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3/1/2017 1 Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations Memorize/learn Figure 13.2 Know overall reaction and stages Explain chemical logic of each step Enzyme mechanisms presented in book

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Page 1: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

3/1/2017

1

Glucose Metabolism

Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13

Glycolysis Expectations

• Memorize/learn Figure 13.2

• Know overall reaction and stages

• Explain chemical logic of each step

• Enzyme mechanisms presented in book

Page 2: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Glycolysis

• Ten enzymes that take glucose to pyruvate

• Cytosol

• ATP and NADH

Reactions and Enzymes of Glycolysis

• Hexose and triose phases

• Energy input and payoff phases

ATP ATP

ADP ADP2x

Pi + NAD+

NADH

2x

ADP ADP

ATP ATP

2x 2x

Page 3: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Energy Input

Energy Payoff

Page 4: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Know...

• Substrates 

• Co‐substrates 

• Products 

• Enzyme names

1.  Hexokinase 

• Previous concepts:  Induced fit, kinase

• Utilizes 1 ATP

• Chemical logic?

Page 5: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Problem 3

• (Notice miswording) The Go’ value for hexokinase is ‐16.7 kJ/mol, but it is twice as spontaneous under cellular conditions.– What is the ratio of G‐6‐P to glucose under cellular conditions when the ratio of ATP:ADP is 10:1?

– How high would the ratio of G‐6‐P to glucose have to be to reverse the hexokinase reaction by mass action?

2.  Phosphoglucose Isomerase• Previous concepts:  Isomerization

• CONCEPT:  Near‐equilibrium

• Chemical logic:

• Stereochemistry—reverse does not produce mannose!

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3.  PFK‐1• Previous concepts:  Allosteric inhibition• Utilizes 1 ATP• Pathway logic:• First committed step of glycolysis

– Why?– regulation

Page 7: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Regulation: Bacteria vs. Human

4.  Aldolase

• Previous concepts:  Standard free energy is +23kJ, but it is a near equilibrium reaction

• Pathway logic:

• Beginning of triose stage

Page 8: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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AldolaseMechanism

5.  Triose Phosphate Isomerase

• Previous concepts:  Catalytic perfection

• Pathway logic:

• Most similar to which previous reaction?

Page 9: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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6.  Glyceraldehyde‐3‐P DH

• Previous concepts:  Redox and dehydrogenase

• Pathway logic: Utilizes negative free energy of _____________ to drive nonspontaneous formation of ___________________

GAPDH MechanismBe able to draw mechanism with full NAD+ structure

Page 10: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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7.  Phosphoglycerate Kinase  • Previous concepts:  High energy bond

• Produces 2 ATP: substrate level phosphorylation

• Pathway logic?

• Coupled to reaction 6 by Le Chatelier

Coupled Reactions

• GAPDH = 6.7 kJ/mol

• PG Kinase = ‐18.8 kJ/mol

• Overall: 

A set of near‐equilibrium reactions at cellular concentration 

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8.  Phosphoglycerate Mutase

• Previous concepts:  Covalent catalysis

• Pathway logic:

• Mutase—isomerization with P transfer

Mechanism

• Not a simple transfer

• What happens if the bisphosphate escapes?

Page 12: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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9.  Enolase

• Concept:  Phosphoryl group transfer potential

• Chemical logic?

10.  Pyruvate Kinase• Production of 2 ATP• VERY high energy bond allows formation of _________ while still being irreversible

• Regulation: F‐1,6‐BP can act as a feed‐forward activator to ensure fast glycolysis

Page 13: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Overall Energetics

• Standard Free energies are up and down

• Free energies under cellular conditions are downhill or near zero

– Three irreversible

Fate of Pyruvate

Aerobic Energy

Anaerobic inmicroorganisms

Anaerobic inhigher organisms

Gluconeogenesis

Amino acidand nitrogenmetabolism

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The Problem of Anaerobic Metabolism

• With oxygen, the NADH produced in glycolysis is re‐oxidized back to NAD+

• NAD+/NADH is a co‐substrate which means…

• If there is no oxygen, glycolysis will stop because…

• The solution to the problem is to…

The solution in Yeast

• Pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde

• Acetaldehyde transformed to ethanol 

– What type of reaction?

– What cofactor?

• NAD+ is regenerated to be reused in GAPDH

Page 15: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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The Solution in Us

• Lactate formation: Draw a mechanism

• Balanced equation

We don’t operate anaerobically...

• Most energy still trapped in lactate

• Back to pyruvate, then acetyl‐CoA

• Citric acid cycle

Page 16: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Other sugars enter glycolysis

High fructose diet puts sugars through glycolysis while avoiding major regulation step

Glucose Metabolism Overview

• Keep the main pathway purposes distinct

• But learn details of chemistry and regulation based on similarities

Page 17: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Glucose Metabolism Overview

• Gluconeogenesis

• Glycogen metabolism

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway

O

HO

HO

OH (P)

OH

OH

DHAP

Pyruvate

Gluconeogenesis

Lactate

Amino Acids

Glycerol(Triacylglycerides)

Glycogen

Glycogen Degradation

Glycogen

Glycogen Synthesis

Ribose,NADPH

ATP

DHAP

Pyruvate

PentosePhosphatePathway

Energy Production

Precursors for Gluconeogenesis

• Names of compounds?

• Type of reaction?

• Type of enzyme?

• Cofactor(s)?

OH

OH

OH

OPO3

O

OH

O

O

O

NH2

O

O

O

O

O

OH

O

O

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Chemistry of Gluconeogenesis

• Pyruvate transformed to glucose

• But energetically costly—no perpetual motion machine!

• Points of regulation

Glycolysis

• Step 1: costs 1 ATP

• Step 3: costs 1 ATP

• Step 7: makes 2 ATP

• Step 10: makes 2 ATP

• Gluconeogenesis

• Step 10: no ATP back

• Step 8: no ATP back

• Step 3: costs 2 ATP

• Step 1a/b: costs 4 ATP equivalents

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Step 1a

• Pyruvate Carboxylase– Biotin

– Costs ATP to make driving force for next reaction• TIMES TWO!

– First step in biosynthesis of glucose and many other molecules• Related to which amino acid?

Mechanism

• Mixed anhydride activates carboxyl group

• Coupled through biotin coenzyme

• Enolate attacks activated carboxylate

Page 20: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Step 1b

• PEP carboxykinase

– ATP cost to restore PEP

• TIMES TWO!

– CO2 loss drives rxn

Step 8• Fructose‐1,6‐bisphosphatase

• No additional energy input

• Phosphate ester hydrolysis is spontaneous

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Step 10

• Glucose 6‐phosphatase

– Liver (and others)

– Not in muscle

Problem 34

• A liver biopsy of a four‐year old boy indicated that the F‐1,6‐Bpase enzyme activity was 20% normal. The patient’s blood glucose levels were normal at the beginning of a fast, but then decreased suddenly. Pyruvate and alanine concentrations were also elevated, as was the glyceraldehyde/DHAP ratio. Explain the reason for these symptoms. 

Page 22: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Key Regulation• At the committed step in glucogenic cells

• Principle of Reciprocal Regulation

• Local regulation vs Hormone regulation

Key Regulation

• Local regulation

– AMP/ATP (energy charge)

– Citrate (feedback)

• Hormone regulation

– Fructose‐2,6‐bisphosphate

• Gluconeogenesis is inhibited

• Glycolysis is stimulated

Page 23: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Problem 39

• Brazilin, a compound found in aqueous extracts of sappan wood, has been used to treat diabetics in Korea. It increases the activity of the enzyme that products F‐2,6‐BP and stimulates the activity of pyruvate kinase. What is the effect of adding brazilin to liver cells in culture? Why would brazilin be an effective treatment for diabetes?

Glucose Metabolism Overview

• Gluconeogenesis

• Glycogen metabolism

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway

O

HO

HO

OH (P)

OH

OH

DHAP

Pyruvate

Gluconeogenesis

Lactate

Amino Acids

Glycerol(Triacylglycerides)

Glycogen

Glycogen Degradation

Glycogen

Glycogen Synthesis

Ribose,NADPH

ATP

DHAP

Pyruvate

PentosePhosphatePathway

Energy Production

Page 24: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Glycogen

• Storage molecule

• Primer necessary

• Very large!

• Multiple ends allow for quick synthesis and degradation

Chemistry of Synthesis

• Step 1

• Near equilibrium

• The link to glucose‐6‐phophate, our central molecule

Page 25: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Chemistry of Synthesis

• Step 2

• Count high energy bonds

• Pyrophosphatase

– Common motiff

• UDP‐glucose: activated for incorporation

Chemistry of Synthesis

• Step 3

• Glycogen synthase

• Growing end is non‐reducing

• UDP released

Page 26: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Branching

Energetics of Synthesis

• Total cost: one ATP equivalent from G‐6‐P

Page 27: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Four Degradation Enzymes

• Two enzyme debranching process

• Glycogen phosphorylase

• phophoglucomutase

Chemistry of Degradation

• Glycogen phosphorylase

• Key Regulation site

• Inorganic phosphate as a nucleophile

• Remake G‐1‐P with no ATP cost

Page 28: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Debranching

• Transfer branch

• (16)glycosidase

Overall Energetics

O

HO

HO

O

OH

OH

P

O

O O

O

HO

HO

O

OH

OH

P-P-Uridine

O

HO

OH

OH

OH

O

O

OH

HO

O

HO

Glucose-6-P

UDP

UTP

2 Pi

Pi

Page 29: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Key Regulatory Enzymes

O

HO

HO

O

OH

OH

P

O

O O

O

HO

HO

O

OH

OH

P-P-Uridine

O

HO

OH

OH

OH

O

O

OH

HO

O

HO

Glucose-6-P

UDP

UTP

2 Pi

Pi

Glycogen Synthase

Glycogen Phosphorylase

Glycogen Storage Diseases

Many disrupt glycogen breakdown in muscle and/or liver(hypoglycemia, enlarged liver, muscle cramps...)

Page 30: Glucose Metabolism - courses.chem.indiana.educourses.chem.indiana.edu/c483/documents/Lecturech13_001.pdf · Glucose Metabolism Pratt and Cornely, Chapter 13 Glycolysis Expectations

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Glucose Metabolism Overview

• Gluconeogenesis

• Glycogen metabolism

• Pentose Phosphate Pathway

O

HO

HO

OH (P)

OH

OH

DHAP

Pyruvate

Gluconeogenesis

Lactate

Amino Acids

Glycerol(Triacylglycerides)

Glycogen

Glycogen Degradation

Glycogen

Glycogen Synthesis

Ribose,NADPH

ATP

DHAP

Pyruvate

PentosePhosphatePathway

Energy Production

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

• Dual Purpose– Synthesis of “reducing potential”

– Synthesis of 5‐carbon sugars

• At cost of one carbon worth of carbohydrate

• Net reaction:

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Physiological Purposes

Glutathione: Protection from Oxidation

• Glutathione is the redox buffer of the cell

• Regenerated by NADPH

• PPP especially important in RBC because it is only means to generate reducing power (no mitochondria)

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Complex, 2‐Stage Process

• Oxidative Stage– Generates reducing power and ribose

• Non‐oxidative stage– Regenerates 3‐ and 6‐carbon sugars from 5 carbon sugars

Oxidative Stage Step 1:

• G‐6‐P DH

• Lactone formation

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Oxidative Stage Step 2:

• Also a spontaneous hydrolysis

• Practice mechanism, carbohydrate orientation

Oxidative Stage Step 3:

• Oxidative decarboxylation

–Which is first, oxidation or decarboxylation?

• We will see this process again

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Biosynthesis of Ribose

Non‐oxidative Stage

• To understand purpose, realize that we generally need to make much more NADPH than ribose

• Problem:  stuck with C5, but need C6 and C3

• Solution: “Shunt” C5 back to C6 through near‐equilibrium reactions

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PPP Reactions

• Epimerase

• Isomerase

• Transketolase

• Transaldolase

Epimerase

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Transketolase

• Use cofactor (B1) to overcome chemical problem

Mechanism

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Transketalase, Transaldolase

• Transketalase

– Transfer of an acyl anion

– Requires TPP to stabilize unstable anion

• Transaldolase

– Transfer of somewhat stable enolate ion

– Schiff base helps

• Be able to recognize need for TK vs. TA

Transketalase or transaldolase?

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Different Modes for Different Purposes

Problem 58

• A given metabolite may follow more than one metabolic pathway. List all possible fates of glucose‐6‐P in (a) a liver cell and (b) a muscle cell.

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Summaryof glucosemetabolism