Germany in Transition 1919–39

GERMANY IN TRANSITION

1919–39Steve Waugh • John WrightSeries editor: R. Paul Evans

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CONTENTS

1 The impact of the First World War 6The Weimar Government and its weaknesses 6The impact of the Treaty of Versailles 8Political instability 10Events in the Ruhr and hyperinflation 13

2 The recovery of Weimar 15Recovery from hyperinflation 15Successes abroad 18Social and political developments 19

3 The Nazi rise to power and the end of the Weimar Republic 22The early Nazi Party, 1919–23 22The Munich Putsch 25The Nazi Party, 1924–29 28The impact of the depression 29Reasons for the growing support for the Nazis 32Hitler’s electoral appeal 36Political scheming 1932–33 38

4 Consolidation of power 40The Reichstag fire 40The 1933 election and the Enabling Act 42The removal of opposition 43The Night of the Long Knives 44Hitler becomes Führer 46

5 Nazi economic, social and racial policy 47Attempts to reduce unemployment 47Nazi policy towards workers 49The role of women 51Controlling education 55The Hitler Youth Movement 56The treatment of the Jews 58

6 Terror and persuasion 64The use of the SS and the Gestapo 64Control of the legal system 68Goebbels and propaganda 69Censorship of newspapers and the arts 71

7 Hitler’s foreign policy 72Hitler’s foreign policy aims 72Hitler’s policies 1933–35 73The Rhineland 1936 76Alliances 1936–37 78Anschluss 79The Sudetenland Crisis, 1938 82The Nazi–Soviet Pact 1939 and the outbreak of war 86

Examination Guidance 88

Glossary 96

Index 98

3

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1 The impact of the First World War

The Weimar Government and its weaknessesOn 9 November Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the German

throne due to his waning support and fled to Holland. As a

result, a new German Republic was declared and Chancellor

Friedrich Ebert accepted the armistice that ended the First

World War. Many Germans saw the ending of the war as

a betrayal of the German army (Reichswehr). From its very

beginning, therefore, many Germans, especially those in

the army, despised the new Republic. In the final weeks of

1918 there were attacks on the new German government

from the left and the right. Elections for a Constituent Assembly were held on 19 January 1919. The most important

result of the January elections was that no single party had

a majority of seats. This meant there would have to be a

coalition government. After the elections, it was decided

that Berlin was too dangerous a place for the members of the

Constituent Assembly to meet. Therefore, the decision was

taken to meet in the more peaceful surroundings of the town

of Weimar (hence the eventual name of the new republic).

The Weimar ConstitutionFollowing the abdication of the Kaiser, a new constitution

had to be drawn up; this was finalised in August 1919. This

was the first time that Germany had experienced democracy.

Figure 1.1 below shows how the Constitution was organised

and Source A shows some of its key articles.

On 11 November 1918, the armistice was signed bringing an end to fighting in the First World War (1914–18). The setting up of the Weimar Republic did not signal peace for Germany. The five years after the war were chaotic and the Republic faced a host of challenges including an attempted communist revolution, political assassinations, Putsches (armed uprisings) and massive inflation. Above all, Germans had to accept what they felt was a vindictive peace settlement – the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans said that all the problems of the post-war years were the result of the decisions that had been made by the politicians of the new Weimar Republic.

Article 48President could suspend the Constitution in an emergency. He could make laws and keep

the support of the Reichstag.

President was supreme commander of the army.

President could dismiss and call new elections.

PresidentElected every seven years.

Army

Reichstag421 members (1919)647 members (1933)Elected every four years. More important than the Reichsrat.Could make laws. Chancellor had to have support of majority of its members.

VotersMen and women over the age of 20.

Reichsrat55 representatives from the 18 German states. Could not make laws, but could approve laws proposed by the Chancellor and the Reichstag.

ChancellorChosen by President. Had to have support of a majority of the Reichstag.

Figure 1.1: The organisation of the Weimar Constitution

6



Strengths of the new ConstitutionThe new Constitution had several strengths:

■ In some ways the laws of the Weimar Republic were very

democratic. Men and women had the vote at the age of

20 at a time when in Britain the age for men was 21 and

for women was 30.

■ The head of the government (the Chancellor) had to

have the support of most of the people in the Reichstag.

■ A strong president was necessary to keep control over

government and to protect the country in a crisis.

■ Voting by proportional representation meant that the

number of seats each party had in the Reichstag was

based on the number of votes they got. For example, if a

party won ten per cent of the votes if was given ten per

cent of the seats.

Weaknesses of the new ConstitutionDespite its strengths there were many flaws in the

Constitution that contributed to the instability, weakness

and eventual downfall of the Weimar Republic, particularly

proportional representation and Article 48, which gave

powers to the President in an emergency (see Figure 1.2).

When things did not go well for Germany in the early post-

war years, politicians were criticised for creating a weak

system of government (see Source B).

Source A: Key articles of the Weimar Constitution

Article 1 The German Reich is a republic. Political authority derives from the people.

Article 22 The Reichstag delegates are elected by universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage by all men and women over 20 years of age, in accordance with the principles of proportional representation.

Article 41 The Reich President is chosen by the whole of the German electorate.

Article 48 If public safety and order in the Reich is materially disturbed or endangered, the Reich President may take the necessary measures to restore public safety and order.

Source B: From a speech to the new Constituent Assembly by Hugo Preuss, head of the Commission which drew up the Weimar Constitution in 1919. He was talking about the new Constitution

I have often listened to the debates with real concern, glancing

timidly to the gentlemen of the Right, fearful lest they say to

me: ‘Do you hope to give a parliamentary system to a nation

like this, one that resists it with every sinew in its body?’ One

finds suspicion everywhere; Germans cannot shake off their old

political timidity and their deference to the authoritarian state.

vote

s gain

ed

depe

nd

ed on

Challenge from civil Challenge

from

num

ber o

f seats

service and judiciary the a

rmy

or the President?

Prop

ortio

nal r

epres

entationParliament (Reichstag)w

ere

man

y co

alitio

n gover

nments.

Many judges and senior

Leaders of th

e arm

y wan

ted

the

part

y w

as a

ble

to w

in a m

ajority

and there

civil servants did not want Kaiser to return

be

caus

e th

eir s

tatu

s

without parliament.

mad

e it

diffi

cult

to cr

ea

te po

litical st

ability. No

Weim

ar because they did not agree would be main

taine

d un

der h

im.

President to rule by decree

This

prod

uced

a la

rge n

umbe

r of partie

s and

with its liberal political views.

Who had more power? Article 48 allowed the

WEIMER

CONSTITUTION

vote

s gain

ed

depe

nd

ed on

Challenge from civil Challenge

from

num

ber o

f seats

service and judiciary the a

rmy

or the President?

Prop

ortio

nal r

epres

entationParliament (Reichstag)

wer

e m

any

coali

tion g

overnments.

Many judges and senior

Leaders of th

e arm

y wan

ted

the

part

y w

as a

ble

to w

in a m

ajority

and there

civil servants did not want Kaiser to return

beca

use

thei

r sta

tus

without parliament.

mad

e it

diffi

cult

to cr

ea

te po

litical st

ability. No

Weim

ar because they did not agree would be main

taine

d un

der h

im.

President to rule by decree

This

prod

uced

a la

rge n

umbe

r of partie

s and

with its liberal political views.

Who had more power? Article 48 allowed the

WEIMAR

CONSTITUTION

Figure 1.2: Some flaws of the Weimar Constitution

ACTIVITIES

1 Study Figure 1.1 and Source A. In what ways was the Constitution democratic/undemocratic? Complete your answer using a copy of the table below.

Democratic: Government in which all the people are involved in the decisions

Undemocratic: Government in which the people are not involved

2 Copy the scales and complete them to show the strengths and weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution. Having read the information on this page do you agree that the Constitution made the Republic weak?

Strengths Weaknesses

7


Eduqas GCSE History: Germany in transition, 1919–39

The impact of the Treaty of VersaillesAlthough the Germans signed the armistice on 11 November 1918, it was not until 28 June

1919 that the treaty ending the First World War was signed in the Palace of Versailles in France.

When the terms of the settlement were published huge numbers of Germans were horrified.

Terms of the Treaty of VersaillesThe Treaty of Versailles imposed extremely severe terms on Germany (see Figure 1.3 and

Table 1.1). Germany lost 13 per cent of its land, 48 per cent of its iron production and more

than 6 million citizens were absorbed into other countries. Perhaps the harshest term for

Germany was Article 231 – the War Guilt Clause. This stated that Germany had to accept

blame for starting the war in 1914, and had to agree to pay compensation for the damage

she had caused to the Allied powers. This was compounded when entry to the League of Nations was denied, thus showing that Germany was a pariah.

Reactions to the Treaty of VersaillesFor most Germans the Treaty stoked the fire of shame and humiliation. To them Versailles

was nothing more than a dictated peace (Diktat). A scapegoat was needed – and the Weimar

government and its politicians fitted the bill. Yet there was much irony in this criticism.

The Weimar cabinet initially rejected the terms of the peace settlement and on 19 June

1919 Chancellor Scheidemann resigned in disgust. Leading politicians called the terms

a Gewaltfrieden (an enforced peace). However, many believed the notion that the army had

not been defeated by the Allies but had been forced to surrender by the new government.

The army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ (Dolchstoss) by the politicians who signed the

armistice. These politicians became known as the ‘November Criminals’.

Northern Schleswig

Southern Schleswig

Eupen-Malmedy

Saar

Alsace-Lorraine

BELGIUM

FRANCEAUSTRIA

POSEN

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Rhineland

Freiburg

Mainz

Cologne

FrankfurtWeimar

Stuttgart

Dresden

Breslau

Katowice

Western Upper Silesia

Eastern Upper Silesia

Berlin

Stettin

Danzig

Memel

Allenstein

Marienwerder

Königsberg

Munich

N

0 200km

WESTPRUSSIA

Territory lost by Germany

Territory retained by Germanyfollowing voting by the localpopulation

Territory retained by Germany,but within which no fortificationscould be built or soldiers stationed

R. R

hine

Figure 1.3: The territorial terms of the Treaty of Versailles

8



Territorial terms Military terms Financial terms

All colonies to be given to the Allied Powers.

Army not to exceed 100,000. Coal to be mined in the Saar by France.

Alsace-Lorraine returned to France. No tanks, armoured cars and heavy military permitted.

Reparations fixed at £6,600 million.

Eupen-Malmedy given to Belgium after a plebiscite.

No military aircraft permitted. Cattle and sheep to be given to Belgium and France as reparations.

Saar to be administered by the League of Nations.

No naval vessel to be greater than 10,000 tons.

Germany to build merchant ships to replace Allied ships sunk by U-boats.

Posen and West Prussia given to Poland, and Eastern Upper Silesia given to Poland after a plebiscite.

No submarines permitted.

Danzig created a Free City. Rhineland demilitarised.

Memel to be administered by the League of Nations.

No union (Anschluss) with Austria.

Northern Schleswig given to Denmark after a plebiscite.

Table 1.1: The most important terms of the Treaty of Versailles

Source C: From a German newspaper, Deutsche Zeitung, 28 June 1919

Vengeance! German nation! Today in the Hall of Mirrors

[Versailles] the disgraceful treaty is being signed. Do not forget

it. The German people will, with unceasing work, press forward

to reconquer the place among nations to which it is entitled.

Then will come vengeance for the shame of 1919.

Source D: A cartoon entitled ‘Clemenceau the Vampire’ from the German right-wing satirical magazine, Kladderadatsch, July 1919. Clemenceau was the leader of France. The cartoon is commenting on the Treaty of Versailles

ACTIVITIES

1 Study Source C. What does it tell you about German attitudes towards the signing of the Treaty of Versailles?

2 Explain why Article 231 was hated by most Germans.

3 Work in groups of three or four. Choose territorial, military or financial terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Present a case to the class, stating why your choice has the most important consequences for Germany.

4 What do the terms ‘stabbed in the back’ and ‘November Criminals’ mean?

Practice questions1 What was the purpose of Source D? (For guidance,

see page 89.)2 Study Sources C and D. Which of the sources is more

useful to an historian studying the German reaction to the Treaty of Versailles? (For guidance, see pages 92–93.)

9



Political instabilityThe Weimar government was initially unpopular among many Germans because it had

surrendered, established a weak constitution and failed to end food shortages. Weimar

was hated by communists, socialists, nationalists, army leaders and those who had run

Germany before 1918. It seemed to have a bleak future. The Weimar Republic faced

constant threats from the left and right and there were several uprisings across Germany

that threatened the government’s existence. Figure 1.4 shows the extent and duration of

the unrest in post-war Germany.

After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in October 1917, when the Provisional (temporary)

Government was removed by the communists Lenin and Trotsky, many Germans hoped

that a socialist country could be established in Germany. Soldiers, sailors and workers set

up councils (soviets) in October and November 1918. Because of the fear of a revolution in

the chaos of the post-war period, the Weimar government made a deal with the new army

leader, Groener.

It was agreed that the army would support the new government against revolution and

the government would support and supply the army. Thus Weimar became dependent on

the army. For some Germans this dependency on the army weakened the authority of the

Weimar Republic.

DENMARK

HOLLAND

N

BELGIUM

EASTPRUSSIA

FRANCE

POLAND

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

AUSTRIASWITZERLAND

Communist risingOctober 1923

Communist risingin the RuhrMarch–April 1920

September 1923Thuringia Oct–Nov 1923

‘Rhineland Republic’set up, October 1923

‘Free Palatinate’November 1923

October1923

May 1919 andOctober 1923

March 1921

The Beer Hall Putsch8–9 November 1923

April 1920

Saxony October 1923

Putsch of theBlack Reichswehr1 October 1923

Spartacist risingJanuary 1919

The Kapp Putsch13–17 March 1920

Hamburg

Berlin Küstrin

Halle

PlauenDüsseldorf

Aachen

Wiesbaden

Speyer

Munich

Palatinate

SaxonyThuringia

R. Ruhr

0 100km

Left-wing workers’ risings Right-wing Putsche

Separatist movements, with date ofattempt to break away from Germany

Communist/Socialist takeover of state governments, e.g. Saxony

Figure 1.4: Political violence in Germany, 1919–23

ACTIVITIES

1 Why was there a fear of a Bolshevik Revolution in Germany?

2 Why was the deal between Ebert and Groener significant for the Weimar Republic?

10



The Spartacist UprisingDuring the war, several groups emerged from the German Social Democratic Party (SPD).

The most radical was the Spartacist League led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg

who eventually sought to establish a state based on communist ideals. (The League took

its name from the Roman slave Spartacus, who led a rebellion in 73BC.) In December

1918, the Spartacists’ demonstrations against the government led to clashes with the army

and resulted in the deaths of sixteen Spartacists. At the end of the month, the Spartacists

formed the German Communist Party (KPD – Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands).

On 6 January 1919, the Spartacists began their attempt to overthrow Ebert and the Weimar

government in order to create a communist state. Ebert and his defence minister, Noske,

used the Reichswehr (regular army) and the Berlin Freikorps (see box) to put down the

rebellion.

Within days the rising was over. The Spartacists were no match for the army and Freikorps.

Liebknecht and Luxemburg were captured and killed. It was the violence of the rising that

forced the new Assembly to move to Weimar.

In March, a further communist-inspired rising in Berlin was put down with great ferocity

and more than 1,000 people were killed. Another communist rising in Munich was crushed

by the Freikorps with great severity in April.

FreikorpsParamilitary groups formed from demobilised soldiers at the end of the war. They refused to give up weapons and uniforms and were led by ex-army officers. Most Freikorps were monarchists who sought to save Germany from Bolshevism even though they did not support the Weimar Republic. There were about two hundred different groups across Germany.

Source E: Photograph of Freikorps in front of the Vorwärts newspaper building, which they had captured from the Spartacists in January 1919. The Vorwärts newspaper was a socialist newspaper

ACTIVITIES

1 Study Source E. Who were the Spartacists? Why was it important for them to control the Vorwärts building?

2 How did the Spartacists threaten the Weimar Republic?

Practice questionUse Source E and your own knowledge to describe the Spartacist Uprising of 1919. (For guidance, see page 88.)

11



The Kapp PutschHaving resisted the challenge from the left, Ebert had to face the right in 1920. When the

Weimar government announced measures in March 1920 to reduce the size of the army

and also disband the Freikorps, there was uproar in Berlin. The leader of the Berlin Freikorps,

Ehrhardt, refused to comply. Together with a leading Berlin politician, Wolfgang Kapp,

a plan was drawn up to seize Berlin and form a new right-wing government with Kapp as

the Chancellor. Kapp stressed the communist threat, the Dolchstoss theory (see page 8) and

the severity of the Treaty of Versailles. The Reichswehr in Berlin, commanded by General

Luttwitz, supported Ehrhardt and Kapp. Following Kapp’s successful seizure of Berlin on

13 March 1920, the Weimar government moved to Dresden and then Stuttgart. The new

regular army had been asked to put down the Kapp Putsch, but the Commander-in-Chief,

von Seeckt, said ‘The Reichswehr does not fire on Reichswehr.’

Ebert and Scheidemann called on the people of

Berlin not to support the Kapp Putsch and asked

them to go on strike. Trade unionists and civil

servants supported the government and, because it

had little support, the Putsch collapsed. More than

four hundred Reichswehr officers had been involved

in the Putsch but very few were punished.

Further uprisingsOne week after the Kapp Putsch began, a communist

rising occurred in the Ruhr. This time the army

became involved and brutally put down the

rebellion. Hundreds were killed. Violence continued

in Germany during the next two years and both

left-wing and right-wing groups were involved.

It has been estimated that there were 376 murders

(354 of them were carried out by the right) in the

period 1919–22. No right-wingers were sentenced

to death but ten left-wingers were. Two leading

Weimar ministers were assassinated during this

time – in 1921, Matthias Erzberger, leader of the

Centre Party and a signatory of the Treaty of

Versailles and, in 1922, Walther Rathenau, the

Foreign Minister. The final threat to Weimar in this

period came in November 1923, when there was a

Putsch in Munich, led by Adolf Hitler. This will be

examined on pages 25–27.

Source F: Soldiers and Freikorps troops in Berlin 1920. Note the swastika on some of the helmets and the presence of the flag of the Second Reich, the name given to the German Empire, 1871–1918

ACTIVITIES

1 What grievances did Kapp and the Berlin Freikorps have in 1920?

2 Which do you think posed the greatest threat to the Weimar Republic, the Spartacists or the Kapp Putsch? Give reasons for your answer.

12



Events in the Ruhr and hyperinflationThe problems facing the Weimar Republic worsened in 1923 due to the French occupation

of the Ruhr and the effects of hyperinflation.

Germany had experienced inflation during the First World War and had borrowed

extensively to finance its war effort. When the reparations figure was announced – £6,600

million at £100 million per year – the Weimar government claimed that it could not

pay. Moreover, the loss of wealth-creating industrial areas exacerbated the problem. As

inflation continued, the Weimar government began to print more money in order to pay

France and Belgium as well as its own workers. The value of the German currency started

to fall rapidly and, in 1921, because no reparations were paid, France sent troops into the

Ruhr, Germany’s main industrial area. The Ruhr is sited in the Rhineland so there were no

German troops to stop the invading troops (see Figure 1.3 on page 8.)

The French occupation of the Ruhr, 1923A further occupation by French and Belgium troops took place in January 1923 when

Germany again failed to pay reparations to both these countries. The French were angry

because they needed the money to help to pay off their war debts to the USA. The French

and Belgians had decided to take the goods they needed, rather than wait for the Germans

to send them.

German resistanceThis time the French occupation was met with passive resistance. However, the resistance

turned sour and Germans carried out much industrial sabotage and went on strike. The

German workers in the Ruhr went on strike as a protest against the invasion. Some strikers

took more direct action and set factories on fire and sabotaged pumps in some mines so

they f looded and could not be worked. A number of strikers were shot by French troops;

their funerals led to demonstrations against the invasion. The occupation only served to

stir up old enmities and remind people of the war.

The results of the occupationThe invasion certainly united the German people in their hatred of the French and

Belgians. The strikers became heroes of the German people as they were standing up to the

humiliating Treaty of Versailles and showing that German people had not been crushed.

The German government backed the strikers and printed more money to pay them a wage.

The strike meant that even fewer goods were being produced in Germany. The extra strike

money plus the collapse in production turned inflation into hyperinflation (see Table 1.2).

July 1914 £1 = 20 marks

Jan 1919 £1 = 35 marks

Jan 1920 £1 = 256 marks

Jan 1921 £1 = 256 marks

Jan 1922 £1 = 764 marks

Jan 1923 £1 = 71,888 marks

July 1923 £1 = 1,413,648 marks

Sept 1923 £1 = 3,954,408,000 marks

Oct 1923 £1 = 1,010,408,000,000 marks

Nov 1923 £1 = 1,680,800,000,000,000 marks

Table 1.2: The decreasing value of the mark against the pound, 1914–23

13



HyperinflationPeople with savings or on a fixed income found themselves

penniless. People were quick to blame the Weimar politicians.

This was yet another humiliation for the new government.

Inflation did, however, benefit certain people.

■ Businessmen who had borrowed money from the banks

were able to pay off these debts.

■ Serious food shortages led to a rise in prices of

necessities, more especially food, which helped farmers.

■ Foreigners who were in Germany suddenly found that they

had a huge advantage. People who had dollars or pounds

found that they could change them for millions of marks

and afford things that ordinary Germans could not.

In the summer of 1923, Gustav Stresemann became

chancellor and he began to steady things and introduced a

new currency. The following year the new currency and loans

from the USA (see page 16) enabled an economic recovery. It

seemed as if the Weimar Republic had weathered the storms

and could look forward to a period of stability and prosperity.

Source G: A cartoon published in Germany by the left-wing magazine Simplicissimus in 1923. Translated, the top caption reads ‘Paper money’ and the bottom one reads ‘Bread’

Source H: A German woman in 1923 burning currency notes, which burn longer than the amount of firewood they can buy

ACTIVITIES

1 Study the Table 1.2 on page 13. What can you learn about inflation in Germany in the years 1914–23?

2 Why do you think people who had savings in banks suffered more than most in the period of hyperinflation?

3 Look at Sources G and H. In what ways do these sources help us to understand the problems of Germany in 1923?

Practice question‘During the early 1920s hyperinflation damaged the Weimar Republic more than any other problem.’ [D. Banham & C. Culpin, two historians, writing in a school history textbook, Germany, 1918–1945, published in 2004.]

To what extent do you agree with this interpretation? (For guidance, see pages 94–95.)

14


GlossaryAdjutant An army officer who acts as an administrative assistant to a senior officer

Allied related to the Allied powers (Britain, France et al) of the First World War

Allies In World War I, the powers that fought against Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria

Anschluss Political and economic union of Germany and Austria

Anti-Semitism Hatred and persecution of the Jews

Appeasement Policy of making concessions to a potentially hostile nation in the hope of maintaining peace

Arbitration Accepting the decision of an agreed third party to settle a dispute

Aryan Nazi term for a non-Jewish German, someone of supposedly ‘pure’ German stock

Blitzkrieg ‘Lightening war’ – the new method used by the German armed forces in 1939

Bolshevik Revolution A revolution in Russia in 1917–18 that overthrew the Czar and brought the Bolsheviks to power

Bolsheviks Members of the Russian Social Democrat party, who followed Lenin and carried out a communist revolution in October 1917

Bolshevism The theory developed by the Bolsheviks between 1903 and 1917 with a view to seizing state power and establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat

Bund Deutscher Mädel League of German Girls, was the girls’ wing of the Nazi Party youth movement

Censorship Controlling what speech or information is produced, and suppressing anything considered to be against the state

Centre Party (ZP) Catholic party occupying the middle ground in political views

Coalition government A government of two or more political parties

Communism A theory that society should be classless, private property abolished, and land and business owned collectively

Communists Followers of the communist ideas of Karl Marx, who believed, for example, that the state should own the means of production and distribution

Communist Party (KPD) The German Communist Party, following the ideas of Karl Marx

Concordat Agreement Agreement with the Roman Catholic Church

Conscription Compulsory military service for a certain period of time

Constituent Assembly A group of representatives elected to set up a new constitution

Dawes Plan Introduced in 1924 to reduce Germany’s annual reparation payments

Democratic Relating to the principle of democracy, i.e. government by the people

Depression A period of extended and severe decline in a nation’s economy, marked by low production and high unemployment

Dolchstoss The ‘stab in the back’ theory

DNVP Deutschnationale Volkspartei (see Nationalist Party)

Führer German word for leader

German Faith Movement (Deutsche Glaubensbewegung) A religious movement in Nazi Germany that promoted Germanic paganism and Nazi ideas

Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei – ‘Secret State Police’) Official secret police of the Nazi regime

Ghettos A densely populated area of a city inhabited by a particular ethnic group, such as Jews

Gleichschaltung The process of achieving rigid and total coordination and uniformity in politics, culture and communication by forcibly repressing or eliminating independence and freedom of thought, action or expression

Great Depression Slump in the economy in the 1930s which led to high unemployment

Great Power A nation that has exceptional political influence, resources and military strength

Hitler Youth (HitlerJugend) The organisation set up for the young in Germany to convert them to Nazi ideas and was eventually compulsory

Industrialists People who own and/or run an industry or factory

Kristallnacht ‘Night of Broken Glass’, when the windows of Jewish premises were smashed

League of Nations The international body established after the First World War in order to maintain peace

Lebensraum Living space. Hitler’s desire to expand eastwards for living space for the German people

left-wing Of politicians and parties that favour socialism

Nationalist Party Shortened form of the German National People’s Party (DNVP)

Nationalists People who have a passionate devotion to their country

Passive resistance Opposition to a government, invading power, etc., without using violence

Plebiscite Direct vote of the electorate on an important public issue

Polish Corridor The strip of German land that gave Poland access to the Baltic Sea

Putsch Attempted takeover of the government

RAD (Reichsarbeitsdienst) The National Labour Service Corps

Real wages Wages evaluated with reference to their purchasing power rather than to the money actually paid

Reich In German, this has many meanings – state, kingdom, empire. When used by the Nazis it tended to mean ‘empire’ or ‘Germany’

Reichsbank German National Bank

Right wing Someone who supports conservative policies

Self-determination The principle of nation states ruling themselves

Socialists Those who believe in state ownership

96


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Acknowledgements

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ISBN: 978 1 4718 6811 5

© Steve Waugh and John Wright 2016

First published in 2016 by Hodder Education, An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House 50 Victoria Embankment London EC4Y 0DZ

www.hoddereducation.co.uk

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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.


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Germany in Transition 1919–39