Issued Juiy 29, 1908.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FARMERS' BULLETIN 330.

DEER FARMING IN THE UNItfED STATES.

BY

D. E. LANTZ,Assistant, Biological Survey.

WASHINGTON:GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1908.

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CONTENTS.

Page.Introduction . __ : .. .. . . _. . 0InlportSlnce of the deer family . .. . ___________________ 5The domestication of deer . .. . . . 6Species to be selected for breeding . . 7The wapiti, or Rocky Mountain elk . . _. _.. . 7

Habits of elk. . .. . ___________________________ 9Elk venison . _. .. . . . . . _. _ 9Domestication of elk _________________________________________________ 10Management of elk in inclosures . _________ 11

Range . _. . . . ______________ 12Food . . . . 12Fence . , __ .. __ i2Cost of stock . .. . _ 12Vicious male elk . . _____________ 13

Breeding the Virginia deer .-_ 13Experiences of breeders .. . 15Management of Virginia deer . _________ 17Wild deer in private game preserves ___________________________________ 17

Game laws in relation to deer farming . ~ . __________ 18Summary . . . . . 20

ILL USTRA1~ ION S.

Page.Rocky Mountain elk . . . __ w 8

_Tame herd of \7irginia deer .__________________ 14

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LETIEROF TRANSMrrTAL.

u. s. I)EPARTl\IENT OF AGRICULTURE,BUHEAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY,

llTashington, D. C., J1.tne 3, .1908.

SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accolnpanying manuscript onthe subject of Deer Farming in the Uniteg States, and to recommendits publication as Farmers' Bulletin No. 330. As a result of thegrowing scarcity of ganle animals in this country the supply of veni­son is wholly inadequate to the demand, and the time seems opportunefor developing the industry of deer farming, which may be madeprofitable alike to the State and the individuals engaged therein. Theraising of venison for market is as legitimate a business as the grow­ing of beef and mutton, and State laws, when prohibitory, as mallY ofthem are, should be so modified as to encourage the industry. Fur­thermore, deer and elk may be raised to advantage in forests and onrough, brushy ground unfitted for either agriculture or stock raising,thus utilizing for profit much land that is now waste. An addedadvantage is that the business is well adapted to landowners ofsnlall means.

Respectfully, C. HART MERRIAM,Ohief, Biological Survey.

Hon. JA~IES 'VILSON,Secretary of .A.. griculture.

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DEER a FARMING IN THE UNIT~~D STATES.

INTRODUCTION.

The present bulletin discusses briefly the economic possibilities ofraising deer and elk in the United States. It i$ believed that whenthe restrictions now imposed by State laws are removed this businessmay be made an important and highly profitable industry, especiallysince it will be the means of utilizing much otherwise unproductiveland. The raising of venison should be, and is naturally, as legiti­mate a business as the growing of beef or mutton, and State lawsshould be so modified as to permit the producer, who has stockeda preserve with deer at private expense, to dispose of his product atany time, under reasonable regulations, either for breeding purposesor for food.

The growing scarcity of game mammals and birds in the UnitedStates and the threatened extinction of some of them over large partsof their present ranges make the preservation of the remnant highlyimportant. Very important also is the increase of this remnant soas to make game once more abundant. It i.s believeq. that by meansof intelligent game propagation, both by the States and by privateenterprise, many of our depleted ranges can be restocked with biggame.

IMPORTANCE OF THE DEER FAMILY.

The members of the deer fanlily (Cervidre) rank next to the cattleand sheep family (Bovidre) in general utility, and are the most im­portant of the big game animals of America.

Wherever obtainable in quantity the flesh of deer of differentkinds has always been a staple article of diet, and under presentmarket conditions it is hardly necessary to say that venison is perhapsthe most important game, being a favorite with epicures and alsohaving a wide .use as a substitute for beef and mutton, which meatsit resembles in texture, color, and general characteristics. Its flavor

a The term" deer" is here used in its general sense, in \vhich it includes theelk, the reindeer or caribou, the moose, and other species, besides those usuallyreferred to as deer.

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is distinctive, though it suggests mutton rather than beef. In chem­ical composition it is very similar to beef, though, judging fromavailable data, it is not so fat as stall-fed cattle. The followingfigures show how it compares with beef and mutton: A lean venisonroast before cooking has been found to contain on an average 75 percent of water, 20 per cent of protein or nitrogenous material, and 2per cent of fat; a lean beef rump, some 65 to 70 per cent of water, 20to 23 per cent of protein, and 5 to 14 per cent of fat; and a lean legof mutton, 67 per cent of water, 19 per cent of protein, and 13 percent of fat. .

Venison, beef, and other common meats are very thoroughlydigested, whatever the method of cooking. Venison may be roasted,broiled, pan~broiled, or used for making stews, in much the sameway as beef. Venison, particularly steak, to be at its best, should beeaten as soon as possible after it is cooked.

The general popularity of venison is so great and the demandfor it so widespread that overproduction is improbable. The otherproducts of the deer-skins and horns-are of considerable impor­tance, and in countries where deer are abundant and especially wherelarge herds are kept in semidomestication, the commerce in both isvery extensive.

THE DOMESTICATION OF DEER.

.A number of species of the deer family have been proved to besusceptible to domestication. The reindeer,however, is the only onethat has been brought fully under the control of man. The factthat the European red deer and the failow deer have been bred inparks for centuries without domestication does not prove that theyare less susceptible to the process than the reindeer. The purposesfor which they l)ave been held captive and the environment giventhem have been markedly different. It must be remembered, also,that few attempts have been made to rear and domesticate deer underintelligent management. The work has been largely a matter ofchance experiment. If they had been as long under careful manage­ment as cattle, they would now, probably, be equally plastic in thehands of, the skillful breeder. . .

But raising deer for profit does not necessarily imply their com­plete dOlllestication. They may be kept in large preserves withsurroundings as nearly natural as possible and their domesticationentirely ignored. Thus the breeder may reap nearly all the profitthat cocld be expected from a domestic herd, while the animalsescape most of the dangers incident to close captivity. But the­breeder who aims at the ultimate domestication of the animals, andwhose herd approaches nearest to true domesticity, will in the endbe most successful.

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SPECIES TO BE SELECTED FOR BREEDING.

The number of species of deer suited f~r breeding in inclosures in"the United States is great, though the chances for success are byno means the same for all. As a rule those native to America areto be preferred, since they are already acclinlated. In selecting anyspecies, similarity between its natural habitat and that to which itis to be transferred must be considered. Important, also, is itsadaptability to varied conditions, as shown by former attempts toacclimatize it.

Unless they have shown a peculiar .adaptability to such change,deer should not be taken from arid parts of the United States tohumid parts. To a disregard of this principle are probably due manyof the failures that have attended experiments in breeding theAmerican ~ntelope, the Columbia. blacktail deer; the moose, andother animals in places differing widely from their natural ranges.

The history of attempts to acclimatize the several kinds of deershows that some readily adapt themselves to a great variety of con­ditions, and efforts to introduce theIn into new countries have beenalmost uniformly successful. Such has been the experience with theaxis deer, the Japanese and Pekin sikas, the red and the fallow deerof Europe, and especially with the wapiti, or Rocky Mountain ellr,and the Virginia deer. While experiments with the foreign species.named offer every promise of success to the owners of Americanpreserves, there are obvious reasons for recommending the two nativeanimals just mentioned as best suited for the production of veniso~

in the United States.

THE WAPITI, OR ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK.

The wapiti (Oervus canadensis), including two related species anda geographic race, and known generally in America as the elk, is,next to the moose, the largest of our deer. It was once. abundantover the greater part of the United States, whence its range extendednorthward to about latitude 60° in the Peace River region of theinterior of Canada. In the United States the limits of its rangeeastward were the Adirondacks, western New Jersey, and easternPennsylvania; southward it reached the southern Alleghenies, north­ern Texas, southern New Mexico, and Arizona; and westward thePacific Ocean..

For the practical purposes of this bulletin all the forms of thewapiti are treated as a single species. At the present tinle the· rangeof these animals has so far dinlinished that they occur only in a fewscattered localities outside of tIle Yellowstone National Park andthe mountainous country surrounding it, where large herds remain.Smaller herds still occur in Colorado, western Montana, Idaho, east-

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ern Oregon, Manitoba, Alberta, British Columbia, and the coast. mountains of Washington, Oregon, and northwestern California. Aband of the small California valley elk still inhabits the southernpart of the San Joaquin Valley..

The herds that summer in the Yellowstone National Park and inwinter spread southward and eastward in Wyoming are said to num-

FIG l.-Rocky Mountain elk.

ber about 30,000 head, and constitute the only large bands of thisnoble game animal that are left. Although protected in their sum­mer ranges and partially safeguarded from destruction in winterby the State of Wyoming, qlere is yet great danger that these herdsmay perish from lack of food in a succession of severe winters. Par­tial provision for winter forage has been made within the NationalPark, but the supply is inadequate for the large numbers of animals.

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Further safeguards are needed to place tIle 'Vyonling elk herds be­yond the reach of winter starvation.

In addition to the ",.ild herds, there are a considerable nnulber of'elk in private gallle preserves and parks, as ,veIl as in nearly all thepublic zoological parks and gardens of this country. The llerds incaptivity ·forIll the nucleus froIll wllicll, under \vise 11lanagement,some of the forlller ranges of this aninlal may be restocked and fromwhich a profitable business of gro,vingo elk venison for market maybe developed. At the present time this species affords a most prom­ising field for ventures in breeding for profit.

HABITS OF ELK.

The elk is botll a bro,vsing and a grazing anilnal. 'Vhile it eatsgrasses freely and has been kno\vn to subsist entirely upon pasture, itseems to prefer a nlixture of grass and bro,vse.

The elk is extrelnely polygalllous. The adult bulls shed theirantlers annually in l\farch or April, and ne,v ones attain their fullsize in about ninety days. The" velvet " adheres until about .L~ugust.

'Vhile the horns are gro,ving the bulls usually lead solitary lives;but early in September, ",.hen the horns are fully 111atured, the ruttingseason begins. Fights for suprelllacy then take place, and the victo~

takes charge of as Inany co,vs as he can round up and control. Theperiod of gestation is about 8t nl0nths. The felllale does not usuallybreed until the third year, and produces but one calf at a time.

Although the elk is less prolific -than the COIllnlon deer and someother species tl1at have been bred in parks, it increases fully asrapidly as the COlllmon reel deer of }~urope. lVloreover, it makes upfor any lack of fecundity by its superior hardiness and ease of man­agement. It has been accliInatized in 111any parts of tIle ,vorld, andsho,,,s the sanle vigor and hardiness wherever it has been trans­planted. In Europe it llas been successfully crossed ",.ith the Altaiwapiti and the red deer, and in botll instances the offspring ,veresuperior in size and general stamina to the natiYe stock.

ELK VENISON.

The flesh of the elk, although sOllle,vhat coarse, is superior in flavorto most venison. That of the b1111s is in its best condition about thetime the velvet is shed. By the tinle tIle rut is over, in October, theirflesh is in the poorest condition. As the open season for elk is usuallyin October and November, and only bulls are killed, it f0110\1'5 thathunters often obtain the venison ,,,,hen it is poorest. The lneat isnot best when freshly killed, but should be left hanging for four orfive days before it is used. Of course fat elk are better eating thanlean, and it is said tllat yenison frolll castrated bulls is superior toany other.

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DOMESTICATION OF ELK.

With few exceptions the early attenlpts to dOlnesticate elk weremade by nlen ,vho vvere ,vealthy enough to disregard all thought ofprofit in raising tllenl. They ,,(ere usually placed under the careof servants, and the bucks ,vere left uncastrated until they becameold and unillanageable. Soon the serious problenl of controllingthenl out,veighed the novelty of their possession, and one by one tIleattempts at donlestication ,vere abandoned.

A desire to preserve this inlportant ganle anilllal has caused a re­ne,val of attenlpts to breed it in confinenlent, and at present tIlereare slnall herds under private o,vnership in lllany places in theUnited States. The Biological Survey has recently obtained mucllinforlnation frolll owners of herds in regard to their experience inbreeding arid rearing the anilnals, and also their opinions as to thepossibility of 11laking the business of raising them profitable. Ofabout a dozen successful breeders,a nearly all are of the opinion thatraising elk for lnarke~ can be 11lade relnunerative if present la,vs

.as to the sale of the nleat are nlodified.One especially ilnportant fact has been developed by the reports

fronl breeders. It is that the elk readily adapts itself to almost anyQIlVirOnUlent. Even ,vithin the narro,v confines of the paddocks ofthe ordinary zoaloglcal park the anin1al does ,veIl and increases sothat periodically the herds have to be reduced by sales.

l'he fullest reports' that have been received by the Department of.LL\griculture fronl breeders of elk are fronl George 'V. R,uss, ofEureka Springs, ....~rl{., through H. N. Vinall, of the Bureau of PlantIndustry.

Mr. Russ has a herd of 34 elk. They have alnple range in theOzarks on rough land covered ,vith hard,vood forest and abundantunderbrush. The aninlals bnprave the forest by clearing out part ofthe thicket. They feed on buds and leaves to a height of 8 feet, andany gro\vth under this is liable to be eliIninated if the range is re­stricted. If not closely confined, elk do not eat the bark from trees,nor do they eat evergreens. In clearing out underbrush fronl thick­ets they are more useful than goats, since they brovvse lligher. Goats,ho,vever, eat closer to the ground; and as the tvva animals get along,veIl together, ~Ir. Russ recol1unends the use of both for clearing upbrushy land and fitting it for tame grasses.

The increase of elk under dOlnestication is equal to that of cattle.Fully 90 per cent of the feillales produce healthy young. An adultmale elk ,veighs from 700 to 1,000 pounds; a female, from 600 to800 pounds. The percentage of dressed Ineat is greater than with

a The experiences of these breeders are, iu the nlaiu, reserved for a more ex­tended bulletin on the domesticatiOll of game mamnlals.

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cattle, but, o,ving to hostile gall1e la,vs, experience In marketing itis very linlited. An offer of 40 cents a pound for dressed n1eat ,vasreceived fron1 St. Louis, but the la\v ,vould not permit its export.~fr. Russ says:

Froin the fact that as high as $1.50 per pound has been paid for this meat inNe\v York City and Canada, an<1 that tIle best hotels and restaurants pronounceit the finest of all the- meats of nlunlmals, \ve are of the opinion that if laws\yere such that domesticate<1 (=\lk nleat coul<1 be furnished it \vould be nlany~Tears before the supply woul<1 nlake tIle In'ice reasonable compared with othermeats. Elk n1eat can be produce<1 in lllallY sections of this country at less costper pound than beef, mutton, or pork.

}fr. Russ thinks that large areas of rough lands in the UnitedStates not novv utilized, especially in localities like the Ozarks andthe .....\.lleghenies, could be econornically llsed to produce venison forsale, and he regards the elk as especially suited for this purpose.

..I..\.nother feature of ~Ir. Russ's report is of more than passing inter­est. He says:

",Ve find fron1 long experience tllat cattle, sheep, and goats can be grazed inthe same lots with elk, providing, llowever, that the lots or inclosures are notswaIl; the larger tIle area the better. ,Yc kno\v of no nlore appropriate placeto call attention to the great benefit of a fe\v elk in the same vasture withsheep and goats. An elk is the natural eneluy of dogs and \volves. We suf­fered great losses to our flocks until ",ve learned this fact; since then \ve llavehad no loss from tllat cause. A few elk in a thousand-acre pasture \vill abso­lutely protect the flocks tllerein. Our o\vn dogs are so ,yell a ,yare of the dan­ger in our elk park that they can not be induced to enter it.

Judge Caton, in his .....\.lltelope and Deer of ..I..\.merica, also ren1arkson the animosity of elk tOvYard dogs, and says that the does alwayslead in the chase of dogs that get into the elk parle If elk will at­tack and vanquish dogs and coyotes and thus help to protect domesticanimals grazing in the same pastures, a lo:~o,v ledge of the fact may beof great advantage to stockmen who desire to give up herding sheepand to resort to fenced pastures instead. The addition of a fe,v elkin the pasture may be an efficient protection from dogs, coyotes, andwolves. Ho,vever, outside of fenced pastures elk do not alvvays sIlowthelnselves hostile to clogs and coyotes.a

MANAGEMENT OF ELK IN INCLOSURES.

Lorenzo Stratton, of Little 'Talley, Cattaraugus County, N. Y., be­gan experiments in breeding elk about sixty years ago. His plan ofmanagement consisted essentially in taming the calves when very

a President Roosevelt reports in Outdoor Pasthnes of an American Hunterthat he sa\v a coyote \valking unnoticed among a band of elk in YellowstonePark; and Thonlas Blagden, of ",Vashington, D. C., informs the writer thatnoisy dogs were used to drive unconfined elk fron1 the la,vns of summer cot­tages at Saranac Inn, in the ....-\dirondacks.

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young and continuing the petting process witIl the entire herd. Hevisited the aninlals daily in the pasture and always carried daintiesto feed them. As the bulls becanle old and developed signs ofviciousness, tIley \vere castrated, younger aninlals being used forbreeding. He thus developed a thoroughly donlesticated herd.

For econonlic reasons, it is not al,vays possible to follow ~fr. Strat­ton's plan. TIlose who gro\v the anillutls for venison alld in largepreserves would find it impracticable to tame all the calves. How­ever, if elk or deer are gro\vn for stocking parks or private preserves,the tanler they are the easier it will be to handle and ship theJ.:ll.

Range.-In choosing a range for elk, tIle natural food supply isinlportant. They thrive best in preserves having a variety of foodplants-grasses, bushes, and trees. Rough lands, \vell watered withclear streanlS and having sonle forested ~Tea, are well adapted to theirneeds. About as Inany elk can be kept on such a rang~ as cattle onan equal area of fair pasture. There should be thickets enougll tofurnish \yinter browse, but this should be supplemented by a supplyof winter forage.

Food.-Except wIlen deep sno,vs cover the ground, elk· ,viII keep ingood condition on ordin:ary pasture anel bro,vse ~ but a systenl ofmanagenlent tllat provides other food regularly \vill be found moresatisfactory. Hay and corn fodder are excellent ,vinter forage; butalfalfa hay has proved to be the best dry food for both elk and deer.A little oats or corn-\vhole or chopped-may be fed each day. Elkare fond of corn, and feeding it affords excellent opportunities 101'

winning their confidence and tanling theIne The sanle Dlay be saidof salt, which should be furnished liberally to all deer kept in inclos­ures. Running ,vater, although not essential, is of great importancein maintaining elk in good condition.

Fence.-Elk are mucll less nervous than ordinary deer, and lessdisposed to jUlnp fences. 'Vhen they escape froln un inclosure theyusually returll of their o\yn accord. If tanle, they may be drivenlike cattle. Ordinarily, a 5-foot fence of any kind will confine elk.Henry Binning, of Cora, "TyO., \vrites us that a 4-:foot \voven-\virefence is ample for these aniIllals. .J-\.. snlall inclosure in which avicious bull elk is to be kept should be higller and of stronger mate­rial. Mr. Russ's report, already partly quoted, states that wIlerelumber for posts is cIleap a good elk fence 111ay be built for $200 aInile. But the actual cost ,viII, of course, vary greatly according tostyle, priee of labor, nearness to Inarket, and other circumstances.

Cost of stock.-The cost of stocking an elk preserve is not great.Usually surplus stock fronl zoological parks or sIllall private pre­serves may be obtained at 10\" cost, varying \vith the in1mediate de­mand for the animals. At times tlley lluve sold for less than $20 a

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head, and with the present restrictions on sale, low prices are likely tocontinue. A few years .ago T. J. Wilson, of Lewisburg, Ohio, paid$165 for three animals. .J.-t\. Michigan breeder recently offered to de­liver a dozen head, sex and age not given, all fine specimens, for $500.This is, of course, a low price, not more than cattle would bring andless than the venison would be worth if it could be sold. If restric­tions on the sale and shipment of venison from private preserveswere removed, prices of the stock would, of course, soon advance, andnecessitate a greater outlay in starting the business.

Vicious male elk.-The male elk is ordinarily docile, but in the rut­ting season the older ones often become ill-tempered and dangerous.Several tragedies connected with attempts to domesticate elk arematters of history. One was recorded by Judge Caton in his Ante­lope and Deer of America as having occurred in his own park.Another took place at Bull City, Osborne County, Kans., in October,18.79, and resulted in the instant death of Gen. H. C. Bull, the mortalwounding of two other men, and the serious injury of another,from the attacks of an !nfuriated bull elk that had previously beenregarded as extremely gentle.

Wild and unconfined deer and elk flee from man under nearly allcircumstances, but when wounded and closely pressed they have beenknown to attack hunters. It is unlikely that, even in the ruttingseason, a wild bull elk ,vould attack a human being. But the tame orpartially tame animals that have "become familiar witI1 man are to befeared and should not be approached in that season without extremecaution. A male elk or deer that has once shown viciousness cannotagain be trusted.

The remedy for viciousness in the male elk is castration. It isunsafe to keep an uncastrated male elk over 4 years old, unless he isin a strongly fenced inclosure from which visitors are excluded.The effects of castration are to make the animal docile and to greatlyenhance his value for venison. This is in accord with observed re­sults in the production of beef, pork, and mutton. ,renison grownin domestication under·a system in which the male animals intendedfor slaughter are castrated should be uniformly of the highest gradeand far superior to that obtained in the ,vild state during the usualopen season for hunting. This consideration is of the greatestimportance in fixing the final status of venison grown under domesti­cation.

BREEDING THE VIRGINIA DEER.

The Virginia, or whitetail, deer (Odocoileu8 virginianu8) is thecommon deer of the' United States. Including the half dozen geo­graphic races that occur within our borders, it is distributed overmost of the co~ntry, except Nevada and the major portions of Utah,

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Arizona, W ashington" O~egon, and California. It is extinct InDelaware and practically so in a number 9f States in the MiddleWest. South of our borders a number of closely related speciesoccur.

In view of the wide natural range of the whitetail deer, its adapt­ability to nearly all sections of the United States can not be doubted.Testimony as to its hardiness in parks and preserves is not so unani­mous as that concerning the wapiti; but the general experience ofbreeders is that with suitable range, plenty of good water, and reason-

FIG. 2.-Herd of domesticated Virginia deer belonging to R. H. Harris, <;larkesville, Tex.

able care in winter, raising this deer for stocking preserves or forvenison may be made as profitable as any other live~stock industry.Not only do deer thrive on land unsuited 'for cattle or horses, but,like elk, they may·be raised to great advantage in brushyor timberedpastures fully stocked with cattle or horses, as the food of deer rarelyincludes grass.

Advocates of the Angora goat industry state that within the UnitedStates there are 250,000,000 acres of land not 'suited to tillage or tothe pasture of horses, cattle, or sheep, which are well adapted to goats.Much of this land is suited also to deer and elk, and can be utilized

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for these animals with less injury to the forest cover than wouldresult from its bro,vsing by goats.

The whitetail deer has often been the subject .of experiments indomestication. The beauty of these animals, especially the fawns,appeals to every admirer of wild life, and early settlers of the coun­try soon learned how easily they could be talned and how promptly.they attached themselves to the persons ,vho fed them. The danger­ous character of the same pets, especially t~e males, when grown upwas soon learned also. It followed that the domesticating processusually ended ,vith the maturity of the first subject, which was soondisposed of or banished to a safe inclosure.

The propagation of the Virginia deer has seldoln been undertakenin a systematic way. The animals have often been bred in parks forpleasure or in large preserves for sport, but the economic possibili­ties in raising them have received little attention. Recently breedershave recognized the fact that they are profitable under proper man­agement and would be much nlore so were conditions for marketinglive animals and venison more favorable.

EXPERIENCES OF BREEDERS.

The Biological Survey has reports of successful experience in rais­ing Virginia deer froln more than a dozen persons, located in differ­ent parts of the country, ,vho are now engaged in the business. Themanag-ement of the herds varies slightly with the surroundings andthe object for which they are kept. >

Thomas Blagden, of "Tashington, D. C., began raising deer in1874. After an experience of over a third of a century he is confi­dent that the business can be made profitable. In his own herds hehas carefully avoided in-breeding by securing new bucks from timeto time. His stock is vigorous and of the large size characteristic ofthe Adirondack and other northern deer. Consequently the animalsare in demand for breeding purposes, the bucks bringing $50 eachand the does $75. He feeds grain, using corn and a mixture of bran{!nd meal, and during the summer cuts as much wild forage as pos­sible. He finds that the animals prefer the rankest weeds to thechoicest grass. Of the various kinds of hay, they prefer alfalfa.He provides abundant water at all tinles.

John "T. Griggs, of Goodell, Iowa, writes that he has been engagedin raising deer for about fourteen years. Until two years ago he soldall his surplus stock for parks, but since then has disposed of about'half of it for venison. For park purposes he gets $20 to $30 a 11ead,but they bring fully .. as much or more when fattened for venison.As to management of deer, Mr. Griggs writes:

In raising a large herd the park should be divided into two or three lots,- and one plowed each year and sown to red clover, nlustard, rape, and seeds

of different kinds of w~s. Bluegrass and timothy are useless. Corn is the330

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principal grain I feed. I feed it winter and summer. In winter I feed alsoclover hay, oat straw, and weedy wild hay. Deer when rightly handled areve~'y prolific, and fronl 50 does one can count on 75 fawns. '.rhey can be raisedprofitably for venison-very.profitably until overdone; but I would not adviseone to go into it on a ~arge scale without previous experience with deer.

The report received from C. !-1. Roseberry, of Stella, Mo., althoughless enthusiastic than others, is quoted because his herd approachesmore nearly a state of true domestication. Under the date of Jan­uary 13, 1})08, l\1:r. Roseberry \vrote as follows:

l\ly experience in breeding the common or Virginia deer covers a period ofseventeen J~ears, beginning in March, 1891, when, as a boy of 16, I built a snlallinclosure of I! acres to confine a single doe that was captured as a fawn inthe neighboring forest.

.A buck and other does were secured from 3rear to year, uotil in 1BOO, bypurchase and natural increase, my herd numbered 25 head of all ages.

From I8n1 to 1901 I lost every year frool disease an average of 20 per cent.The clinlax came in the drought 3rear of 1901, when my loss was 50 per centfrom the disease kno\vn as t4 black tongue."

I am convinced that, like cholera in swine, individuals recovering fronl thisdisease are immune froIH further attack. Apparently all of my herd wereafflicted. The survivors and their progeny constitute my present breedingstock. I have Illade no purchases since 1901, nor have I suffered any loss fromdisease. .

For the last seven years nlY herd has averaged 70 per cent increase, all ofwhich I have sold at satisfactorJ" prices. I began seiling at $20 per pair offawns at 4 months of age and $30 per 11air of adults. I now get $40 and $60,respectively. I sell almost exclusively for pets and for propagating purposes,although a few surplus 'bucks have been sold for venison, averaging me 15cents per pound gross weight.

If we except the goat, I know of no domestic anhllal common to the farmthat requires so little feed and attention as the deer. l\fy herd has a rangeof only 15 acres, two-thirds of which are set to white clover, bluegrass, andorchard grass.' I vrovide also a small plat of wheat or rye for winter pasture.With the above provision, in this latitude, no feed is required between April15 and Xovember 15. 'During the rest of the year a ration of corn, bran, orother mill feed somewhat smaller than that required for sheep, in connectionwith a stack of clover or pea hay to which they have free access, is sufficientto keep thenl in good condition. Deer eat \vith relish nearly all of the commoncoarse weeds, and for clearing land of brush they are, I think, second only tothe common goat.

Probably the greatest expense connected with the bnsiness of raising deeris the fencing. Another itenl of trouble and expense, \vhen the animals areraised for pets, requiring that they be handled and shipped alive, is the factthat the fawns 11lUSt be taken from the does when 10 days old and raised byhand on cow's milk. They are quite easily raised in this way, with but slightpercentage of loss, but require frequent and careful attention for the firstmonth. When they are allowed to run ,vith the do~s their natural wildnesscan not be overcome, no matter how gentle the does may be.

I have found the business profitable on the lines indicated. I believe theycould be profitably bred for venison alone--certainly with less trouble andexpense, since the fawns would be reared by the does and the trouble andexpense of raising bJ'" hand would be eliminated.

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My experience does not coincide with that of some other breeders a in re­spect to the weakening of reproductive powers of deer· by the confinement inparks. I have no barren does. Usually they produce a single fawn at twoyears of age; afterwards twins, and in rare cases, triplets.

MANAGEMENT OF VIRGINIA DEER.

As to the management of deer little need be added to the statementsfrom practical breeders already given. Virginia deer are polyga­mous, like cattle;' the rutting season is in November; the period ofgestation is about seven months, and the fawns are born in MayorJune. Young does usually breed when about 17 months old and havebut one fawll the first time; afterwards they commonly producetwins. The fawns are spotted until the first shedding of the hair inthe fall.

While deer are chiefly browsing animals, in captivity they eatnearly every kind of vegetation, including IJlOst kinds of garden stuff.They are fond of acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and other mast. IJilypads, leaves, lichens, and mosses are freely eaten. With plenty ofrange a.nd an abundant variety of plants there need be, therefore, noapprehension concerning the deer's food. A good supply of runningwater must be provided, and the animals should have access to rocksalt. If the browse and pasturage are scant, a small ration of grainshould be fed. Of the grains, corn is gener~IIy recommended as afood; there is no waste, as the deer pick up every grain. Coarse hayfull of weeds is preferable to timothy or other tame hays, exceptalfalfa. Of clover hay, deer usually eat the blossom heads greedily,but waste the other parts. In ,vinter feeding is necessary every­,vhere, and in the northern half of the United States shelter of somekind should be provided.

The remarks about castrating elk apply as well to the commondeer. A number of vigorous bucks, however, must be kept with anyconsiderable herd of does, for a single buck ca~ not serve an unlim­ited number. Frequent changes of blood by introducing new bucksshould be practiced to avoid inbreeding.

WILD DEER IN PRIVATE 'GAME PRESERVES.

Individual owners, as well as associations, have established largeprivate preserves in many parts of the country and stocked them withdeer and other big game. The objects have been to preserve theanimals and to provide sport for the owners. In the free life underthe protected conditions generally provided, deer do remarkably well,the increase being even more rapid than in small parks. There can

a See Antelope and Deer of North America, by J. D. Caton, p. 304. 1877.330

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be no doubt of the success of ventures in propagating the Virginia ­deer under natural conditions as wild game, as is proved by theexperience of a large number of hunting clubs and private owners.

Deer in Buckwood Park, aNew Jersey preserve of 4,000 acres,belonging to Charles S. Worthingten, increased in the ten years be­tween 1892 and 1903 from 19 to about 400 llead, and the number wasthen lessened because it was thought too large for the permanentsustaining capacity of the park. The St. Louis Park and Agricul­tural Company have about 1,000 deer and 400 elk in their 5,000-acrepreserve in Taney County, Mo. The OtzinachsonRod and Gun Clubsix y~ars ago placed about 90 deer, mostly does, in their 4,000 acrepark in Clinton County, Pa. These have multiplied to nearly 2,000head, and. a further increase of about a thousand fawns is expectedduring the present season (1908). Doubtless these experiences arenot exceptional.

The good effect of such preserves on the supply of game in theState should not be overlooked. While they may temporarilyrestrict the hunting privileges of a few citizens, they ultimately be­come a source of game supply secondary in importance only to Statepreserves or game refuges. Already a number of private reserves

.have become overstocked, and game has escaped or been turned overto the State to become the property of the people. The success ofprivate enterprise in propagating large game in inclosures has thusbecome an object lesson for State game commissioners and others,and suggests the feasibility of the State's undertaking a similar workfor the people.

GAME LAWS IN RELATION TO DEER FARMING.

The chief obstacle to profitable propagation of deer in the UnitedStates is the restrictive character of State laws governing the kill­ing, sale, and transportation- of game. ~fany of the States, follow­ing precedent, lay down the broad rule that all the game animals inthe State, whether resident or migratory, are the property of theState. A few States except game animals that are "under privateownership legally acquired." A few others encourage private own­ership by providing a way in which> wild animals-deer and thelike---:-may be captured for domestication. Generally, when privateownership of game is recognized by law, the right to kill such gameis gra.nted, but the owner is hampered by the same regulations as toseason, sale, and shipment that apply to wild game. One by one,however, State legislatures are CODling to recognize the interests ofgame propagators, and game laws are gradually being modified inaccordance with the cllange of view.

The chief source froln which deer and elk may be obtained forstocking preserves is from animals already in captivity. These must

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be transported from place to place or there can be no commerce inthem, yet the laws of many States absolutely forbid their shipment.The laws as to possession and transportation of deer carcasses makethe shipping of venison also illegal. General export of venison islegal from only six of the States, and three of these have no wild deer •left to protect.

The laws concerning the season for killing and the sale of deer areoften equally embarrassing to those who would produce venison forprofit. The owner of domesticated deer can not legally kill his ani­mals except in open season. Owners of private preserves are simi­larly restricted and are limited to the killing of one or two animalsin a season. More than half the States and Territories absolutelyforbid the sale of venison. A few forbid the sale of venison pro­duced within the State, but permit the sale of that imported fromother States, a most unjust discrimination against home industry.

'rhe following States have recently modified their laws so as toprovide, under regulations, for th~ sale of deer from private pre­serves. Transportation and even export are included in some of them.

Arkansas.-Possession, sale, and shipment of deer or fawns is per­mitted when they have been raised in captivity for domestic pur­poses and are accompanied by an affidavit from the raiser.

Colorado.-Owners of private preserves under a license are per..mitted to sell and ship deer or other quadrupeds that are accompa­nied by an invoice. A fee is required for each animal sold.

Illinois.-Any person who raises deer for market may kill and sellthem at any time in the same manner as other domestic animals.

Indiana.-The provisions of the law as to possession and sale do notapply t~ persons who have under ownership or control any'deerraised in a deer parK.

Massachusetts.-The owner may sell his own tame deer kept on hisown grounds..

Minnesota.-Persons who desire to domesticate deer, moose, elk, orcaribou may secure a permit to do so from the State board of gameand fish commissioners by paying a fee of 50 cents for each animalin captivity and a like fee for each animal added later by naturalincrease or other,vise. The animals kept in captivity may be sold orshipped within or without the State, by permission of the commis..sioners. .

MissoUri.-Deer or elk, alive or dead, may be shipped from any pri­vate preserve and sold in the markets of the State ,vhen accompa­nied by a tag furnished by the game warden of the county, showingwhose property it is, where killed, and to whom shipped.

New Hampshire.-The Blue Mountain Forest Association may killelk, deer, or moose in their preserve for one month after the openseason, and at any time may transport them outside the State.

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New York.-Deer may be sold during the open season; and moose,elk, caribou, and antelope from private parks may be sold duringthe same period. Common carriers may transport animals into theState for breeding purposes, but· may not transport venison unless it

. is accompanied by the'owner.North Carolina.-Seventeen counties permit the owner and keeper

of an inclosed game reserve, who raises deer for use or sale, to kill,sell, or use those raised or kept in said inclosure.

Pennsylvania.-Owners of game preserves who hold a game-propa­gating certificate lllay sell and transport deer or fawn alive forpropagating purposes only, after securing .the written consent of thepresident of the board of game commissioners.

In three or four other States game "under private ownership,legally acquired," is supposed to be exempt from the general provi­sions of the game law; but in a test ca~e as to its sale or export it isdoubtful whether the courts would so llold without more specific pro­vision legalizing such commerce.

SUMMARY.

The domestication of deer and elk offers an interesting field forexperirnent, as well as rernunerative returns for the investment ofcapital.

The wapiti and the Virginia deer can be raised successfully andcheaply under many different conditions of food and climate. Theproduction of venison and the rearing of both species for stockingparks may be made profitable industries in the United States.

Instead of han1pering breeders by restrictions, as at present, Statelaws should be so lllodified as to encourage the raising of deer, elk,and other animals as a source of profit to the individual and to theState.

Safeguards against tIle destruction and sale of wild deer in placeof domesticated deer are not difficult to enforce. For this pur­pose..a system of licensing private parks, and of tagging deer orcarcasses sold or shipped, so that they may be easily identified,is recommended.

It is believed that with favorable legislation much otherwise ,vasteland in the United States may be utilized for the production of veni­son so as to yield profitable returns, and also that this excellent andnutritious meat, instead of being denied to 99 per cent of the popu­lation of the country, may become as common and as cheap in ourlllarkets as mutton.

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