Early and Middle Childhood

Week 2Lecturer: A. Oojorah

Early Childhood

• Age 2-6• Child development influenced by– Status– Siblings– Home– Social environment– Child rearing style

Early Childhood

• Developmental tasks– Walking– School readiness– Memory, theory of the mind, numerical ability– Language and communication skills have to be expanded– Emotional control– Self-concept clearly defined– Gender role identity– Socialisation– Moral development

Early Childhood

• Physical development – Height and mass– Muscle and bone growth– Teeth– Brain development – Perceptual development– Motor development

Early Childhood

• Cognitive development– Memory • Working memory

– Memory span increases

• Semantic memory – General knowledge– Domain-specific knowledge

• Episodic or autobiographical memory– Need retrieval cues

Early Childhood

• Cognitive development– Memory strategies• Rehearsal• Organisation• Retrieval strategies

Early Childhood

• Numerical ability– Unable of number conservation [Piaget]– Gelman[1978]

• One-one principle– Every item counted should be assigned one name

• Stable order principle– Numbers should always be said in same order– 2-4 yrs tend to skip

• Cardinal principle – If 3 was last number, 3 is the number of items in the set

• Abstraction principle– Everything can be counted

Early Childhood

• Metacognition– Knowledge of cognition• Knowing strengths and weaknesses• Knowing about cognitive tasks, requirements• Knowing about strategies to use when executing

cognitive tasks

Early Childhood

• Language development– Functions of language• Communication• Socialization• Establish and maintain relationships• Demarcate the world into perceptual and conceptual

categories• Represent the world• Make inferences and deductions

Early Childhood

• Language development– Language acquisition• Piaget – thinking develops before language• Vygostsky – thinking and language develop

independently

Early Childhood

• School Readiness– How do you evaluate?– What to evaluate?• Cognitive development, physical-motor development,

socio-emotional

– School readiness programmes

Early Childhood

• Personality Development – Phallic stage of psychosexual development [Freud]– Development of initiative [Erikson] – Increased emotional control

• Spontaneous expression of interest• Fear – specific objects or situation• Anxiety – vague situations

– Development of self-concept• Preschoolers establish a categorical self• Degree of self acceptance important• Social acceptance [people like me] – skills [I can do things]

Early Childhood

• Social development– Caregivers

• Strong attachment

– Siblings • Ambivalent feelings

– Peers• Development of friendship• Imaginary friends

– Play • Most important aspect of social interaction

– Socialization • Socialization agents

Middle Childhood

• Developmental Tasks– Further refinement of motor skills– The consolidation of gender role identity– The development of various cognitive skills– The extension of knowledge– The extension of social participation– The acquisition of greater self knowledge– The further development of moral judgment &

behaviour

Middle Childhood

• Physical development– Rapid growth of arms & legs– The brain reaches adult size and weight– Respiratory system functions more economically– Milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth– Gender differences • Motor activities – boys develop faster

– Socio-economic differences

Middle Childhood

• Cognitive development – Piaget - concrete operational stage– Memory

• Working memory– If processing speed increase, more info processed at same time– Memory span – 5 chunks for 5 yr old, 6 chunks for 9 yr olds

• Semantic memory – School children are taught many facts, rules and words– Paiget & Inhelder [1973] semantic memory influences ability to

memorise – Information in semantic memory can be used to place incoming

information

Middle Childhood

• Cognitive development– Memory• Episodic/autobiographical behaviour

– Memory for personally experienced event– Children remember self performed events rather than

observed

Middle Childhood

• Language development – Length and complexity of sentences incrooo hoot

ease – Can understand metaphorical language

Middle Childhood

• Personality development– Self Concept– Emotional Development • From egocentrism to sensitivity towards others

Middle Childhood

• Social development– The role of the family• Parenting styles play an important role• Familial problems can upset child

– The peer group• Development of friendship• Issues of popularity

Middle Childhood

• Moral Development– Psychoanalytic• Development of conscience, superego

– Social Learning Theories • Moral behaviour is learnt• Modeling of adult behaviour

– Cognitive development theories• Moral development based on understanding of a

situation

Middle Childhood

• Moral Development [L. Kohlberg’s Theory]– Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)

• 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) • 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?)

– Level 2 (Conventional) • 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) (The good

boy/good girl attitude) • 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order

morality)

– Level 3 (Post-Conventional) • 5. Social contract orientation • 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)

European views on childhood

• John Comenius• John Locke• Jean Jacques Rousseau• Johann Pestalozzi• Freidrich Froebel• Maria Montessori• Rodolf Steiner

John Amos Comenius1592-1670

• Fostered the belief that education should “follow the natural order of things”

• Children’s development follows a timetable of its own and their education should reflect that fact

• Children should be allowed to learn at their own pace• Learning by doing• Three most important contributions are:– Books with illustrations– Education with the senses– Social reform-educate the poor as well as the rich

John Locke1632-1714

• Considered to be the founder of modern educational philosophy• Fostered the idea of “tabula rosa”-the belief that the child is born neutral,

rather then evil, and is a “clean slate’ of which experiences are written• One of the first to discuss individual differences and that education needs

to take the individual learner into account• Three most important contributions are:

– Individual differences– Giving children reasons– Theory of the “clean slate’

Jean Jacques Rousseau1712-1778

• Theorized a revolutionary idea-that children were “naturally good” and that education should reflect this goodness and allow spontaneous interests and activities of the children

• The true object of education should not be vocational• Children really only learn from first hand knowledge• Distinct phases of development of a child’s mind and these should

coincide with the various stages of education• Most important contributions

– Free play– Children’s inherent goodness and ability to choose what they need to learn– Using concrete rather than abstract materials

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi1746-1827

• Stressed the idea of “integrated curriculum” that would develop the whole child

• Education should be the “hand, head and heart of the child”• Proposed teaching in groups as opposed to using a tutor with an

individual child• Blending of Rousseau’s romantic ideals with his own egalitarian attitude

that built skills and independence in an atmosphere much like that of a firm and loving home

• Most important contributions– Integrated curriculum– Group teaching

Freidrich Wilhelm Froebel1782-1852

• Advocated the radical thought that children should be able to play, to have toys, and to be with trained teachers

• Developed the first educational toys• “Father of Kindergarten”• Child’s first educational experiences should be a garden full of pleasant

discoveries and delightful adventures• Most important contributions

– Organization of educational thought– Ideas about learning, curriculum, and teacher training

Maria Montessori• First female physician in Italy• Montessori concept is both a philosophy of child development and a plan for

guiding growth believing that education begins at birth and the early years are of the utmost importance

• “Sensitive periods’ in which children’s curiosity makes them ready for acquiring certain skills and knowledge

• Great emphasis on the environment– A sense of order– A place for everything– A clear rationale

• Most important contributions– A prepared environment– Self-correcting and sequential materials– Teaching based on observation– A trust in children’ innate ability to learn

Rudolf Steiner1861-1925

• A German educator whose method of education is known today as the Waldorf School of Education

• Childhood is a phase of life important into its own self and has three periods:– The “will” (0-7)– The “heart” (7-14)– The “head” (14+0)

• Child has a natural willingness to learn and initiate and the classroom needs to support this self-regulation

• Emphasized the whole child• Most important contribution is the thought that the people with whom

the child interacts are of central importance

John Dewey:1858-1952

• The Progressive movement– Children are valuable and childhood is an

important part of their lives– Belief in the innate goodness of children and

education should be integrated with life and provide a training ground for cooperative living

– Child-oriented schools

Non-traditional PerspectivesPerspective Roots In Early Childhood

Practice

Harmony Asian Provide an unhurried environment; be aware of tension spots

Kinship networks

African Encourage family participation; make family trees

Ties with nature Native American

Provide strong outdoor program, include nature walks

Respect for elders

Pacific islands

Invite elders into class; include in dramatic play, puzzles, books; manners

Cooperative work

Hispanic Encourage small group projects, teamwork, older children helping, familial ties

Expressiveness Europ-Am Encourage self-expression; teach about feelings and how to show

Child Development Theory

• Psychosocial Theory-Freud, Erikson• Behaviorist Theory-Watson, Skinner

Thorndike, Bloom, Bandura• Cognitive Theory-Piaget• Sociohistoric Theory-Vygotsky• Multiple Intelligences-Gardner• Maturation Theory-Gesell, • Humanist-Maslow

Psychosocial Theory

• Emphasize the critical importance of relationships with people and the sequence, or stages, of personality development

• About personality and emotional development• Life is a series of stages through which each person

passes, with each stage growing from the previous ones• Personality and emotional development of utmost

importance, even more so than language, perception or cognitive development

Psycho-social Theory-Erikson

• Development is described in terms of eight stages that span childhood and adulthood, each offering opportunities for personality growth and development. Each stage focuses on specific tasks that need to emerge for healthy development in each stage.

Age Stage Focus/Strength

Birth-18 months

Trust vs. mistrust

Needs must be met consistentlyHope

18 months-3 years

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

IndependenceWillpower

3-5 years Initiative vs. guilt

Exploration and learning about the world. Rules and expectations are establishedPurpose

6-12 years Industry vs. inferiority

The development of competence

Behaviorist Theory-Skinner, Watson, Thorndike, Bandura

• Based on tabula rasa-”clean slate”• “Stimulus-response” technique wherein a stimulus

will recall a response in a person this forms learned habits

• All behavior is under the control of one or more aspects of the environment

• Terms associated with behaviorism:classical conditioning; operant conditioning; positive reinforcer, negative reinforcer, modeling

Behaviorist Learning Process

ClassicalConditioning

OperantConditioning

SocialLearning

Kind ofbehavior

Reflexive Voluntary Voluntary

Type oflearning

Learningthroughassociation

Learningthroughreinforcement

Learningthroughobservationand imitation

Role of thelearner

Passive Active orPassive

Active

Cognitive Theory-Piaget

• Also called “constructionist” because he believed that children “construct” their knowledge through experiences

• Higher skills are developed through developmental stages

• Relies on maturational and environmental factors• Thinking and learning is a process of interaction

between the learner and the environment• Terms associated with Cognitive theory: assimilation,

accommodation, equilibration, schemas

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Stage of Development Approximate Age

Sensori-motor Key concept-Object Permanence

Birth-2 years

Preoperational Key Concept-Symbolic play and language

2-6 or 7 years

Concrete Operational Reasoning

6-12 years

Formal Operational 12 years to adulthood

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Age Stage BehaviorsBirth-18 months Sensorimotor Learn through senses

Learn through reflexesManipulate materials

18 months-6 years Preoperational Form ideas based on their perceptionsCan only focus on one variable at a timeOvergeneralize based on limited experience

6 years-12 years Concrete Operational

Form ideas based on reasoningLimit thinking to objects and familiar events

12 years and older Fomal operations Think conceptually and hypothetically

Sociohistorical Theory-Vygotsky

• Focuses on how values, beliefs, skills and traditions are transmitted to the next generation

• The connection between culture and development is paramount-especially between the child and other important people in their lives

• Emphasized play, family and social interaction as primary influences in children’s lives

• Zone of proximal development-the belief that a child on the edge of learning a new concept can benefit from the interaction with a teacher or a classmate

• Learning and development are interrelated from the child’s very first day of life

Multiple Intelligences Theory-Gardner

• Intelligence is the ability to solve a problem or to create a product that is in culture.

• Solving a problem includes the ability to do so in a a particular cultural setting or community.

• The skill needed or developed depends on the context in which the child lives.

Multiple Intelligences

• Music• Bodily-Kinesthetic• Logical-Mathmatical• Linguistic• Spatial• Interpersonal• Intrapersonal• Naturalist

Maturation Theory -Gesell

• Physical and mental growth are determined by heredity

• Maturation sequence occurs in a predictable stable and orderly way.

• Growth is genetically determined from birth• Two vital points to remember– The sequence of development is universal, the rate at

which a child moves through the stages varies tremendously

– Growth is uneven. Children grow in spurts.

Humanistic Theory-Maslow

• Focuses on what people need to become and stay healthy.

• Centered on people’s needs, goals and successes• Based on a hierarchy (or pyramid) of basic and

growth needs

Application of Theories• Montessori Programs• The Bank Street Approach:

– Developmental Interactionist • The Cognitively Oriented Approach:

– Based on the theory of Piaget and revolves around activities that help children learn specific cognitive concepts

• The Bereiter-Englemann Approach:– Behavior theory and uses a direct-instruction approach

• The Reggio-Emilia Approach– Designed to foster interactions, exploration, and problem solving