Genderedmobilityandmulti-scalargovernancemodels:Exploringthecaseofnursemigrationfromsouth

IndiatotheGulfMargaretWalton-Roberts(WilfridLaurier

University),S.IrudayaRajan(CentreforDevelopmentStudies,TrivandrumKerala)

andJolinJoseph(YorkUniversity)

NEWDIRECTIONSINSOUTH-SOUTHMIGRATION19TH–20THNOVEMBER2019

Overview•  Experiencesofskilledmigrantwomenremainunder-theorised

(Raghuram,2000).•  Increasinglydiverseandcomplexpatternoffemalemigration

emerging;skilllevel,destination,occupationalsector,espinnursing(WHO2017).

•  Nursesalariesremainlow(rangingbetweenRs.13,000-15,000,approximativelyUS$186-215permonth)evenamongreputedhospitalchains(MEA,2017a).ThisdespitetheCentralgovernment’smandatetoincreasenursecompensationinprivatehospitalsinIndia(Chhapia,2016).

•  Wagedifferentialsbetweendomesticandoverseasemployment-areuptofivetimes(MEA,2017a),andthedesireforprofessionalautonomyandcareerdevelopmentopportunitiesspurnursestoseekopportunitiesabroad(Walton-Robertsetal.,2017).

•  FemalemigrationfromIndiatotheGulfCooperationCountries(GCC)increasedfrom0.7millionin1990risingto1.6millionin2013.

GovernanceofnursemigrationfromIndia

•  Since2015themigrationofnursesfromIndiatotheGulfcooperationcountries(GCC)hasbeenmanagedthroughthesystemof“EmigrationClearanceRequired”(ECR)routedthroughselectpublicsectoragencies.ECRistypicallyonlyappliedtolowskilledmigrationflowstoGulfnations(KumarandRajan,2015).

•  Thisrecentpolicychangeisaimedatcontrollingpredominatelyfemalemigrationinthenursingoccupation.

•  Sincethispolicyhasbeenintroduced,thenumbersofnursesheadingtotheGulfinitiallydeclined,butrecentsurveysofmigrantsintheGulfregionsuggestnumbersmaybehigher(RajanandJoseph,2017).

•  TheextensionofECRtonursesstructuresandlimitsformalmigrationoptionsfromIndiatotheGulf,butinformalmigrationpathwaysarewidespread.

PolicyFrameworkRelevanttotheTrainingandMigrationofNurses

•  EducationandTraining:PrivatisedandExportOriented.•  NationalMigrationFrameworkmovingtowardgreater

monitoringandgovernment-to-governmentrecruitment.•  Goalistoensuretherecruitmentecosystemiseffectively

monitored,transparent,andfreefromcorruption.•  SectoralMigrationPolicy-nurserecruitmenttoECRnations

routedexclusivelyviasixgovernment-mandatedpublicsectoragencies.

•  InternationalInstruments(WHOcode,SDG,Migrantconventions)relevant,butinteractionwithIOs(suchasUN)minimalundernewemigrationgovernance(AkhilandAarathi2019).

NurseMigrationIndustry•  Nursemigrationrifewithdeception,

manipulation,andexploitationleadingtounsafeworkingconditions(Walton-Roberts&Rajan,2013).

•  2015arrestoftheProtectorofEmigrants,Kochi,forcollusionwithprivaterecruiters,financialfraud,andextortioninnursingrecruitmentscam(IndiaTimesJune,2015).

•  MigrationapprovalprocesstransitionedfromanationalnetworkofProtectorofEmigrant(PoE)officestopublicsectoragencies(nowsix).

•  Resultedinbacklogsandinstitutionaloverburdening(Akhil&Aarathi,2019).

eMigrate•  eMigratesystemintroduced2015•  Thise-Governancetooloffersanonline

registrationportalforECRworkers,recruitingagents,andforeignemployers.

•  TheelectronicplatformisintegratedwiththePassportSevaProject(PSP),aswellaswiththeBureauofImmigration(BoI)oftheMinistryofHomeAffairsusedatImmigrationCheckPost(ICP)atairports.

•  StringenttermsandconditionsappliedtoregisteredForeignEmployerspermittedtorecruitnursesthroughprivaterecruiters,whichhavetobevettedbytheGoIandapprovedthrougha‘CountrySpecificOrder’(CSO).

ECRcountries•  Afghanistan,Iraq,Indonesia,Jordan,Libya,Lebanon,

Malaysia,YemenBahrain,Kuwait,Oman,Qatar,Sudan,Syria,Thailand,UAE(GCCinbold)

ImpactofECRonNurseMigratoryFlows

•  NumberofIndiannursesintheMiddleEastdeclinesfrom20,000to12,000between2013and2015.

•  By2017thedestinationsincludedallcountriesoftheECRwith3,326Indiannursesemployed.ThiswasfollowedbyQatarwith350nursesandKuwaitwith118workers,thisis10%orlessoftheoutsizedtotalsdirectedtoSaudiArabia.

•  NumbersofIndianmigrantstounderECRhavedroppedinto2018,butincreasedfromBangladesh,suggestingeMigratehascreatedbarriers(RajanandAggarwal,June182019).

MigrationisconcentratedfromthesouthernstatesincludingKerala(WHO,2017),TamilNadu(Rajanet.al,2017)andKarnataka

STATE 2015* 2016 2017 2018*

ANDHRAPRADESH - 57 17 45

DELHI - 37 25 46

KARNATAKA 7 110 70 93

KERALA 184 4111 3611 4719

MAHARASHTRA 1 67 58 83

TAMILNADU 5 330 242 435

TELANGANA - 71 43 81

TOTAL*

(allstates)

197 4858 4123 5562

Table 1: State-wise emigration of nurses under ECR (May2015 – Nov 2018)

Note: Data sourced through the Right to Information Act in 2018

COUNTRY 2015* 2016 2017 2018*

BAHRAIN- - 55 81

JORDAN- - 60 10

KUWAIT - 7 118 221

OMAN 16 31 114 134

QATAR 1 2 353 536

SAUDIARABIA- 4556 3326 4460

UAE 180 262 97 120

TOTAL

197 4858 4123 5562

Table 2: Country-Wise Figures of Indian Nurses Granted Emigration Clearance from May 2015- Nov 2018 Note: Data retrieved from MEA archives (MEA 2017b).

PolicyConsequenceswithinIndiaandintheGCCLabourMarket

•  Increasingvulnerabilitythroughindividualisingmigrationgovernance-ratherthansystemchangetoemploymentconditionsinIndia.

•  RiskofoversupplyofnursesinIndiaafterECRrestrictionsimposed.

•  Impactonmigrantdestinationsandroutes,withnursesbypassingECRbymovingbetweenGCCnations.

•  Reinforcinggenderedperceptionofnursing(protectwomen)despitemalenursenumbersincreasing.

•  ReferralwageratenotsetinrelationtootherS.Asiannations-potentialtooutpriceIndiannurses.

•  Morebilateralagreementsincludingnursinglaboure.g.UAE-Indiaintegratedportals.

Conclusion•  Fraudandexploitationconcernsresultinnursing’sinclusioninECRcontrol.

•  ECRagenciesvaryintheirconnectionwithCSOandIOs,processseenasmore‘governmentthangovernance’.

•  Limitedgovernmentagencypathwaysresultinbacklogs.•  Mustunderstandtheinformalroutesbeingusedinordertounderstandtruescaleofmigration.

•  Numbershavedeclined2018,butdatanotcomplete.•  LimitedefforttoimprovesalaryandworkingconditionsinIndiatoaddresssystemicdriversofmigration.

•  Limitedengagementwithmulti-lateralmigrantrightsconventionsinGoImigrationpolicydevelopment.