E-Sri Lanka: bridging the digitaldivide

Premila GamageInstitute of Policy Studies, Colombo, Sri Lanka, and

Edward F. HalpinLeslie Silver International Faculty, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK

Abstract

Purpose – The overall aim of this study is to examine the impact of e-Sri Lanka’s TelecentreDevelopment Programme in bridging the digital divide.

Design/methodology/approach – A survey research method was used in the study to collectqualitative and quantitative data from actual and potential Telecentre users in relevant communities.The study was carried out through a survey. The primary sample comprised of 30 percent of theTelecentres. The secondary sample included users and potential users around the Telecentres. Thetotal number of users and potential users was 338. The study was conducted from early January 2005to the of end February 2006.

Findings – The survey data disclosed that still only a small percentage of the total population areaware of Telecentres and use the facilities offered by them. The crucial factor affecting usage islanguage. According to the majority of respondents, as they understand only native languages theyhave not benefited from services such as like the internet and e-mail. The content or the informationthat can be offered through Telecentres plays a pivotal role in this regard. Out of the 70 percent of ruralpopulation, the majority are not familiar with the English language. Therefore, Sinhala- andTamil-speaking people are disadvantaged. The survey data confirms that all Telecentres are highly(100 per cent) dependent on subsidies provided by ICTA. Hence, the sustainability of Telecentres isquestionable at present.

Research limitations/implications – The Telecentres situated in the North East region had to beexcluded from the study due to the resumption of hostilities between the Government of Sri Lanka andthe Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and a corresponding lack of access and security in theregion. The North East Province contains 9.84 per cent of Telecentres set up under the project.

Practical implications – The findings of the study will help policy makers, decision makers anddonors to properly address the key issues such as connectivity, accessibility, content and services,sustainability, skills development, partnerships with stakeholders and the needs of disadvantagedgroups. Further, the problems and successes identified by the study will be useful for policy anddecision makers to ensure the sustainability of the Telecentres and how the e-Sri Lanka initiative andespecially the 1,000 Telecentre project could be used to narrow the digital divide in Sri Lanka.

Originality/value – This will be the first in-depth study on the Telecentres, which are one of themajor components of the government’s e-Sri Lanka initiative. The findings and methods used toanalyse the data will be relevant to future studies of community-based ICT initiatives and the broaderareas of information-seeking, information-seeking behaviour, and user needs.

Keywords Telecommunications, Communication technologies, Sri Lanka, Information management

Paper type Research paper

1. IntroductionThe digital divide is a global phenomenon. In the 1990s the term “digital divide” wasused to describe the perceived growing gap between those who have access to and the

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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Received 26 September 2006Revised 18 October 2006

Accepted 26 October 2006

The Electronic LibraryVol. 25 No. 6, 2007

pp. 693-710q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0264-0473DOI 10.1108/02640470710837128

skills to use ICT and those who have limited or no access due to various socioeconomicand/or geographical reasons. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) uses“digital divide” to refer to the gap between those who are able to benefit from the newinformation and communications technology (ICT) and those who are not (see www.itu.int/ITU-D/digitaldivide/). According to the ITU it is not a matter of who has directaccess to ICT but who is actually helped or benefited by ICT. Several studies andreports have revealed that the key factor in closing or bridging the divide is not merelyproviding “access”. Today, more and more scholars and policy makers acknowledgethat the digital divide is a social problem which is linked to social systems andcommunication technologies. Technological disparity lies not only in the access tohardware and software, but also in differences in availability of services, awarenessand mastery of new technologies, and the opportunity to learn and use new media (Kai,2001).

Norris (2003) too outlines many factors that may have contributed towards thedigital divide, including the structure of opportunities provided by the public policieswithin each country, such as public and private initiatives towards IT education andtraining, investment in science and technology, the costs of ISP services, and theregulation of telecommunications and cultural attitudes towards using computers(Norris, 2003). Norris further described the concept of the “digital divide” as amultidimensional phenomenon encompassing the three distinct aspects of globaldivide, social divide and democratic divide (Norris, 2003).

It is clear that in general the digital divide has a connection with basicsocioeconomic variables, such as income, age, gender and educational attainment,which are variables in ICT usage. Gartner’s report on the digital divide and Americansociety examined the gap between the technologically destitute and wired citizensacross the USA in 2000. According to this survey on the digital divide, socioeconomicstatus is a good parameter to evaluate one’s likelihood to gain access to the internet andassociated benefits (Gartner Group, 2000). The annual official report on Americans’access to ICT tools entitled “Falling through the Net” (National Telecommunicationsand Information Administration, 1999), also gives an objective account of digitaldisparities in the USA through a socioeconomic analysis.

Today, governments worldwide regard the digital divide as a top priority issue. TheUnited Nations and other development organisations have taken steps to workcooperatively with developing countries to build digital opportunities in order to fostersustainable human development and reduce poverty. The World Bank, UNDP andUNESCO consider providing telecommunications and other ICT infrastructure to be ofvital importance. Many developed as well as developing countries, with the support ofthe private and non-profit sectors, have already taken different initiatives to bridgetechnological disparities. The World Bank, in their 1998 report, emphasised theimportance of telecentres as “a powerful engine of rural development and a preferredinstrument in the fight against poverty” (World Bank, 1998). However, as pointed outin the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific (2002)theme report, the most critical challenge is how to effectively and efficiently expandICT accessibility in rural areas and develop appropriate pro-poor content so that ruraldisadvantaged communities will be able to benefit from ICTs.

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A number of telecentre initiatives have been introduced in developing communitiesthroughout the world, namely Suriname, South Africa, India, Mozambique, Uganda,The Philippines, Egypt, Ghana, Mali, Bhutan, Benin, Honduras, Tanzania, Mexico,Brazil, Hungary, Estonia, Romania, Haiti, Maldives, Vietnam and Sri Lanka (Oestmannand Dymond, 2001). There is a network of 150 telecentres in Tamil Nadu, India. Theseprivately owned franchises provide internet and information services. The main focusis on providing telecommuting jobs in over 50 fields (writing, translating, computertechnical, data entry) and each telecentre has provided around 50 jobs (Joseph, 1999).Akshya, Bhoomi, Community Information Centre, Digital Gangetic Plain, e-Chaupal,rural e-Seva, Gyandoot, n-Logue, Tarahaat and Swaminathan Information VillageCentres are among the other major Indian initiatives. (Keniston and Kumar, 2003;Kumar, 2001; Manohar, 2005). However, Senthilkumaran (2003) reports that except fora very few projects like the Swaminathan Information Village Centres, most telecentreshave failed to achieve the desired results.

In Africa, community telecentres were started in 1998 with the Acacia Initiative,which was launched by the IDRC. Acacia’s vision was to target disadvantaged andrural communities who were isolated from information and communicationtechnologies. Therefore, the Acacia project aims to empower sub-Saharan Africancommunities with the ability to apply information and communication technologies totheir own social and economic development. There were around 35 telecentres in sevenSub-Saharan Africa initiated by Acacia by the end of 2001 (Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu,2002). There are two main types of telecentres in Africa:

(1) smaller demand-driven telecentres; and

(2) supported multi-purpose telecentres.

Donor agencies such as ITU, IDRC and UNESCO have funded a number of telecentresin Mali, Uganda, Tanzania and Mozambique (Jensen, 1998). Based on visits totelecentres in Zambia, Tanzania, Egypt and Tunisia in late 1999, Sibthorpe (2000)reported that some of the centres were very well used while some centres in Egypt werestill waiting for a phone line. Further, she reported that economic sustainability was aquestion with all centres.

Many Latin American governments too have set up telecentres in an attempt tonarrow the digital divide within their societies. The Peruvian Scientific Network (RCP)has established telecentres to provide access to computers and the internet. RCP uses afranchise model, with three different levels. This network develops information such ashealth and education, and business opportunities for all the telecentres in the networkto use. As this is a very successful initiative, El-Salvador has invited RCP to set up anetwork in their country (Marquez, 2003).

Jorge (2002) emphasised that in order to have sustainable telecentres, it is essentialto develop and promote the necessary support systems and appropriate policies suchas ensuring gender equity in the implementation process, promoting a pricing policythat favours discounts/subsidies for community telecentres’ services, and financialincentives that promote investment where it is most needed. She further emphasisedthat, if policy makers want to contribute to universal access in their respectivecountries, they should focus on the demands and needs of their rural and semi-urbancommunities, and then telecentres are an option worth investing in.

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2. Position of Sri LankaDespite 20 years of civil war, Sri Lanka maintains high educational and healthstandards due to the accent on welfare expenditure. Although its current GDP percapita is US$ 1,031 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2005), it leads the South Asian region inmany socioeconomic indicators. Table I shows different socioeconomic indicators forSri Lanka, which is remarkable for a developing country, while Table II shows thedevelopments Sri Lanka has made on the socioeconomic front.

Although Sri Lanka leads the South Asian region with its high literacy rate of 91 percent and national health indicators, computer literacy indicators are not remarkable.

2.1 Status of information and communication technology (ICT)The significant advances and changes in the telecommunications sector in Sri Lankasince 1977 include the introduction of Sri Lanka Telecom (SLT) in 1991, theestablishment of the Council for Information Technology (CINTEC) in 1984, theestablishment of the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka(TRCSL) in 1996, the introduction of the ICT Act in 2003 and the establishment of theInformation and Communication Technology Agency of Sri Lanka (ICTA), again in2003. However, in spite of these measures, the growth of ICT in Sri Lanka has beenslow and uneven and concentrated mainly in urban areas.

Indicator Percentage

Population living below US$1 per day 7.6People who have access to safe drinking water 71.5Households with electricity 73Average area served by a school 6Primary net enrolment ratio (2002) 97.2

Sources: Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2004), UNDP Human Development Report (2005)

Table II.Selected socioeconomicindicators for Sri Lanka

IndicatorHigh humandevelopment

Middle humandevelopment

Low humandevelopment

SouthAsia

SriLanka

Life expectancy at birth (years) 78.0 67.2 46.0 63.4 74.0Adult literacy rate (per cent) – 79.4 57.5 58.9 90.4Gross school enrolment ratio(per cent) 91 66 46 56 69Human development index 0.895 0.718 0.486 0.628 0.751Infant mortality rate (per 1,000live births) 9 46 108 66 13Females not expected tosurvive until age 60 (percent) 88.9 73.7 37.5 67.1 85.6Males not expected to surviveuntil age 60 (percent) 80.0 64.6 34.6 60.0 76.1

Note: The closest to the relevant indicator for Sri Lanka is given in italicsSource: UNDP Human Development Report (2005)

Table I.Selected socioeconomicindicators for Sri Lankawith comparison

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2.2 Status of computer literacyTable III illustrates some key statistics of the study conducted by the Department ofCensus and Statistics of Sri Lanka in 2004 to assess the computer literacy of thehousehold population in the age group 5-69 years and the extent of computer use.

The study revealed that the percentage of households having computers in SriLanka is 3.8 per cent, with a large proportion confined to the Western Province and thedistrict of Colombo (Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka, 2004).

As illustrated in Figures 1 and 2, the Western Province reported the highestcomputer literacy rate of 15.3 per cent, and the lowest percentage of (5 per cent) wasreported from Uva and North Central provinces.

This study very clearly reflects the digital divide that exists within Sri Lanka and asignificantly unequal level of access to ICT. Most significantly the vast majority ofrural communities in Sri Lanka, which comprises over 70 per cent of the totalpopulation, do not presently have access to ICT and for that same reason do not reapthe benefits of ICT. In 2004, a report by the UNDP also confirmed the importance of therural sector in developing ICT in Sri Lanka (United Nations Development Programme,2004).

2.3 e-Sri Lanka initiativeThe flagship ICT programme of the Government of Sri Lanka, known as the e-SriLanka initiative, was launched in 2002 (Government of Sri Lanka, 2002). Partiallyfunded by a US$53 million loan (World Bank, 2004) by the International DevelopmentAssociation (IDA), the World Bank’s concessionary lending affiliate, the e-Sri Lankainitiative focuses on the use of IT to improve governance, reduce poverty and improve

Indicator Percentage

Computer literacy (percentage of household population in the age group 5-69 who canuse computers) 9.7Households having computers (national) 3.8Households having computers (urban sector) 10.5Households having computers (rural sector) 3.1Households having computers (estate sector) 0.3Households having e-mail facility 0.9Households having internet facility 0.7Households having computers which had been bought within the 24 months prior tothe survey 44.2Households having computers and using them for less than ten hours per week 53.3Households having computers and experiencing faults during the three months priorto the survey 26.6Households without computers and strongly feeling the need to have one 36.1Household population in the age group of 5-69 years, who are aware about computersand their applications 18.2Household population in the age group 5-69 years who can use e-mail on their own 2.8Household population in the age group 5-69 years who can use the internet on theirown 2.6

Source: Department of Census and Statistics of Sri Lanka (2004)

Table III.Key statistics on

computer literacy, use ofhome computers, e-mailand internet services in

Sri Lanka, 2004

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the quality of life of all Sri Lankans. The ICT Development Roadmap (Ministry ofEconomic Reforms, Science and Technology, 2003) was launched in 2002. Theobjective of this roadmap is to take the dividends of ICT to every village, citizen andbusiness and also transform the way the Government works. There are five keyprogrammes within e-Sri Lanka:

(1) modernising government and delivering citizen services;

(2) leveraging ICT through public-private partnerships;

(3) developing ICT human resources;

(4) building implementation capacity; and

(5) establishing a national information infrastructure

The Sri Lanka Information and Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) is the leadagency for coordinating and overseeing these e-Sri Lanka programmes.

It is clearly stated in the Roadmap that in order to use of ICT as a key lever foreconomic and social development, telecentres and other forms of public access toinformation and communication services will be established in the future. As a result,e-Sri Lanka’s Telecentre Development Programme (TDP), which is called “GlobalKnowledge Centres” (GKCs) was launched in 2004. This is a long-term plan to connectevery village in Sri Lanka to the internet. The TDP is expected to produce the followingbenefits for the residents of small rural communities, who are the predominant targetgroup:

Figure 1.Computer literacy ofhousehold population

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Figure 2.Computer literacy of SriLanka by district, 2004

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. availability of affordable basic communication services, office services andcommunity information in rural and disadvantaged areas;

. enhanced access and quality of social services;

. access to private sector services online;

. e-commerce and information on employment and opportunities for improvedentrepreneurship;

. mobilisation of local knowledge and support to local industry development;

. empowerment of target groups through community driven development(Information and Communication Technology Agency, 2004a).

Out of planned 100 centres in 2004, only six centres had been set up by June 2004.

2.4 Establishment of 1,000 Telecentres or “Nanasalas”ICTA has incorporated GKCs under the “Nanasala” label to introduce several modelsof telecentres to be established in all parts of Sri-Lanka to spread ICT services to therural and semi-urban population (Information and Communication TechnologyAgency, 2004b). The aim of the project is to meet the infrastructure requirements inorder to address the information and communication needs of rural areas in all parts ofthe country through the establishment of Nanasalas, and the provision of ICT-basedservices.

As stated in the project, ICTA aimed at establishing four types of Nanasala,depending on the complexity and the type of services that will be offered (Informationand Communication Technology Agency, 2004b):

(1) Nanasala: Rural Knowledge Centres (RKCs) – entrepreneurial model;

(2) e-Library Nanasala – community model;

(3) Distance & e-Learning Centres (DeLs); and

(4) Tsunami Camp Nanasala.

The objectives of the Nanasala (RKCs) programme is to establish multi-servicecommunity information centres which provide access to the internet, e-mail,telephones, fax, photocopy, computer training classes and other ICT services as wellto act as a hub of local, national and global information resources to provide a catalyticeffect for rural communities in poverty reduction, social and economic developmentand peace building while aiming at providing these services in a long-term, sustainablemanner. In Phase One it was estimated that 100 centres would be created in the Southand North East region, which have little or no access to ICT. These centres follow anentrepreneur-owned model, where eligible owners who reside within the communitycan apply and are selected in a transparent and competitive evaluation process, and aregiven intensive training in how to run a sustainable Telecentre for the benefit of theowner as well as the local community.

e-Library is a smaller version of the RKCs but follows a community model wheresome services are provided free with a few paid services to maintain the sustainabilityof the centre. These centres have telephones and computers with high-speed internet toaccess national, international and local information. Computer-based training (CBT)media are available to use off-line in Sinhala, Tamil and English. There is also a large

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e-library of books and periodicals for the use of students of all ages. These centres arein the process of being established in the centre of villages, mainly in places of worship,public libraries and community centers. IT-trained clergy will also be used asinstructors. Eight hundred of these Nanasala e-Libraries will be opened within the nexttwo to three years. There were around 150 Nanasalas (RKCs) and e-libraries open bythe end of 2005, predominately within the deep South and North East regions of SriLanka.

Distance and e-learning centres will have all infrastructure facilities such as a videoconferencing room, a multimedia computer laboratory and a playback room. Theoverall objective of the DeL Centre project is to provide new information sharing andlearning opportunities to a large spectrum of users in the country.

In order to provide ICT facilities for tsunami victims, ICTA established smallcomputer kiosks or Nanasalas in welfare camps where people who have been displaceddue to the tsunami reside. This programme is intended to provide much neededinformation on health, education, and other relevant content in local languages and tocreate a database of information on residents. All services to the camp residents areprovided free of charge.

3. Study objectives and methodologyThe study had four basic objectives:

(1) to examine the impact of Nanasalas (RKC and e-Library models) in bridging thedigital divide;

(2) to identify the nature of services provided by Nanasalas;

(3) to identify the problems encounter when operating Nanasalas; and

(4) to evaluate the sustainability of Nanasalas in the long term.

3.1 MethodologyA survey research method was applied for the study and included both qualitative andquantitative methods to gather data from actual and potential Nanasala users incommunities. These methods included focus group discussions, naturalistic or realisticobservations, key-informant interviews, user interviews, and document analysis. Togather the data interviews were conducted on site, and were supported byobservations, which were useful in filling gaps so that associated problems could bestudied.

3.2 SampleThe study was carried out through a survey of a selected number of Nanasalas thatbelong to teh RKC and e-Library models. As ICTA holds total responsibility for theimplementation and overseeing of the Nanasala network in the country itsdocumentation was evaluated as the primary mechanism to identify the populationof the study. The ICTA documentation indicates that at 150 centres had beenestablished and were in operation at the end of 31 December 2005 (Information andCommunication Technology Agency, 2004c). However, at the time of survey it wasrevealed that three centres had not been opened even though equipment had beenprovided to set them up. A non-probability sampling method was applied to the total

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population. Two types of sample were used. The primary sample comprised of theNanasalas situated in Colombo, Galle, Matara, Hambantota, Monaragala, Ratnapura,Kegalle and Kandy districts. The research sample of the study was 42 Nanasalas (30per cent) of the total population, representing a good cross-section. Except for Colombo,the above locations were selected as the largest number of rural population is coveredby these locations. The secondary sample included users and potential users aroundthe Nanasalas. The total number of users and potential users was 338. The study wasconducted from early January 2005 to the end of February 2006.

3.3 Limitations of the studyThe Nanasalas situated in the North East region had to be excluded from the study dueto the resumption of hostilities between the Government of Sri Lanka and theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and a corresponding lack of access andsecurity in the region. The North East Province contains 9.84 per cent of Telecentresset up under the project.

Some respondents discussed frankly the various problems they encountered on thecondition that the anonymity of the institutions and the respondents was maintained.This was a frequently encountered request which has been honoured throughout thisstudy.

3.4 Research issuesWith some modifications and changes, the format of this study is mainly based on asimilar study done in Africa (Etta and Parvyn-Wamahiu, 2002). The study addressedthree major issues and corresponding specific questions:

(1) access;

(2) relevance (utility and usefulness of services and the suitability of contents andapplications to community needs); and

(3) management and sustainability

The following research questions formed the basis of the investigations:

. What is the nature of access to ICTs within the Nanasalas?

. How relevant (i.e. useful and appropriate) are the services, content andapplications offered or available at the Nanasalas to community members andhow well do they (services, content and applications) meet community needs?

. How the management is going to contribute to the sustainability of Nanasalasafter phasing out of subsidies?

4. Key findings4.1 Access4.1.1 Usage. More than 90 per cent of Nanasala users are youths and adults youngerthan 35 years of age. Students and school-leavers are among them. Around four to fiveNanasalas in the sample get tourists as their users. The data analysed suggests thatthe majority of users are disadvantaged on the basis of education, literacy level andsocial status. The majority of the Nanasalas get around four to 12 visitors per day. The

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centres that offer free use through student voucher schemes receive 15-40 visitorsdaily. A small percentage of users made more than one visit per day. The most activeor frequent users belong to the 12-25 age group. Compared to males, female users areslightly lower (4 per cent). It was observed throughout this survey that older peoplewere not among the users. The survey data disclosed that only a small percentage ofthe total population are aware of Nanasalas and use the facilities offered by them.

Level of education and socioeconomic background are vital factors in the use ofNanasala services. The general belief among the majority (more than 80 per cent) ofrespondents was that other than for telephone calls and photocopies, services like theinternet are for the educated and the elite. Since centres close to educational institutessuch as universities and teacher training colleges had higher usage statistics, thisappears to support this view. The other crucial factor affecting usage is language.According to the majority of respondents, as they understand only native languageslike Sinhala they have not benefited from the services like the internet and e-mail. Ofthe total population of the country, 70 per cent is in rural areas. Of this 70 per cent, themajority are not familiar with the English language. Therefore, Sinhala- andTamil-speaking people are disadvantaged.

Even though the Nanasala (RKCs) programme is running under the slogan “Globalknowledge to the village”, and the ultimate aim of establishing Nanasalas is to providea catalytic effect for rural communities in poverty reduction and social and economicdevelopment, this has not been addressed properly through the programme. If ruralcommunities have access to material chiefly in English while they chiefly use Sinhalaor Tamil, this situation will not change.

Although ICTA has conducted 3-5 day and one-week training programmes forNanasala operators on management aspects, discussions held with owners, managersand other workers disclosed that most Nanasala centres are experiencing variousmanagement problems such as technical skills and poor attitudes. Again the surveydata suggests that level of education and socioeconomic background matters, not onlyfor users but also for the owners of the centres. Out of the total sample only threecentres were functioning well, providing many services in a methodical manner. Eventhough owners of these centres are full-time workers in other organisations, since theirjobs are computer-related their knowledge in IT has greatly contributed towards thesmooth functioning of the centre. Further, observations confirmed that when peoplewho are running the centre have computer hardware knowledge, those centres functionmore effectively.

Many respondents – operators as well as users – disclosed that there are manycyber-cafes situated close to Nanasalas, and therefore users have a wide choice.Moreover, communication centres offer many other services like lamination andbinding services, and sometimes for lower charges. According to respondents theNanasala centres (RKC models) still get very few customers, with those who do usethem doing so mostly for internet use and mainly because Nanasala centres offer fastconnection via satellites.

4.1.2 Services. RKC Nanasalas are provided with four computers, one or twocomputers with a CD-writer, multi-functional equipment which can be used as acomputer printer, photocopier, scanner and fax machine (usually known as afour-in-one), and a satellite connection for the internet and for two telephone-lines

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(VoIP). e-Library Nanasalas are provided with 2-4 computers (mostly two), a printer, ascanner, and a satellite connection for the internet and for two telephone lines (VoIP). Ingeneral the services offered by Nanasala centres include telephone, fax, photocopying,scanning, computer printing, word-processing, internet, e-mail (just to use their ownweb accounts) and computer training courses on application software like MS Office.Although there is wide range of services offered by the centres, their level of use isextremely low. According to the survey data, the most popular service is computertraining courses, while the second most popular service is the internet. However, datarevealed that except for very few centres, most of the instructors have only followedshort courses – mostly of less than one year and part-time courses – on applicationsoftware packages like MS Word. Also, it was observed during the survey that therewas a lack of adequate content, as there is no network or coordination among Nanasalacentres to ensure that a common syllabus is used. As explained earlier, the reasonbehind the popularity of their internet service is the speed of the connection. Althoughmost of the nearby cyber cafes have dial-up connections, people prefer Nanasalas sincethey have much faster satellite connections.

ICTA introduced voucher schemes with the objectives (Information andCommunication Technology Agency, 2004b) of stimulating the use of ICT-basedservices by the residents of communities where the Nanasalas are situated, to provideaccess to ICT-based services at affordable cost to vulnerable groups, and to provide anadditional source of revenue for the Nanasalas. Under this scheme the Nanasala issuesvouchers to users to use computers free of charge and the Nanasala can getreimbursement from ICTA. However, the owners and operators of many suchNanasala centres claimed that for two months they had not received anyreimbursement from the ICTA. Moreover, they complained that this scheme hadbrought them an additional burden for the operation of the centre. Due to free vouchers,the usage of computers has increased, with most of the time students occupying thelimited number of computers and access being denied to others. As a result, they losetheir paying customers.

A small percentage of centres were given a web camera; it was reported that manyof these centres have never used them.

Although it was stated that ICTA would make available computer-based training(CBT) media to use off-line in Sinhala, Tamil and English as well as a large e-library ofbooks and periodicals for the use of students of all ages (Information andCommunication Technology Agency, 2004b), the survey data confirmed that none ofthe e-Library centres have been given such materials or offer these services.

4.2 Obstacles to use4.2.1 Location. During the survey it was observed that many e-Libraries that aresituated in extremely remote places, especially those located at temples, were notfunctioning properly. The explanation for this appears to be that when the person incharge – generally a priest – is not there, nobody has access to the centre. Theresearcher encountered this problem at many centres during visit. It was alsodiscovered during survey visits that at some centres, even though they have providedan e-Library, none of the people in the temple were aware of how to use the servicesoffered. Moreover, it was also discovered that two of RKC Nanasalas in the research

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sample were continuously closed for more than a day. It was observed during thesurvey that the majority of Nanasala centres are maintained under poor physicalconditions. The majority of centres are located in a small floor area within the owner’shouse, or in a small area where some other business is also taking place.

4.2.2 Lack of awareness and publicity among community. The Nanasala operatorshighlighted lack of publicity as one of the main reasons for the low usage of services.Although the ICTA telecasts a weekly programme on one of the television channels,since it is telecast in the early evening it does not reach its desired clients. Also, somerespondents disclosed that this particular channel cannot be viewed in certain areas ofthe country. Therefore, even if ICTA spends a considerable amount of money onpublicity and awareness programmes, it seems that the purpose has not been servedand their efforts are poorly targeted. Moreover, the researcher also experienced a lackof awareness among communities about Nanasalas when trying to find the physicallocations of Nanasala centres for the survey.

4.2.3 Lack of technical and management skills. Except for a very few (n ¼ 55) mostNanasala operators are young people who have passed GCE Advanced Levelexaminations and have followed part-time courses (mostly less than one year) onapplication software packages like MS Office. Observations confirmed that, due to thelack of proper training, most were not able to handle troubleshooting, especially onhardware aspects. Hence, even for a minor problem they have to depend on the outsidetechnicians, which incurs considerable time and cost. The data gathered suggests thatoperators are poorly paid, in most cases depending on the income the Nanasalagenerates.

4.2.4 Equipment, maintenance and supplies. The equipment used by the Nanasala isprovided for use for five years and is eventually then transferred to the ownership ofthe centre. Connectivity is also subsidised over a four-year period reducing in value (i.e.100 per cent years 1 and 2, 66.67 per cent in year 3 and 33.3 per cent in year 4) for aperiod of five years by the ICTA (Information and Communication TechnologyAgency, 2004d). The survey data confirmed that the technology is already beginning toencounter technical problems and some operators complained that since the day theywere provided with computers they have not operated properly. It was evident that thehigh cost of supplies and maintenance (e.g. cost of computers, cartridges and toner forprinters, electricity, telephones, getting technicians or sending equipment to assignedsuppliers for repairs or maintenance) was a severe problem that affected use. BecauseNanasalas were given voice over IP, local call charges are very high. For this reasonoperators were not able to pay high bills and connections were disabled at mostcentres. Moreover, even if they have the connection, Nanasala operators do not useVoIP connection for local calls. The common practice of getting technicians fromgeographically distant places, for either routine maintenance or repairs, or sendingthem to assigned vendors, was a constant and heavy burden to carry. High electricitybills also affect the cost. An unstable satellite connection, and in some areas frequentinterruption to electricity, were also among the reasons for low usage. All theseimpediments affected usage greatly.

4.2.5 Cost of services. Except for local telephone charges using VoIP, costs for theother services are approximately similar to, or sometimes less than, other cyber-cafes.However, according to operators, once the subsidy is phased out they will not be in a

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position to provide services at the current rates. Maintenance of multi-functionalequipment is very especially high; they are not able to produce photocopies at a lowerprice, while other cyber-cafes that use ordinary photocopiers charge a very much lowerrate. (Some operators called this equipment a “white elephant”.) These costs are usuallyreflected in service charges. During the survey it was found that some centres have hadto stop photocopying services because they have already run out of the toner that theyreceived initially with the machine. Since the price of toner is very high and the cost percopy is also extremely high, unless they increase prices, they will not be able to covercosts. As there are plenty of cheaper places that offer the service at a lower cost, theylose customers.

4.2.6 Level of literacy and language. It the general belief that Nanasala centres offerservices for educated people and are not accessible to less educated people, especiallythose who are not competent in English or have limited literacy skills. Therefore, otherthan for telephone calls and photocopies people do not see any usefulness in thesecentres, as there are many places in the localities that provide these other services.

4.3 Relevance of services and the suitability of content and applications to communityneedsAccording to the survey data, the main reasons for using Nanasala centres were tofollow computer courses and to use the internet. The internet was mainly used byyoung people to check and send e-mails, and for entertainment purposes such asplaying games. Use of the internet for professional and economic purposes wasextremely low. Respondents (users as well as operators) disclosed that when they canobtain examination results through the web, then they use the internet. Many youngpeople, especially school-leavers, use computers for word-processing purposes such asto prepare their resumes and to apply for jobs. Use of the internet to obtain informationon agriculture, fishing, and other businesses was not common at all. It was revealedduring the survey that only two Nanasala (RKC) centres are engaged in such services.These two centres collect information relevant to that particular community and aboutthe area, such as climatic conditions and health information, and make them availablein local language. The owners of one of the centres are three youths who were attachedto a prominent civil society organisation called “Sarvodaya”. The other owner is acomputer instructor attached to a government vocational training institute.

4.4 Management and sustainabilityAs is common to many other projects, the sustainability of Nanasalas is questionableat present. The survey data confirms that all Nanasalas are highly (100 per cent)dependent on subsidies provided by the ICTA. Although they are aware of the phasingout of subsidies, none of the owners or managers has a plan for survival. ManyNanasalas are already facing problems such as computer failures, printer breakdowns,and non-functioning, obsolete or unusable equipment. Even though the Nanasala arepopular for the internet, the majority of owners stressed that they are not in a positionto fund the connectivity fee once subsidies reduce from the third year onwards.

5. Recommendations and conclusionsEarlier attempts (e.g. Kothmale Community Radio Project, Govi Gnana Kendra Project)that were initiated to take ICT to the rural community presented an important warning

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about sustainability (Wattegama, 2004). As can already be seen in the Nanasalaproject, and as confirmed by the survey data, this will remain one of the biggestchallenges. As the project cannot run for ever on external funding and subsidies, it isessential to find ways and means in which Nanasala centres can bring in the necessaryincome in order to sustain their operations. The findings of the survey confirmed thelow usage of Nanasala services. Introducing just Nanasala Rural Knowledge Centresand Nanasala e-Libraries will definitely not help rural communities to get the best outof ICT/the internet. The more important issue will be what sort of benefits the ruralcommunity can gain from such centres and how convenient and economical ICT can bewith compared to the traditional ways they are used to. The content or information thatcan be offered through Nanasalas plays a pivotal role in this regard.

Based on the study findings, the following recommendations can be made:. Nanasala services greatly need improvement. It is important to consider the

needs of the rural community and reasons for their non-use of services whenestablishing Nanasala centres. If services can be offered accordingly, usage canbe improved.

. Careful selection of locations with considerable physical space and facilities (i.e.booths for privacy).

. Since libraries are engaged in information business, are capable of handling andproviding information, and are engaged in community services, establishingNanasalas with the collaboration of public libraries and providing Nanasalaservices through public libraries are highly recommended. A good public librarynetwork already exists within the country and represents a basic infrastructurewhich can be built upon and developed (Bowden and Gamage, 2003).

. It is essential to increase the awareness of Nanasalas and their services amongcommunities. This could be done through the use of handbills, TVadvertisements during peak hours, radio broadcasts of services, and thedesign and delivery of interactive services.

. Lack of recognition about Nanasalas among other organisations and institutionsin society seemed to be a problem for Nanasala operators when trying to attractclients and implement outreach programmes/services. Hence, it is important toissue some sort of identification for them (i.e. an identity card issued by ICTA).

. Most Nanasalas earn considerable income through computer classes. It would behelpful to design a common syllabus and to ensure consistency in course content,etc., for use in the courses offered by Nanasalas, and to make the necessaryarrangements to issue a joint certificate.

. It is important to identify community needs and make content and informationavailable in local languages as well as off-line. It is essential for internet-basedservices to be user-friendly for the rural community. Translation into locallanguages should be encouraged and actively supported.

. Rather than providing a certain set of equipment to all centres, depending on theneeds of the each centre, affordable and cost effective equipment should beprovided, especially connectivity. It was noticed that many centres have not usedsome equipment such as web cameras at all. Many operators expressed their

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concern on equipment such as photocopiers, laminating machines and spiralbinding where there is demand for such services.

. Efforts should be made to have proper arrangements/agreements withvendors/suppliers for regular maintenance. A technical team should bedeveloped from the respective areas to attend to problems.

. Financial and technical management training should be provided on a regularbasis for Nanasala operators.

If the needs of the rural communities are not correctly identified and solutions are notfound immediately to ensure sustainability, then the huge amount of money investedon bridging the digital divide will definitely be a waste. Further the objectives of thewhole project will fail to deliver the changes set by government.

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About the authorsAfter having worked in two different university libraries in Sri Lanka, since 1997 PremilaGamage (MLS, University of Colombo) ASLLA, MCILIP, has worked as Librarian of the Instituteof Policy Studies, which is the leading institute in economic and policy research in Sri Lanka.During her 21-year career as a librarian, she has been involved in most of the classical and

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professional activities of librarianship and library management, focusing, in the last 14 years, onlibrary automation and networking. Among her research interests are community informationdissemination through e-governance portals, information provision for disadvantaged groups,and societal application of simple ICTs for awareness among rural citizens. She serves as aVisiting Lecturer at the National Institute of Library and Information Sciences, University ofColombo, Sri Lanka. She is Secretary of the IFLA Regional Standing Committee for Asia andOceania and Vice-President of the Sri Lanka Library Association. Premila Gamage is thecorresponding author and can be contacted at: premila@ips.lk

Edward F. Halpin MA, MCLIP, is Associate Dean in the Leslie Silver International Faculty atLeeds Metropolitan University. He has a background in politics, community development andsocial informatics. He has a number of publications on e-government and has researched the useof information and ICTs for human and child rights, including work as an expert for theEuropean Parliament Scientific and Technical Options (STOA) Unit. This work has involvedhim in working alongside organisations such as Save the Children, the Child Rights InformationNetwork (CRIN) and Amnesty International. He has published widely on these subjects,including the book Human Rights and the Internet (Palgrave, 2000) and co-edited the recentlypublished book Cyberwar, Netwar, and the Revolution in Military Affairs (Palgrave, 2006).

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