Europe and the World:DecolonizationAP EUROPEAN HISTORY

IntroductionDecolonization: the process of becoming free of colonial status and achieving statehoodBetween WWI and WWII, movements for independence begun in earnest in Africa and AsiaDominance of colonial powers seemed at odds with Allied goals in WWII.Call for national self-determination fight for independence.Empires reluctant to let colonies go.

IntroductionChurchill: I have not become His Majestys Chief Minister to preside over the liquidation of the British EmpireEuropean power destroyed by WWII.G.B. no longer had energy or wealth to maintain a colonial empire.

IntroductionBetween 1947 and 1962, virtually every colony achieved independence and statehood.It was a difficult and bitter process.Created a new world non-Western states ended era of Western domination.

Decolonization: HOWThe many differing African & Asian groups used a variety of elements in their efforts to gain independence. Some of these include . . .NationalismMilitary force / violenceMass demonstrationsEconomic boycottsGovernment representation & democratic processesIndigenous religious beliefs & symbolsThe wealth & power of the African and Asian middle & upper class.

Africa: The Struggle for IndependenceAfter WWII, colonial rule in Africa would have to end.Little had been done to prepare the colonies for self-rule.Two major methods in Africa:Negotiated Independence: Long or short term deal between European power and African colony Incomplete Decolonization: White settler minority population given political power over black majority

Independent KenyaBritish settlers controlled prime farmland in North & fiercely resisted Decolonization thereForced to accept Independence due to:the strong, popular leadership of Nationalist Jomo Kenyatta (Kikuyu educated in London) &The rise of the Mau Mau secret society made up of mostly Kikuyu farmers forced out by British farmersMau Maus aim: frighten the white farmers into leavingKenyatta was not a Mau Mau but he did not oppose them either1963 Independence was granted but only after 10,000 Kenyans & 100 whites were killedJomo Kenyatta became PresidentWorked to unite the various ethnic /language groupsNairobi (capital) grew into a major business center

Africa: Kenya The Struggle for IndependencePolitical organizations formed pre-warConvention Peoples Party: Kwame NkrumahKenya African National Union: Jomo KenyattaMost political activities were non-violent.Constituents were primarily merchants, urban professionals, and members of labor unions.

Kenyan Mau Mau movement:Employed terrorism to achieve goal of uhuru (freedom).Convinced G.B. to promise eventual independence in 1959.

Africa: The Struggle for IndependenceEgypt became an independent republic in 1952, after being quasi-independent monarchy under British control since 1922.French not strong enough to maintain control over entire empire.France granted full independence to Morocco and Tunisia in 1956.Retained possession of Algeria.

AlgeriaAppeal of Arab nationalismLarge French settler population 1 million french colonists / 9 million Arab & Berber Muslims1954- 1962 war between FLN (nationalist party) and French troops part of France300,000 lives

Independents Algeria1945- French troops fired on Algerian nationalist who were demonstrating--killing thousands of Muslims & 100s of Europeans1954 -Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) moved to fight for independenceFLN used guerrilla tactics at home but diplomacy (talk) internationallyFrench sent million troops to stop themBoth sides committed atrocitiesEuropean settlers began calling for De Gaulle to return as president in France to restore order in the colonies

Africa: The Struggle for IndependenceSouth AfricaFormation of African National Congress in 1912.Goal of ANC was economic and political reforms, including equality for educated Africans.Whites created system of segregation known as apartheidANC called for armed resistance after arrest of Nelson Mandela in 1962.Most black African nations achieved independence in the late 1950s and 1960s.

De Gaulle & Algeria1958- De Gaulle returned to powerHe concluded that Algeria count not be held by forceFrance let go of most of its African possessions1962- a referendum set up the conditions for independenceTransfer of power plannedMarch -750,000 settlers fled AlgeriaJuly 1962 = Independence Ahmed Ben Bella (FLN leader, imprisoned by French) became prime minister & then PresidentReestablished orderBegan land reforsDeveloped new plans for education1965- he was overthrown by his Chief of Staff!

Secular & Religious Conflict over Power1965-1988- attempt to modernize & industrialize were undermined when world oil prices plunged (1985-86)Unemployment & broken promises lead to an Islamic revivalRiots in 1988 against the secular govt occurredIslamic Salvation Front (FIS) won in 1990 & 91 electionsRuling govt refused the election resultsCivil War broke out Islamic militants vs govt

The War continues of & on today & the international community is working on an agreement

Independent Congo :1960- granted independenceRenamed Zaire 1967-95- Tumultuous processInternal conflict & Outside (UN & USSR) interventionPatrice Lumumba 1st prime minister Ruled a divided country (He controlled the North)In the SE (Mineral rich Katanga region / copper)Moise Tshombe declared SE independent of the rest Tshombe backed by Belgian mining co.Lumumba 1st asked UN for help against Tshombe, then he turned to the USSRColonel Mobutu (first working for Lumumba) led a military coup to over throw Lumumba & turned him over to TshombeLumumba was murdered shortly afterTshombe ruled briefly until 1965 whenMobutu overthrough him & seized power in a bloodless coup

MobutuRuled 32 yrsUsed a combo of force, 1 party rule & bribesZaires mineral wealth & natural resources made it 1 of the richest in AfricaUnder Mobutu it became 1 of the poorestHe is believed to have looted the country for billions Mobutu resisted many attempted rebellions & ethnic clashes1997 Laurent Kabila took over after a 7 month long civil warBanned all political parties Promised transition to democracy & election by 1999Never HappenedCountry is in constant state of rebellion

Colonial Rule and Independence in AfricaIn 1955, only 3 independent states in sub-Saharan AfricaBy 1965, 31By 1980, whole continent independent except Namibia (1990)

Conflict in the Middle EastJordan, Syria, and Lebanon became independent after WWII.Idea of Arab unity led to formation of Arab League in 1945.

Conflict in the Middle EastThe Question of PalestineBritish reduced Jewish immigration in Palestine in 1930s.Zionists turned to U.S. for support.Truman administration approved independent Jewish state in Palestine.May 14, 1948, UN proclaimed new state of IsraelArab states refused to recognize existence of Israel

Israel Becomes a State: May 14, 1948Palestinians feared the increasing # of Jews would result in hardships1920: 20 Arab Palestinian to 1 Jew / 1947: 2 to 1

Post- WWII Britain was weary of failed solution for the problem & deferred to the UNUN recommendation: PARTIITION of Palestine into a Palestinian state & a Jewish State Palestine = 66% of the Pop. & got 45% of the land / Jews = 34% of the Pop. & got 55%Jerusalem was to be an international city owned by neither.All Arab nations voted against this & Palestine rejected it completelyThe Jews welcomed the decision

Country of Israel declared by United Nations, 1948

? of Palestinian rights, boundaries & access to things like water & farmland went undetermined

UN Partition Plan, 1947

Effect: Full Scale Arab Israeli war!-Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia & Syria invaded Israel1st of many Arab-Israeli Wars (56, 67, 73, 2006) . This ended w/in months in Israels Victory. Israel had strong US support

Arab Israeli War 1947-48Palestinian state never came to be1948-49: Israel seized half the land set aside for the UN planned Palestinian state in the 1st Arab Israeli War (Gaza Strip taken by Israel & Jordan took the West Bank)Palestinians fled out of Jewish controlled areas into UN refugee camps

1956 Second Arab-Israeli War:Suez CrisisEgypt seized the Suez Canal from French & British businessesPres. Nasser (Egypt) was angry b/c the US & Britain stopped financial support for the building of the Aswan DamBritish & French made an agreement with IsraelMilitary air support if Israel marched on the Canal they did & took itEgypt lost the canal, BUTPressure from the international community (incl. US/USSR) forced Israel & the European Allies to withdraw & leave Egypt in charge of the canal

1967: Six- Day WarTensions Grew: By early 1967, Pres. Nasser & his Arab allies, helped by USSR tanks & aircraft, moved to close off the Gulf of Aqaba (Israels outlet to the Red Sea)Threatened, Israel attacked airfields in Egypt, Iran, Jordan, & SyriaSafe from air attacks, Israeli ground forces struck FAST on 3- FrontsWar ended in 6 days. Israel lost 800 troops Arabs lost > 15,000Results: Israel militarily occupied & then annexed the old city of Jerusalem, the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights & the West Bank. (providing a buffer btwn Israel & the Arab states)Palestinians living in the newly occupied Jerusalem were offered citizenship in Israel or Jordan (most chose Jordanian) Palestinians living in the other occupied areas were NOT offered citizenship & became stateless

1973 Yom Kippur WarEgypts new Pres. Anwar Sadat, planned a joint Arab attack on the holiest Jewish holidaySurprised! Israel incurred heavy casualties & lost some of the territory lost in 1967Israeli prime minister, Golda Meir launched a counter attack & regained most of the lost territory.An uneasy TRUCE (NOT a Peace Treaty) was agreed to after several weeks of fighting

Egypt1906 Dinshawai incident aroused nationalist passions.Actions post- Indep (1936) not sufficient.Coup detat in 1952 Gamal Abdel NasserNationalization of Suez 1956 protested by Israelis, British and French but diplomacy won over eventually.Nasser= symbol of pan-Arab nationalism.

Conflict in the Middle EastNasser and Pan-ArabismCol Gamal Abdel Nasser seized control of Egypt in 19541968: Nationalized the Suez Canal Company.British and French launched a joint attack on Egypt to protect investment; joined by Israel.U.S. and Soviet Union supported NasserMarch 1958: Egypt united with Syria in United Arab Republic.Hoped that union would eventually include all Arab states.UAR ended when military leaders seized control of Syria.

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismU.S. granted independence to the Philippines in 1946.Great Britain soon did same in India.Ethnic and religious differences made process difficult and violent.British negotiated with both Indian National Congress (Hindu) and the Muslim League.Muslims and Hindus were unwilling to accept a single Indian state. British India divided into two states: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim).

Asia: Nationalism and Communism1948: Britain granted independence to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar).

Mohandas Mahatma GandhiPassed English bar - lawyer for Indian merchants in South Africa.

Gandhis answer to a spiritual theory of social action Satyagraha - soul force. A tactic using nonviolent resistance or civil disobedience.

A Revolution in Indian politicsGandhis Satyagraha -What do you think? Wherein in courage required in blowing others to pieces from behind a cannon, or with a smiling face to approach a cannon and be blown to pieces?...Believe me that a man devoid of courage and manhood can never be a passive resister.

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismOnly Mahatma Gandhi objected to the division of India.India and Pakistan granted independence in Aug 1947; million were killed trying to cross borders.Gandhi assassinated January 30, 1948.

Refugees

Modern IndiaLargest democracy in the worldJawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister for the next 17 yearsDemocracy, Unity, & Economic Modernization

Challenges: Kashmir= years of conflict that continues todayCold War alignment= NON Alignment MovementIndustrialization= slow but comingSocial and cultural issues= continuous challenges with progressCaste systemEconomicWomens rights

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismIndonesia emerged from Dutch East Indies in 1949.French tried to remain in Indochina, causing bloody struggle with Vietnamese nationalist guerrillas led by Ho Chi Minh.After defeat in 1954, France granted independence to Laos and Cambodia; Vietnam was temporarily divided, eventually causing Vietnam War.

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismChina under Communism2 governments: Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek in southern and central China (supported by Americans) and Communists led by Mao Zedong in North China.

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismChina Under Communism (contd)Full-scale war broke out in 1946.In 1949, Chiangs government and 2 million of his followers fled to Taiwan.1955: Chinese government collectivized all private farmland and nationalized most industry and commerce.Began radical program called Great Leap Forward in 1958 to increase productivity; it was a disaster.

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismChina Under Communism (contd)Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution lasted from 1966 to 1976.Red Guards wanted to eliminate four olds old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits.

Asia: Nationalism and CommunismChina Under Communism (contd)People began to turn against revolution, and reformers seized power when Mao died in September 1976.

Vietnam French rule since 1880s rice, mining, and rubber exports Rise of foreign educated intelligentsia (Ho Chi Minh)Formation of Viet Minh in 1941Guerrilla War with France (1946-1954)Divided country in 1954 led to gradual US entry to contain communism.

Decolonization and Cold War RivalriesIndependent nations found themselves caught in rivalry between US and USSR.Vietnam: northern half Communist-ruled and southern half supported by American financial and military aid.

Decolonization and Cold War RivalriesMany new nations, like India, attempted to remain neutral in Cold War.Neutral nations were put at odds with the U.S., who tried to mobilize all nations against the communist threat.

Decolonization and Cold War RivalriesIndonesiaPresident Sukarno allied himself with Communist China and Soviet Union.Relied on domestic support for Indonesian Communist Party.Overthrown by conservative Muslim army in 1965Military government was established under General Suharto.Suharto re-established good relations with the West and attempted to repair economy.

Women as leaders in the MovementWomen fought alongside men in whatever capacities were permitted in Algeria, Egypt, China, Vietnam,India and elsewhere.China, 1942: The fighting record of our women does not permit us to believe that they will ever again allow themselves to be enslaved whether by a national enemy or by social reaction at home.Women given constitutional rights but social and economic equality rarely achieved in postcolonial developing nations.

Literature and DecolonizationExpressions of nationalism and rejections of western superiority.Gandhi, I make bold to say that the Europeans themselves will have to remodel their outlooks if they are not to perish under the weight of the comforts to which they are becoming slaves. Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart Senghor, Snow upon ParisAime Cesaire, West Indian poet, founder of Negritude Return to my Native Land

Challenges of IndependenceEthnic disputesDependent economiesGrowing debtCultural dependence on west-> religious revivalism as backlash Widespread social unrestMilitary responses to restore orderPopulation growthResource depletionLack of middle class in some localesEducation deficit and later, brain drain.Neo-colonialism through economic debt.

ConclusionsDecolonization was sometimes a violent process- dependent in large part on how many settlers had come to the colony.In many parts of world, decolonization was not revolutionary. Power passed from one class of elites to another. Little economic and social reform occurred. Significant challenges faced independent nations. Western economic dominance of the global trade system continued unabated. WHY?

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