Central Journal of Human Nutrition & Food Science

Cite this article: Obiang-Obounou BW (2015) Dietary Acculturation of Foreign Students in Daegu, Korea. J Hum Nutr Food Sci 3(4): 1068.

*Corresponding authorBrice Wilfried Obiang-Obounou, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Keimyung University, Korea, Tel: 82-53-580-5870; Fax: 82-53-580-5870.; Email:

Submitted: 13 February 2014

Accepted: 02 June 2015

Published: 04 June 2015

ISSN: 2333-6706

Copyright© 2015 Obiang-Obounou

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Research Article

Dietary Acculturation of Foreign Students in Daegu, KoreaBrice Wilfried Obiang-Obounou*Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Keimyung University, Korea

Abstract

Acculturation pertains to adopting cultural traits; dietary acculturation specifically refers to the process that occurs when members of a minority group adopt the eating patterns/food choices of their new environment. The study focused on the dietary acculturation of foreign students in Daegu, Korea.

The Dietary acculturation was measured using living arrangement, food choice, eating patterns and the length of residency in the host country. Finally we investigated if there is a positive association between the BMI and the length of residency in the host country.

When it comes to the students’ dietary habits, consumption of their native food was not a factor. The level of acculturation increased with the length of residence and the living arrangement. There was no significant association between the dietary acculturation and the ability to cook Korean food. The length of stay in Daegu positively affects the weight of foreign students.

The study shows that when it comes to the students’ dietary habits, consumption of their native food is not a factor. The level of acculturation increased with the length of residence and the living arrangement. While dietary acculturation may result in adverse health effects as observed with an increase in BMI, the length of stay in Daegu positively affects the weight of foreign students.

Keywords•Dietary acculturation•Food habits•University students•Korean food•Body mass index

INTRODUCTIONThe Republic of Korea (Korea) has been composed of a

single ethnic group and, until very recently, has had little or no experience with large-volume immigration [1]. In an attempt to develop global leaders and strengthen Korea-friendly networks worldwide, Korea offers scholarships through the Korean Government Scholarship program. It also allows Korea to share its rich culture and create a win-win situation where those future acculturated leaders will in return be the port banners of the Korean culture. Culture is broadly defined as the values, belief, attitudes, and practices accepted by members of a group or community [2]. Acculturation is the process of cultural change or adoption of the beliefs and behaviors of another group [3]; usually in the direction of a minority group adopting habits of the dominant group. Acculturation takes place at the macro (social/group) and micro (individual) level [4,5]. While researchers do not all agree on the definition of acculturation, there are two generally accepted theories: Robert Park and Gordon models. Park described acculturation as a series of distinct, irreversible stages (contact, competition, accommodation, and assimilation) where completion of one stage is required before moving to

the next [6,7]. In the other hand the Gordon model explains acculturation as a dynamic process with bidirectional movement between stages. During this process, an individual is acquiring, retaining, and/or relinquishing behaviors and values of his or her original culture and the host culture [6,7]. Food habits and food consumption changes are some of the new behaviors affected by acculturation. Since consumption of new food items is affected by the availability of native ingredients, convenience and cost, an immediate change is likely to occur [2].

While acculturation pertains to adopting cultural traits, dietary acculturation specifically refers to the process that occurs when members of a minority group adopt the eating patterns/food choices of their new environment [8,9]. Food preference is one component of cultural identity [10,11], rendering food habit difficult to change. Several studies have shown that longer residence in the host country and high education increased exposure to mainstream culture, and consequently acculturation [12,13].

To our knowledge, this is the first study focusing on the dietary acculturation of foreign university students in Daegu,

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Korea. The Dietary acculturation was measured using living arrangement (alone, university dormitory with roommate or with family), food choice, eating patterns (adoption of the dietary patterns of the host country, maintenance of traditional eating patterns, or both) and the length of residency in the host country. Finally we investigated if there is positive association between the BMI and the length of residency in the host country. Studies have shown that leaving home to live independently is a natural transition phase for students as they also decide about the food they eat [14,15].

Changes in culture are believed to explain the substantial weight gain in many immigrant groups with length of residence [16-18]. We examined the dietary patterns of foreign-born students in the city of Daegu and their association with acculturation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study population and sample

A cross-sectional survey was carried out among foreign-born men (96) and women (54) in Korea. Posters about the study were placed in public coffee shops, universities and foreigners social groups (e.g. Facebook). The criteria for inclusion were: Foreign-born, age 18 and over and residing in Korea. Exclusion criteria included age under 18, participants residing outside of Korea, Koreans and pregnant women. The main recruiting criteria were being a foreigner and currently residing in South Korea. All of the study participants volunteered for the study and gave their consent before participating in the study. The study was anonymous and followed the ethical standards stipulated in the Helsinki Declaration as none of the personally identifiable information such as name, social security number, date of birth, phone numbers, and so forth, was captured. A web-based survey program, Zoho survey, was used to collect the data during which time participants’ self-reported demographic variables, such as age, gender, education, living arrangement, length of stay in Korea along with their weight, height, and food habits information.

Measurement

Anthropometric variables which included body weight and height were used to calculate body mass index (BMI) expressed as the ratio of weight in kilograms by the height squared in meters. For the entire sample (n=150), we used the WHO’s BMI classification for adults and cut-off points ≤18.5 kg/m2 for underweight , 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 for normal weight, 25-29.9 kg/m2 for overweight and ≥30 kg/m2 for obese [19].

Eating habits

A self-administered questionnaire was used to obtain data about socio-demographic characteristics, general food habits, factors influencing food choice, consumption frequency of selected foods items using previously published findings [20, 21]. Cooking method preference and Korean food preference were also assessed.

Demographic information was limited to the age, sex, length of residence in Korea, height and weight. The section on general food habits included questions about living arrangement, food preparation and the frequency of eating native or local food.

The factors influencing food choice were: availability of native food, cost, location of super market, convenience of food preparation, food taste, nutrition facts, religious affiliation and other. Five food groups (meat, fish/sea food, fruit/vegetables, grains and mill/milk products) were measured for their consumption frequency per week. No formal test of validity was performed even though seven students pilot tested the survey for clarity. The questionnaire was very similar to other food frequency questionnaires that had been validated [22-24]. The questionnaire consisted of the following questions: number of times a week (0, 1-2, 3-5.6-7) a subject typically eat native and local food cook native and local food; what is the primary factor (availability of native food, cost, location of supermarket, convenience of food preparation, food taste, nutritional facts, religious affiliation, other) influencing the student food choice; the food group (meat, fish/sea food, fruit/vegetables, grains, milk/milk products, other) eaten in a regular basis; and the cooking method (fried/roasting/stir-fried, steamed dishes, raw food, soup stew, seasoned vegetables, other)) of preference

The cooking method proposed were also divided in five groups: fried/roasting/stir-fried group, steamed dishes, raw food, soup/stew and seasoned vegetables group.

The question: “What is your living arrangement?” assessed students’ living arrangements during university semesters, with three closed options (alone; university dormitory; with family or other).

Korean food description

The Korean food survey was conducted using twenty eight typical foods of Korea with the food names, pictures and description to help the foreign-born students identify their preferred food of choice and the food they frequently eat. The foods were thereafter categorized in 5 groups because of their similarities: Bulgogi (Stir-fried beef and meat based food), Bibimpap, (Mixed vegetables on rice), Kimpap/Bokkeumpap (Rice and vegetables wrapped in dried laver), Kimchi (spicy cabbage) and other.

Data analysis

After subject IDs were assigned to each questionnaire, data were input in statistical software SPSS 21.0 database. Frequency distribution table was generated for each variable. For parametric variables, the assumption of normality was assessed by skewness, kurtosis, boxplots, and histograms. Variables that displayed non-normal distribution were square root transformed. Three univariate outliers in the BMI variable were replaced with the next highest value [25].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Participants’ characteristics

One hundred and fifty students (96 males and 54 females) participated in the study. The majority lived in the university dormitory with a Korean roommate, were male, declared themselves physically active, had BMIs within the normal weight range and have been living in Korea for at least a year (Table 1). There were no significant differences in gender with regard to living arrangement and length of stay in Korea.

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Parameters All subjects Living Arrangement Length of stay in Korea

Alone With Family

With Korean roommate Less than a year 1 to 3 years Over 3 years

n (%) 150 42 (28.0) 21 (14.0) 87 (58.0) 47 (31.3) 75 (50.0) 28 (18.7)

Gender, n (%)

Male 96 (64.0) 25 (59.5) 17 (81.0) 54 (62.1) 33 (70.2) 42 (56.0) 21 (75.0)

Female 54 (36.0) 17 (40.5) 4 (19.0) 33 (37.9) 14 (29.8) 33 (44.0) 7 (25.0)

BMI, Kg/m, n (%)

<18.5 (underweight) 5 (3.3) 1 (2.4) 0 (0.0) 4 (4.6) 2 (4.3) 3 (2.0) 0 (0.0)

18.5-24.5 (normal) 84 (56.0) 24(57.1) 9 (42.9) 51 (58.6) 29 (61.7) 38 (50.7) 17 (60.7)

>25 (overweight/obese) 61 (40.7) 17 (40.5) 12 (57.1) 32 (36.8) 16 (34.0) 34 (45.3) 11 (39.3)

Physically Active

No 60 (40.0) 16 (38.1) 8 (38.1) 36 (41.4) 18 (38.3) 35 (46.7) 7 (25.0)

Yes 90 (60.0) 26 (61.9) 13 (61.9) 49 (58.6) 29 (61.7) 40 (53.3) 21 (75.0)

Table 1: Demographic and physical characteristics of participants.

BMI: Body Mass Index

GenderFemales (N = 54)

n (%)

Males (N = 96)

n (%)

Total(N = 150) x2 p value

Food choice factorsAvailability of native food 5 (9.3) 7 (7.3) 12 (8.0)Convenience of food preparation 7 (13.0) 11 (11.5) 18 (12.0)Cost 11 (20.4) 16 (16.7) 27 (18.0)Food taste 24 (44.4) 37 (38.5) 61 (40.7) 6.489 0.484Location of super market 1 (1.9) 1 (1.0) 2 (1.3)Nutritional facts 5 (9.3) 11 (11.5) 16 (10.7)Religious affiliation 1 (1.9) 6 (6.3) 7 (4.7)Other - 7 (7.3) 7 (4.7)Food group preferenceFish 9 (16.7) 10 (10.4) 19 (12.7)Grains 7 (13.0) 4 (4.2) 11 (7.3)Meat 20 (37.0) 53 (55.2) 73 (48.7) 7.289 0.121Milk/milk products 1 (1.9) 1 (1.0) 2 (1.3)Vegetables/Fruits 17 (31.5) 28 (29.2) 45 (30.0)Cooking method preferenceFried/Roasting food 31 (57.4) 51 (53.1) 82 (54.7)Raw food 1 (1.9) 2 (2.1) 3 (2.0)Seasoned vegetables 2 (3.7) 7 (7.3) 9 (6.0) 0.985 0.912Steamed dishes 7 (13.0) 11 (11.5) 18 (12.0)Other 13 (24.1) 25 (26.0) 38 (25.3)

Table 2: Percentage of university students with regards to food choice and preference by gender.

Column percents shownp value obtained from Chi-square analyses

Food choice and preference

Sixty-one percent of the participants reported food taste as the primary factor influencing their food choice (Table 2). There was no significant difference in food choice between female and male students. The second factor was cost; 20.4 for females and 16.7 % males. As for the acculturation index, only 7.3 % (n=7) of male students and 9.3% (n=5) of female students reported “availability of native food” as the first factor influencing their food choice. However, this percentage is greater among foreign-

born students who have been in Korea for less than a year (results not shown). As for the food eaten on regular basis, 48.7 % of the participants listed meat as their preferred food. Table 2 also shows that students preferred fried or roasting food (54.7 %) compared to steamed dishes or vegetables.

Association between Korean food and living arrangement

The frequency at which participants living alone, with family

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and with Korean roommate reported typically cooking Korean food, eating Korean food and their favorite Korean food are given in table 3. Most of the subjects (71.6 %) reported that they have never cooked typical Korean food. However significant differences (P < .05) were observed between the participants living alone, with family and with a Korean roommate in regard to frequency of eating Korean food. Eighty-one percent of the foreign students typically ate Korean food at least thrice a week. The Korean food that the subjects preferred in a regular basis, at least once a week weekly, were bulgogi (56.7 %) and bibimpap (14.7 %). There was no significant difference observed between living arrangement and Korean food.

Association between Korean food and Length of stay in Korea

No significant difference (P = 0.661) was observed between cooking frequency and the length of stay in Korea (Table 4). Although 69.7 % of the first year students were not able to cook typical foods of the host country, this number decreased to 14% (n =105) after staying in Korea for 1 to 3 years.

As for the frequency of eating Korean food on a weekly basis, only 2 students reported (less than a year in Korea) not eating Korean food. The frequency of eating Korean food increased with the length of stay in Korea with 16.9 % reported eating Korean food at least 1-2 a week and 80.4 % of the subjects reported eating Korean food at least thrice a week. No significant difference was observed in regard to the preference of food as bulgogi remains the preferred food of choice.

Association between BMI and Length of stay in Korea

As for the association between the weight of status of foreign-born students and the length of residency, no significant difference

was observed (P = 0.585) although the overweight/obese group BMI increased after a year in Korea (55.7 %). However, after 3 years in Korea, even though there is no underweight student, a decrease in BMI was observed.

DISCUSSION The fast acculturation process of the foreign born students

is shown by the frequency of the host country food consumption (Table 1). However, it is possible that preference of the host country food is due to the unavailability of the native food. Studies have shown that the unavailability of native foods and ingredients will likely result in increased consumption of the foods of the host country [12, 26].

Our study confirmed what was already reported regarding factors influencing food choice as taste and cost were the two main factors [27]. The cost factor is likely associated with income level. On the other hand, the location of a supermarket was not a factor in both male (2.06%) and female (0%) students as convenience stores, vending machines and fast food outlets have increased around the universities area and in some cases contributed to creating unhealthy eating habits [28,29].Also, the fact that availability of native food was not a major factor means that students are open to food that is different from what they are accustomed to; making taste and cost their major concern when it comes to food choice. Culturally based food habits are often among the last practices people change through acculturation [27]. However, our study shows that foreign university students in Korea seem to easily change their dietary habits and no significant difference between foreign-born men and women as far as their food choice is concerned. Of the five food groups proposed, meat was the first choice for both men and women (Table 2). The consumption of meat varies worldwide, depending

Variables Living arrangement, n (%)Alone With Family With Korean

Roommate Total x2 p value

Cooking frequency

Not cooking 32 (76.2) 13 (61.9) 61 (71.8) 106 (71.6)

1-2 times 5 (11.9) 5 (23.8) 10 (11.8) 20 (13.5) 2.72 0.606

Over 3 times 5 (11.9) 3 (14.3) 14 (16.5) 22 (14.9)

Cooking frequency

Not eating 2 (4.8) - - 2 (1.4)

1-2 times 11 (26.2) 6 (28.6) 8 (9.4) 25 (16.9) 13.62 0.009*

Over 3 times 29 (69.0) 15 (71.4) 77 (90.6) 121 (81.8)

Cooking frequency

Bulgogi 19 (45.2) 13 (61.9) 53 (60.9) 85 (56.7)

Bibimpap 6 (14.3) 4 (19.0) 12 (13.8) 22 (14.7)

Kimpap 3 (7.1) 1 (4.8) 7 (8.0) 11 (7.3) 10.2 0.251

Kimchi 2 (4.8) 1 (4.8) 7 (8.0) 10 (6.7)

Other 12 (28.6) 2 (9.5) 8 (9.2) 22 (14.7)

Table 3: Percentage of university students with regard to perception of Korean food, frequency of cooking, eating frequency and preference by living arrangement.

Column percents shownp value obtained from Chi-square analyses*Significantly different by living arrangement ( p<.05)

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on culture or religious belief. Most students participating in the study are coming from developing countries. The amount of meat consumed in developing countries over the past has grown three times as much as it did in the developed countries [30]. Foreign-born students are then likely to eat food that they are more familiar with. This explains the choice of bulgogi (Stir-fried beef and vegetables) as the most favored food even though stir-fried foods are thought to increase cancer risk in humans [31].

Significant differences (P < .05) were observed between the students living alone, with family and with a Korean roommate in regard to frequency of eating Korean food. The association between the living arrangement and the level of acculturation showed that students living in the university dormitory are more susceptible to acculturation than students living alone or with their family. The first reason is that students living in the dormitory share the room with a native of the host country who is likely to influence their dietary habits. The second reason could be attributed to the food offered to dormitory students, which is typical food from the host country. This is in line with other reports showing that Changes in living arrangements that some college students encounter influence their lifestyle factors [22,32] especially for those living away from their family home [33]. Although studies had shown a relationship between living arrangements and eating behaviours [15, 33], such relationship is not observed in Korea probably due to the absence of food products from the students’ native countries. In this study, we introduced a new concept in the measurement of acculturation: ability to cook the food of the host country. At this stage, data are not sufficient to validate the level of acculturation. We observed that the majority of students living alone (76.2 %) or with family (61.9 %) do not cook typical food of the host country. This number even increased for students living in Korea for over 3 years (76 %) even though over 80 % reported to eat Korean food at least thrice a week. Unavailability of traditional foods and ingredients such

as certain types of vegetables or spices will result in increased consumption of the foods of host country [6, 12]. Also, students living in dormitory will likely eat food offered at the dormitory cafeteria and therefore won’t have the opportunity to develop cooking skills.

No significant association was observed between the length of residence and the frequency of cooking Korean food. However dietary habits in relation to length of residence has been investigated [34]. The length of residence allows the individual to appreciate its environment and the ingredients offered by the host country. The absence of the ingredients of the native country encourages the migrant to quickly adapt as a need for survival. Our study is in line with a previous one showing a rapid acculturation observed with the host country’s cuisine [33]. While 76 % of the students living in Daegu for over 3 years reported to never have cooked Korean food, no association was found between the length of stay in Korea and the ability to cook Korean food. Contrary to the studies by Brown showing the preference of foreign students living in the UK to consume the cuisine from their own countries [35], the majority of students (86 %) living in Korea for over 3 years reported eating Korean food at least thrice a week. This could be explained with the non-availability of their native food in Korea; making the dietary acculturation process faster. The dietary acculturation of foreign students living in Daegu was no associated with their ability to cook.

The weight status of students showed an increased BMI for the overweight and obese group between the first (40 %) and the third year (55.7 %). These results are in agreement with other researchers who found that the length of residence is associated with increase in BMI [5,17,18,36]. While an increase in BMI due to dietary acculturation may result in obesity [37,38] and type 2 diabetes [37,39], there was no significant association

Variables Length of stay in Korea in years, n (%)

<1 year 1 - 3 years >3 years Total x2 p value

Cooking frequency

Not cooking 46 (69.7) 21 (61.9) 38 (76.0) 105 (70.9)

1-2 times 11 (16.7) 5 (15.6) 4 (8.0) 20 (13.5) 2.41 0.661

Over 3 times 9 (13.6) 6 (18.8) 8 (16.0) 23 (15.5)

Eating frequency

Not eating 1 (4.8) - - 2 (1.4)

1-2 times 14 (21.2) 7 (21.9) 6 (12.0) 27 (16.9) 2.52 0.642

Over 3 times 51 (77.3) 25 (78.1) 43 (86.0) 119 (80.4)

Preferred food

Bulgogi 27 (57.4) 44 (58.7) 14 (50.0) 85 (56.7)

Bibimpap 6 (12.8) 12 (16.0) 4 (14.3) 22 (14.7)

Kimpap 4 (8.5) 5 (6.7) 2 (7.1) 11 (7.3) 10.2 0.251

Kimchi 5 (10.6) 4 (5.3) 1 (3.6) 10 (6.7)

Other 5 (10.6) 10 (13.3) 7 (25.0) 22 (14.7)

Table 4: Percentage of university students with regard to perception of Korean food, frequency of cooking, eating frequency and preference by length of stay in Korea.

Column percents shownp value obtained from Chi-square analyses

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between the length of residence and BMI. Twenty-eight typical Korean foods were proposed to students to choose from, the increased consumption of animal products in Korea [40] could as well be the reason of the increase of BMI over time. Studies on the effect of acculturation on health shows that foreigners upon arrival in the new host country have better health profile than the native population [10,41-43] and that it deteriorates with time due to dietary changes or lifestyle factors [44,45]. It is therefore possible that foreign students in Korea lose their health advantage over time due to increase weight. However, we also observed a decrease in BMI for students living in Daegu in the overweight and obese group from 55.7 % (1 to 3 years) to 18% (over 3 years). This means that over time, foreign students appreciate the host country food composed mainly of grains and plant-base foods by reducing consumption of animal products.

CONCLUSIONAcculturation has shown to have more negative effect on diet

[46] than positive [46-48]. Korea for example has experienced a rapid and varied socioeconomic changes since hosting the 1988 Olympic games in 1988 [40,49]. One of the changes related to the rapid economic development is increased consumption of animal products and reduction of plant-base foods; forcing the country away from its traditional diets mainly of vegetables and grains to less-healthy and readily-available processed foods that are available to the immigrants as well. On the other hand, we did not observe any significant change in the normal group as far as the BMI is concerned. The study shows that when it comes to the students’ dietary habits, consumption of their native food is not a factor. The level of acculturation increased with the length of residence and the living arrangement.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDYOur study offers insight and limitations into the effect of

dietary acculturation of foreign students living in Daegu. The study was cross-sectional, thus conclusions could not be made about causal relationships. Because participants were not randomly selected, but volunteered to participate, the external validity and generalizability of the results may be limited to the study population. Participants self-reported their experiences and there may be a potential for over or underestimation. In addition, we used students from the city of Daegu and therefore results from this study are not representative of the general foreign student population in the Republic of Korea. Although the sample size may appear to be small, conclusive results have been used in the past with similar samples [33]. As for the BMI,

it is possible that students under-reported their weight, and consequently increase the level of accuracy in interpreting data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS/CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe author thanks Dr. Nasser Bulaale Ebrahim for the training

on SPSS and the participants for participating in this study. No conflict of interest exists.

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<18.5 18.5-24.9 >25

Less than a year 2 (40.0) 29 (34.5) 16 (40.0) 47 (31.3)

2.84 0.5851 to 3 years 3 (60.0) 38 (45.2) 34 (55.7) 75 (50.0)

Over 3 years - 17 (20.2) 11 (18.0) 28 (18.7)

Total 5 (100.0) 84 (100.0) 61 (100.0) 150 (100.0)

Table 5: Ordinal regression results of the association between BMI and the length of residence.

Column percents shownp value obtained from Chi-square analysesBMI: Body Mass Index

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Obiang-Obounou BW (2015) Dietary Acculturation of Foreign Students in Daegu, Korea. J Hum Nutr Food Sci 3(4): 1068.

Cite this article

Acculturation of Mexican-American mothers influences child feeding strategies. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001; 101: 542-547.

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transition in South Korea: the retention of healthful elements in their traditional diet. Public Health Nutr. 2002; 5: 197-203.