is also being connected with

kind of the surveillance structures that we see on the internet and in

society generally speaking. So, I think I really have a high connotation

between AI and surveillance.”

Students raised questions about how AI suppliers would control patron data,

including potentially sensitive demographic information:

“For patrons, it could be demographic information which would be of

interest to corporations, probably the ones supplying AI...if it's a school

library, it’s all student records, which is sensitive.”

Interestingly, one student discussed the potential displacement of jobs through an ethical

lens:

“... [AI] would make for fewer entry level jobs in the field, And that

could be somewhat unethical and that now there is maybe no jobs that

you can get without a college degree which then you know that's

adding expense, that’s giving people less of a chance to have early life

experience.”

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The Loss of the Human Elements in Libraries and Archives

LOSS OF UNDERSTANDING

One of the commonly raised concerns among students regarding integration of AI

into libraries and archives was the loss of the “human touch”. Within the archival context,

the loss of the human touch arises from archivists losing a visceral sense of connection

with the materials with which they are working. As AI technique automate metadata

descriptive processing, the need to directly engage with the physical material decreases.

As one student notes some of its implications:

“...in my own experience, when I did analog processing, when you're

going through all the papers, you're touching them and you’re seeing

it, you do kind of feel like a connection with them that if you're not, just

happens with digital materials anyways, but if you're not yourself

looking at all the materials, you might not have as much of a

connection with them and I think also if you're not really looking at

everything, it might be more difficult with description, to describe the

materials to the best of your ability and description is used by

researchers so it's really important part and if you know you're kind of

relying on a program to tell you what the collection is about there's

things that computer program might miss that like a human reader

would pick up on.”

This student drew out implications that could arise from not directly engaging with the

archival material, such as the inability to provide accurate metadata descriptions of the

materials.

LOSS OF EMPATHY

Another student described the experience of archiving works related to handling of

documents shared by individuals who have gone through traumatic experiences. The

student discussed what it means to take care of that material as an archivist, highlighting

21

the human decision-making process, in particular, the role that empathy plays in the work

of an archivist:

“...when you were like describing [documents] you want to be using

sensitive language and not saying things that could be hurtful to the

people who are the subjects of those interviews because they're sharing

really personal and often traumatic experiences, and they’re on the

internet for people to see. So, when you're describing it, or if you're

using metadata to tag it, you want to be using terminology that is the

most maybe politically correct or sensitive and always keep in mind

that these are real people are who are in these videos. These are real

people who created these records and try to be sensitive to them.”

In highlighting the human element of empathy shown towards the material an archivist is

tasked to care for, the student discussed the sensitivity that is needed to know how to not

only accurately describe materials, but also respectfully describe them.

Within the library context, particularly within public libraries, where the population

served is more diverse than academic libraries, students noted patrons, particularly older

patrons, visit the library for the social connections that they have established there. By

incorporating more technical and automated systems and removing the presence of people,

patron’s experience at the library will be very different as opportunities for making

intangible human connections would be diminished. As one student put it:

“I think if we just have these automated things, we lose the personal

interaction that’s in libraries and the connection that is built with

knowing the people in your community and what they need.”

LOSS OF AGENCY

Archival students also noted that the value of the archival material is a human level

decision. Knowing what is important to keep for future generations, understanding its

importance, its context, who will be affected by it, all of that goes into making decisions

about archival collections. The collection is of value to future generations, and it is a matter

22

of human decision making as to what should be preserved and who might be affected by

it. As one archives student noted:

“I think the greatest loss would be if technology, instead of being

integrated into the archival profession, is seen as a better replacement.

Particularly for people who don't understand either the technology or

what archivist do on a day-to-day basis. If nothing else the choice

making has to come down to human.”

Reference librarianship is one of the commonly noted roles within a library that

could be affected by the inclusion of AI and automation. The motivation behind

recommendation provided by an algorithm is not the same as the motivation of librarians

in assisting their patrons. As one student noted:

“With libraries, I mean I still would do that job because I feel like it's

really people based. It’s helping people and you can't replicate that,

being face-to-face with a person and feeling that connection and that

emotional connection. You can do so much with AI you know, but you

can’t teach a computer to love.”

Whether in the library context or the archival context, the human touch that students

often spoke of is a question of value. It is the agency to decide to help and assist someone.

The agency to take care of materials that others have entrusted to them. The decisions of

those who use the library and those who it serves, those who entrust their personal material,

those who view it, and those who visit it. The vast number of decisions that come, in various

forms, day in and day out, that would be lost, if much is handed over to AI. The issue of

value leads into the third theme, the ethical challenges of AI in libraries and archives.

Professional Identity and Ethics

Although the shifting landscape of libraries and archives causes students to grapple

with many challenging questions, in general, the potential impact of AI did not sway the

students away from entering the archives and librarian profession. These students’ ethical

23

commitments to their careers often outweigh practical considerations. As one student put

it:

“I've never thought that money or job availability was one of my

criteria for picking a path. It's [AI] not really one of the top five

concerns that comes up when I think about.”

Students expressed reasons for why they chose to pursue careers in libraries and

archives. One student cited that the chance to discover new information through working

in the archives was what drew them to the field:

“I am the kind of person who would love to be working in a room full

of dusty old stuff that I can help people access and help preserve and

look at while I'm in the process of doing that and see fascinating old

newspaper articles.”

Another student was drawn to archives because it provides them a chance to work hands-

on:

“the type of work [archives] appealed to me; to work with these

materials where you would have to research them but also sort of have

this hands-on element with really unique materials”

Yet another archives student noted that the desire to understand how everyday documents

left by people fit into the broader historical context within which they lived was the reason

for their interest in the field. For those who have acquired foreign language fluency,

working in the archival setting allows them to continue using that skill set while supporting

ongoing scholarly research. For librarianship students, many were drawn to the social

aspects of working within the library environment, as well as the ability to teach and engage

with students, particularly within the academic library setting. One student commented:

“So I guess my interest in librarianship was truly kind of spurred by

the hands-on work I was doing one-on-one with students, helping them

to identify resources, cultivate their skills and informational literacy,

and really just work one-on-one with a community or group of students

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or graduate students or faculty members to further their own

scholarship.”

Across both library and archives students, a common theme that drew them to the

fields is the ability to help others, be it individuals within their community, helping students

begin engagement in the research process, or helping scholars to continue to discover

materials for research. As one librarian student described the work as this:

“I really think that the point is that libraries are spaces for everyone

and also especially people who don't have the privileges of having like

a community spaces of their own or a place to go when it’s cold

outside.”

Despite drawbacks such as lower salary, students still chose to pursue the field:

“I thought that I would really like working in libraries as a career

regardless of the salary gap that might exist. Yeah so that was what

inspired me to apply.”

Within the set of reasons for entering the fields, lying underneath is a strong set of

commonly shared values that these students hold, values that match the ones upheld by the

profession itself. Archives students understood the importance of being entrusted with

materials that others have placed in their possession. There is a deep sense of professional

responsibility to care for the documents shared with them. Archival students empathized

with what it meant for an individual to share their documents and make it publicly available

for scholars, therefore, they showed a sense of respect towards the individual who made

this contribution. As one archival student put it:

“You are giving somebody access to your stuff and that’s a big... And

you know, there's also communities of people who have historically

been mistreated by historians, by archives, by scholars, and to put trust

in you and give you their records for safekeeping, I think you own them

a very high level of respect.”

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For library students, the sense of service towards patrons is the most important aspect of

the profession. One library student noted:

“If we are moving towards a time where everybody wants everything to

be automated then I think that libraries are there to serve their patrons.

They are not there to be a stake in what a library is supposed to be.

They are there to serve the community and the people who use them.

So, I think libraries have a lot to gain, doing exactly that, serving,

giving people what they want.”

Thus, these students were clearly thoughtful about the implications of AI in their

professions and careers, the danger of the loss of the human touch, and the ethical

implications of AI in libraries and archives.

DISCUSSION

Technical Training for Librarians and Archivists

There is a common desire among library and archives students to learn more about

digital systems, AI, machine learning, programming, data science, etc. A study by Maceli

et al. (2018) found a similar trend toward technical topics. However, some of the students

expressed trepidation about taking these courses. While the topic of AI is discussed in

various courses, including library and archives courses, it is typically discussed at a high

level. If students choose to take a technical course, it is so technically focused that it loses

relevance for library and archives students. One proposal is to develop AI courses

specifically looking at how AI is, will be, and should be applied within the context of

libraries and archives. This way, students would have a deeper grasp of how these systems

are currently implemented within libraries, what kind of trade off exists when they make

decisions about which systems to adopt, which would work best in the interest of the

patrons, and perhaps discover areas and other technical aspects about which they would

26

hope to continue learning. This type of course could thus incorporate highly technical

knowledge but apply it within a relevant and comfortable context, libraries and archives.

Currently, the discussion around technology is an antagonistic one, in relation to libraries

and archives. But it is exactly during this time that these students must gain a better

understanding of how technology is changing their profession. As future decision makers

within these institutions, more than ever, they need this knowledge in order to make sound

decisions, rather than simplistically seeing it either as a peril or as a panacea. As library

and archival educators, we hold a responsibility to provide meaningful educational

experiences that allow students to learn technical skills including but not limited to the

ability to evaluate open source and commercial software, the ability to document workflow

that involves digital platforms, and the ability to evaluate the usability of these technical

solutions (Padilla, 2019).

Career implications for future information professionals

It is unsurprising that the topic of job displacement arises from discussions about

the potential integration of AI into libraries and archives, especially for these students, who

are actively pursuing their studies to become future librarians and archivists. Choosing

these career paths is a highly personal decision. It is a decision that is rooted in human

values (Fleischmann, 2014). Within the context of librarianship and archivists, the core

value lies in service, service to assist others’ information needs in the present as well as

into the future. While machines may be able to complete a specific task that is done by a

librarian or an archivist, such as chatbot for reference and automated metadata description

for cataloging, the machine, and likely the individuals who wrote the program for this

system, do not necessarily embody the values of the fields. Certainly, a job involves a

variety of tasks, but it is much more than just that set of tasks, there are larger values that

27

guide individual decisions to enter a field and how they perform the tasks and more broadly

enact their professional responsibilities. The values that these individuals bring to the

workplace guide not only the decision to pursue a profession, but also how to carry out

one’s work. These human values cannot simply be supplanted by a machine designed to

complete specific tasks without a broader orientation toward why or how those tasks need

to be completed. The values that are embedded within the design of technology itself

further advances some subset of values over others. In deciding on how to incorporate

technology into these fields, professionals within the field has to evaluate the technology

beyond the list of features provided.

For archivists, students discuss the potential impact AI might have on more

traditional roles within the archives, such as that of catalogers, those who source and create

records for analog materials. For librarianship students, reference librarianship was cited

by many students as one strand of the library profession that seems to be going away due

to the inclusion of AI and automation. Current AI systems are capable of answering

questions more efficiently than humans, as evidenced by Watson’s defeat of Ken Jennings

and Brad Rutter at Jeopardy (Markoff, 2011). However, it is important to note that when

an individual asks a question, the machine simply runs through a set of algorithms, but

when a reference librarian answers the question, the motivation is to help and support

another being in finding the answer to their question. This human exchange and experience

are deeper than simply the transaction of asking the question and returning an answer. In

the human context, as the patron receives an answer, they feel a sense of recognition, the

receipt of help, and for the giver, the reference librarian, they get to exercise the agency to

help someone. For both, it is an exchange of care and value, on top of simply the exchange

of question and answer. That seems to be what many of the students speak about when

mentioning the loss of the human touch. A job provides nourishment for our sense of self

28

and our place in the world. AI is currently not capable of having this sense, and the potential

future displacement of future librarians and archivists’ risks robbing humans of this sense

that they are part of society and that they can direct their values towards a career that would

allow them to exercise those values.

The Need for Librarians and Archivists

As of the writing of this thesis, within the past several months, COVID-19 has

brought unprecedented changes. As every aspect of society adjusts to manage the new

norms due to the virus. Libraries, like many other institutions, are also forced to make rapid

changes to accommodate new and emerging needs. While eight months ago, when

interviews for this study just started, the students interviewed were voicing their thoughts

regarding the future of libraries, many discussed the uncertainties regarding the place of

libraries in a highly digitally connected society. Due to COVID-19, these questions are

starting to see glimmers of answers as libraries all over the country make readjustments to

accommodate social distancing and public health and safety measures. Indeed, many

libraries now lack the physical presence of librarians, and libraries themselves have become

e-Libraries. On the other hand, for archives and museums, where physical exhibitions and

interactions are placed at the fore front, they are struggling to provide similar experiences

online.

The pandemic has also revealed truths in the fragile information environment we

currently live in. With misinformation about the virus spreading rapidly via social media,

more than ever, society is grappling with an information crisis (Xie et al., In Press) or

infodemic (Zarocostas, 2020) of massive proportion. Libraries continue to be a trusted

source for accessing valuable information about how to stay safe (Jaeger & Fleischmann,

2007). Besides offering trusted information, libraries continue to be a crucial source of

29

support in its service offerings. Harris (2020) reported that libraries across the country are

revamping services to continue assisting patrons in whatever way possible, these are

especially true of public libraries; a prominent example of this comes from the Los Angeles

Public Library (Barton, 2020). Book clubs and other programs have moved to Zoom to

help connect patrons who are sheltering-in-place. Libraries are increasingly moving other

activities online such as tutoring, reading sessions, classes, to support parents who are

joggling multiple responsibilities at home. Job search webinars hosted by libraries have

drawn large crowds as libraries seek ways to support the millions who are currently out of

a job. Patrons are increasingly accessing e-books through apps such as Libby, but for those

who still prefer the physical book, some libraries have adopted new services such as

curbside pickup. Despite lockdown orders when the building is closed, public libraries

continue to provide Wi-Fi for patrons, even if just within the parking lot. As students have

pointed out, libraries are community spaces for gathering and just to meet people, despite

the lack of physical presence, librarians are still actively making house calls to older

patrons to check in on how they are.

For archivists, the pandemic has accelerated efforts to capture and document as

wide a range of voices as possible, the diversity of experiences from individuals of every

walk of life, experiences that resulted during these unprecedented times. As Dixon (2020)

detailed, archivists from all across the country are accepting documents to capture and the

moment, and to process them using various techniques, including crowdsourcing. Archival

projects such as Harvard’s COVID-19 Community Archiving Project (Harvard University

Achives, 2020), Arizona State’s A Journal of the Plague Year (2020), and many more are

springing up around public and academic institutions, in order to document that moment

(Levien & Schumer, 2020). In this moment, archivists are leaning into the use of

technology, such as social media, to tap into the immense breadth of document types that

30

we now leave behind, digital as well as analog (Acker & Kriesberg, 2020). All of this is

cumulating in a richness of archival material to which prior generations of historians had

never accessed (Parry, 2020).

Finally, these challenges underscore the importance of the physical presence, which

many students raised during the interviews. As Marx (2020), president of the New York

Public Library, noted in an op-ed piece in the New York Times, the pandemic has reminded

all of us how essential human interaction really is, and libraries provide a crucial source

for continual interactions within the community that cannot be discounted. As these trying

times have shown, week after week, that libraries are crucial cornerstones within any

community. And librarians, as well as archivists, play a key role in supporting the

community as a whole in overcoming trials and challenges.

LIMITATIONS

There are several limitations to the study. First, the study involved a relatively small

number of students drawn from a single program, limiting the ability to generalize the

findings of this study. Second, the students were interviewed at a single point in their

master’s study. This implies that some are still in the exploratory stages of refining which

areas of librarianship and/or archives they are interested in pursuing, lacking hands-on

experience in the fields, while those further along in the program have more exposure to

the work that they hope to eventually do once they graduate. Finally, since this was a

voluntary study, and required a significant time commitment to participate in an interview,

there is the potential for self-selection bias, as is common for interrogative social science

research that follows the principle of informed consent.

31

FUTURE WORK

To address the limitation of the small number of students within a single program,

it would be valuable to replicate this study with additional ALA-accredited master’s

programs, thus increasing the number and diversity of students. To address the single-

point-in-time aspect, it would be valuable to conduct a longitudinal study, to follow

students in ALA-accredited master’s programs from the point when they decide to pursue

their degree program to various stages within the program to follow-up interviews after the

student graduates and is out in the fields. Finally, to address the issue of self-selection, as

well as to even further expand the number and diversity of students, it would be useful to

develop a survey to attempt to explore the generalizability of the findings of this study.

Researcher in this area should continue to explore the more nuanced ways in which

librarians and archivists will interact with AI technology within their fields while

safeguarding patron privacy and confidentiality. Furthermore, it would be worthwhile to

understand how new practices within the fields, as a result of incorporating AI technology,

shifts the educational landscape for future informational professionals.

CONCLUSION

Students showed a basic understanding of what artificial intelligence is and how it

works. Even though many acknowledged that they have limited understandings of what AI

is, all of the students were acutely aware of the growing presence of AI-based technology

in our modern lives, as well as towards the commonly held promises of what AI could

bring to our lives. Students expressed some positive perceptions of the promise of AI, but

also voiced concern about what AI will bring. Anxiety while discussing the implications

of AI on their intended profession was a common but not universal occurrence.

32

In contrast with studies of professionals within the library field (Wood & Evans,

2018) where librarians felt that AI will not have much impact on them, students in this

study, all students within an ALA accredited program saw that the technologically induced

changes through AI are already here, and continual changes are to be expected. Also, in a

departure from results of studies of professionals within the fields of librarianship, many

of the students interviewed showed an interest in stretching themselves to better understand

how technology such as AI actually work such that it will help inform them later in their

careers when they need to make decisions regarding which technology to adopt and reject.

Despite the challenges that students believe may come as more technology makes

its way into libraries and archives, students continue to make the decision to pursue the

fields of librarianship and archives; this is based largely on non-monetary reasons. For most

of the students, the path towards librarianship and archives aligns naturally with their

interests in history, arts, and other humanities fields from which they came from.

Furthermore, the work within these fields, which focuses heavily on service for a broad

and diverse set of individuals, aligns with the set of values they themselves hold. Because

of these internal values and professional values, students are more keenly aware of the

social and ethical issues that lie at the intersection between the benefits of technology and

its drawbacks. A clear illustration of this is in the area of privacy. Whether it be close

contact with archival material, and the development of a deep appreciation of its value,

archive students intuitively understand the importance of patron privacy as individuals’

information can be found in archival collections that extends beyond the present. This is a

departure from technologists who often work with voluminous data, where the idea of user

privacy is theoretically important, but less salient. The students interviewed, and many

more who will join the fields in the future, will become decision makers of tomorrow within

these memory institutions.

33

While the library and archive fields are changing, the students interviewed were

willing to embrace the opportunity to learn more about the technology, while at the same

time, as suggested by Shaw (2019), withholding critical examination regarding the kind of

impact it will have towards the patrons and the institutions they will find themselves

serving in the future. As Young (1996) and Arlitsch et al. (2017) conclude, librarians must

lean into better understanding emerging technology to secure a future for the profession.

As one student put it:

“I think when your first reaction to technology is to hate it without

trying it first, then you’ve already lost.”

34

APPENDIX A – THE SCREENER SURVEY

Start of Block: Consent form

1-Page Summary Future Information Professionals’ Perspectives on the Impact of AI on

the Future of Their Profession

Important information about this research study

You are invited to be part of a research study on future information professionals’

perspective on AI and the impact of AI on the future of their profession.

Things you should know. The purpose of the study is to examine how students pursuing

studies in librarianship and archival studies perceive the future of artificial intelligence

and automation and the impact that it will have on their careers and professions. To

participate, you must be at least 18 years or older, be able to communicate in English, be

currently enrolled as a student at UT School of Information, and be currently taking,

have previously taken, or be planning to take courses in librarianship and/or archival

studies. If you choose to participate, you will be asked to participate in a one-to-one

interview with one of the researchers. The interview questions will help us to understand

how you perceive how artificial intelligence and automation will impact your future

profession. This interview will take approximately one hour and will be audio-recorded.

The risks involved in participating in this study are not greater than in everyday life.

You will receive no direct benefit from participating in this study; however, this study

will help us understand how future information professionals perceive the impact of

artificial intelligence and automation will be on their chosen profession. Developing this

understanding will provide insights towards how information schools can better adjust

their program to provide and support the best possible education for their students.

Participating in this research study is voluntary. You do not have to participate, and you

can end your participation at any time.

Q1 Are you currently enrolled as a student at UT School of Information?

o Yes (1)

o No (2)

Skip To: End of Survey If Are you currently enrolled as a student at UT School of Information? = No

35

Q2 Are you currently taking, have previously taken, or planning to take courses in

librarianship and/or archival studies?

o Yes (1)

o No (2)

Skip To: End of Survey If Are you currently taking, have previously taken, or planning to take courses in

librarianship and... = No

SQ3 Would you be willing to participate in an in-person or remote interview?

o Yes, I agree to participate in an in-person interview (1)

o No, I do not agree to participate in an in-person interview (2)

Skip To: End of Survey If Would you be willing to participate in an in-person interview? = No, I do not

agree to participate in an in-person interview

End of Block: Consent form

Start of Block: Scheduling

SQ4 To schedule for the in-person interview, please visit this whenisgood link and select

all possible time slots. If you prefer the remote interview option, please provide times

slots that would be convenient for you below:

________________________________________________________________

SQ5 Please enter your name in the text box below:

________________________________________________________________

36

SQ6 Please enter your email address in the box below:

________________________________________________________________

End of Block: Scheduling

Start of Block: Survey Questions - Demographic

SQ7 What is your current age, in years?

________________________________________________________________

SQ8 What is your gender?

o Female (1)

o Male (2)

o Other (3) ________________________________________________

37

SQ9 I identify my ethnicity as:

▢ American Indian or Alaska Native (1)

▢ Asian or Asian American (2)

▢ Black or African American (3)

▢ Caucasian (4)

▢ Hispanic or Latino (5)

▢ Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (6)

▢ Other (7) ________________________________________________

▢ Prefer not to answer (8)

SQ10 During what year did you join the MSIS program?

▼ 2010 (1) ... 2019 (10)

SQ11 During which semester did you join the MSIS program?

▼ Fall (1) ... Spring (2)

End of Block: Survey Questions - Demographic

Start of Block: Survey Question - Education

38

SQ12 What is your area of study at the iSchool?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

SQ13 What is your educational background (please list degrees, institutions, years)?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

SQ14 If you are currently pursuing, or planning to pursue, any other advance degrees(s)

besides the MSIS, please list them:

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

39

SQ15 Please list all of your work experience, including prior, current paid, unpaid work:

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

End of Block: Survey Question - Education

40

APPENDIX B – THE INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT

Thank you very much for volunteering to participate in this study. The goal of this

study is to enhance our understanding of how future information professionals perceive

artificial intelligence and automation and the impact that it will have on their careers and

professions. This interview should take approximately one hour and is broken into two

parts. The first part explores your background and professional goals. In the second part,

we will ask questions about your views on the future of artificial intelligence and

automation. Based on your survey responses, we note that you have given us permission

to audio-record this interview. Is any of this information incorrect, or do you have any

questions at this point?

Interviewee Background

1. We saw in your survey response that you are currently in your [SEMESTER] at the

iSchool with concentration(s) in [this track/those tracks]. Could you please tell us more

about what made you decide to pursue [this track/those tracks]?

2. What kind of position will you seek after completing the MSIS program?

Impact of AI on the future of librarianship and archival profession

We begin with a broad discussion on artificial intelligence, where artificial intelligence

is broadly defined as machine learning systems for processing images, text and language,

sounds and music, etc. While artificial intelligence holds many promises, it also has the

potential for disruption, across multiple sectors, and multiple professions, from law to

41

healthcare. I will ask several questions regarding your perspectives on artificial

intelligence, and its potential implications for the profession you intend to pursue.

3. In your MSIS education so far, did you touch on the topic of AI and automation?

a. If so, could you please describe the course and how it was discussed?

b. If not, have you learned about AI and automation in another context?

4. How do you feel about the development of AI and automation in our society?

5. What short-term (1-5 years) impacts do you anticipate AI and automation will have on

your intended profession?

a. Can you please provide examples of what the short-term impact will look like

for your intended profession?

6. [Optional] What long-term (10+ years) impacts do you anticipate AI and automation

will have on your intended profession?

a. Can you please provide examples of what the long-term impact will look like

for your intended profession?

7. What do you think would be gained (and/or lost) if AI and automation are integrated

into your intended profession?

42

a. Can you please provide example(s) of what the gain(s) will look like for your

intended profession?

8. [Optional] What do you think would be lost if your intended profession is displaced by

AI and automation?

a. Can you please provide example(s) of what the loss will look like for your

intended profession?

9. What kinds of ethical challenges do you think AI and automation will present for your

intended profession?

a. Can you illustrate with example(s) of an ethical challenge that AI and

automation will pose for your intended profession?

10. Has the potential impact of AI and automation played a role in the way you approach

your educational (and/or professional) pursuits? If so, how?

11. [Optional] Has the potential impact of AI and automation played a role in the way you

approach choosing a future profession? If so, how?

12. Given the potential impact of AI and automation, how will you manage the potential

changes that AI and automation may bring in your career ahead?

43

a. Can you please provide example(s) of ways you would manage future career

changes?

Education Background

13. We saw in your survey response that your educational background includes

[DEGREES] in [FIELDS]. What motivated you to pursue study in [that field/those

fields]?

14. [Skip if not indicated in the survey] We saw in your survey response that you have

worked [YEARS] in [JOBS] prior to entering the MSIS program. Could you tell us

more about what kind of work these jobs entailed?

15. [Optional] How did you first learn about the field of information studies?

16. [Optional] What made you decide to enroll in an information studies program?

17. [Optional] How did you learn about the Texas iSchool, and why did you decide to

enroll in the Texas iSchool’s MSIS program?

18. How do you anticipate the arc of your career unfolding, and what do you hope to

accomplish in your career?

19. [Skip if not indicated in the survey] We saw in your survey response that you are also

working on/or planning to obtain [DEGREES] in [FIELDS] besides the MSIS degree.

44

Could you please tell us more about what motivated you to pursue [that degree/those

degrees]?

20. Is there anything else you would like to tell me, or anything else that I should have

asked?

45

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