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Cross Cultural Management: AnInternational JournalVol. 14 No. 2, 2007

pp. 93-104# Emerald Group Publishing Limited

1352-7606DOI 10.1108/13527600710745714

Islamic work ethic in KuwaitAbbas J. Ali

Department of Management, Indiana University of Pennsylvania,Pratt Drive Indiana, Pennsylvania, USA, and

Ali A. Al-KazemiDepartment of Public Administration, Kuwait University, Kuwait

Abstract

Purpose – To investigation the centrality of islamic work ethic (IWE) in the lives of managers inKuwait and provide a useful insight into the nature of work environment and organizational culture.Design/methodology/approach – The participants were 762 managers randomly selected fromgovernment and private sectors. Among participants 50 per cent were female; 73 per cent wereKuwaitis. Two measures were used: IWE and Loyalty scales. Correlation analysis and one-waymultivariate analysis along with frequency distribution were used to analyze the data.Findings – The results indicated that managers scored high on IWE and loyalty scales. There was apositive high correlation between the two measures. Demographic and organizational variables hadsignificant influence on managerial orientations. In particular, it was found that expatriates scoredhigher than Kuwaiti managers on both IWE and loyalty and men scored relatively higher thanwomen on IWE.Practical implications – Based on findings specific implications related to work environment,strengthening work involvement, and enhancing organizational loyalty were identified. Furthermore,the interplay of tradition and economic prosperity and their impact on IWE were briefly examined.Originality/value – The paper highlights not only the importance of work ethics in a relatively richcountry but also provides a useful insight into the linkage between IWE and loyalty and thechanging nature of work in a country that has recently experienced profound social and economicchanges.

Keywords Islam, Work ethic, Managers, Expatriates, Kuwait

Paper type Research paper

Beliefs about work ethic differ across time and countries. While the variation in theattitude toward work ethic is well documented in the literature on work andorganization, scholars began to show an interest in the subject after Max Weberpublicized the role of work ethic in accumulating wealth and the rise of capitalism.Weber’s book, Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism constitutes a landmarkdevelopment on the thinking of work and organization. In the West, in particular,attitude toward work has evolved significantly, from disdain to admiration. Lipset(1990) argues that the emergence of Protestantism brought a major shift in the Westernattitudes toward work. Nevertheless, he suggests that early Protestantism, asenvisioned byMartin Luther, did not directly pave the way for a rational profit-orientedeconomic system as Luther showed contempt for trade, commerce, and finance.According to Lipset, it was Weber who highlighted that work and work involvement isreligiously sanctioned.

In recent years, attitudes toward work in non-western civilizations have beenexamined. Notably, MOW-International Research Team (1986) carried out acomparative study of the meaning of work in eight countries. The research dispelledmany myths regarding work and work involvement in several cultures. Likewise,Furnham (1991) and Furnham and Muhuldeen (1984) studied work ethic and foundevidence that not only do elements of the Protestant work ethic (PWE) exist in non-western countries, but also that subjects from these nations score high on PWE.Empirical results provide strong evidence that commitment to work ethics is found in

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societies, regardless of their religious beliefs. In fact, the economic accomplishment ofdifferent groups in various societies and across history indicate that the urge toachieve, work hard, accumulate wealth, and improve the quality of life are foundinvariably in all societies and among divers groups (e.g. ethnic Chinese in Malaysia,Jains in India, Jews in the USA and medieval Islam, medieval Arabs, ancientBabylonian and Egyptian civilizations, etc.).

This study is designed to investigate the Islamic Work Ethic (IWE) and loyalty ofmanagers in Kuwait and the nature of relationship between the two scales. Anextensive review of the literature reveal that work ethics shape economic development,influence organizational commitment, and are correlated with certain organizationaland individuals factors (Aldag and Breif, 1975; Ali, 1992; Blood, 1969; Congleton, 1991;Furnham, 1991). Furthermore, work ethics and commitment to work are found to differacross societies and cultures (Furnham and Muhuldeen, 1984; MOW – InternationalResearch Team, 1986).

Kuwait is a unique place for the study of work ethic. It is a city-state that is locatedin the Eastern part of the Arab world. Unlike most other Arab states, Kuwait has asignificant economic position and strategic importance in world affairs,disproportionate to its geographical and population size. Kuwait, however, is at acrossroads where cherished tradition and custom face the pressing challenge ofimported modernity and sudden economic prosperity. Its small population and therelative huge oil reserve enable citizens in Kuwait to have a high standard of living.There are more than 1.4 million foreign residents relative to 900,000 Kuwaiti citizens.The percentage of expatriates working in the private sector amounts to 96 per cent(Center for Labor Market Research, 2003). Most of the expatriates work in areas thatare not much of interest to Kuwaiti citizens like construction, manufacturing,wholesale, retail and restaurants. On the other hand, most of the Kuwaitis work in thepublic sector and prefer managerial jobs. According to the UN (2002), Kuwaiti percapita income was $18,700 in 2001. This aspect, coupled with the fact that thegovernment subsidizes education, health, utilities and other public services, allowKuwaitis to have lavish lives, enjoy amenities and pursue various leisure activities.

The fact that Kuwait is endowed with oil has made it an attractive place forcompeting global powers. For many years (1899-1961), it was a protectorate of Britain.In recent years, the USA replaced Britain as the protecting power. The presence offoreign personnel, however, has exposed Kuwaitis to new ideas and customs andsimultaneously increased their social anxiety and their uneasiness about the future. Asa result, they have developed a spirit of competition, cunning and gamesmanship intheir relationships with others (Ali and Al-Kazemi, 2002). The sudden increase inwealth, however, has created attitudes and values that are not conducive to hard workand performance (Abdel-Halim and Ashour, 1995). Nevertheless, the Kuwaiti society isgenerally tribal in nature and is highly stratified. While social prestige has been mostlydetermined by tribal affiliations and ancestry, new social classes based on wealth andeducational accomplishments have recently emerged as a potent force in the society.Their impact, however, remains to be seen. Studying work ethics and loyalty ofmanagers, therefore, becomes important. Unlike the majority of the population,managers in the Gulf States, including Kuwait, have strong personal relationships withpoliticians in the region and have considerable contact with business people in Europeand the USA. Despite the fact that these managers play unique role in designing theeconomic priorities and are essential for enhancing business relationships with theoutside world, their work ethics have not been investigated empirically. Therefore,

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familiarity with their work ethics and orientations may help in understanding Kuwaitisocial and business progress and trends..

The islamic work ethicAli (1988a) developed a measurement for IWE. Previously, most of the writing on workethic in Islam had been descriptive and general in nature. From its inception, however,Islam highlighted the centrality of work and trade. Indeed, it was impossible toimagine the triumph of Islam over its formidable enemy in Mecca, the Quraeshis,without recognizing the centrality of trade in strengthening the Muslim position. Theelite in Mecca, at the time, controlled trade and trade routes and saw Islam as a threat.Mohamed challenged not only their deity, but also their power base; the monopoly overtrade in Arabia and surrounding regions. The defeat of the Quraeshis at the hand ofMohamed situated trade and work as a core component of the new faith.

The concept of an IWE has its origin in the Quran and the teachings of the ProphetMohamed. The Quran states, (6:132) ‘‘To all are ranks according to their deeds’’. TheQuran instructs the faithful that involvement and commitment to work, rather thandreaming, enables people to realize their goals (Quran 53:39). ‘‘That human being canhave nothing but what is striven for’’ and (2:275), ‘‘God hath permitted trade andforbidden usury’’. The Prophet Mohamed preaches that hard work causes sins to beabsolved and that ‘‘no one eats better food than that which he eats out of his work’’. Inwhat might be considered as a complete departure from the thinking at that time, theProphet asserted four issues. First, he presented work as the highest form ofworshiping God, ‘‘Worshiping has seventy avenues; the best of them is the involvementin an honestly earned living’’. Second, he understood that work is not sanctioned if it isnot performed to the best ability. Here, Mohamed underlined two essential aspects forperformance: quality and qualification. He stated, ‘‘God blesses a person who perfectshis craft (does the job right)’’ and ‘‘God loves a person who learns precisely how toperform his work and does it right’’. Third, work has a social dimension and meaning;it has to provide benefits to others, ‘‘The best work is the one that results in benefit’’ and‘‘The best of people are those who benefit others’’. Fourth, it is through trade and activeinvolvement in business that a society reaches prosperity and a reasonable livingstandard, ‘‘I recommend the merchants to you, for they are the couriers of the horizonsand God’s trusted servants on earth’’ (see Ali, 2005 for detail).

Therefore, a purposeful engagement in work is the cornerstone of the IWE. Suchengagement facilitates personal and societal goals (Ahmad, 1976; Ali, 1992). That is,work is a virtue as it serves self and others. Spiritually, it is viewed as a creativeinvolvement necessary for establishing equilibrium in one’s individual and social life,while fulfilling duties in life toward God. According to Ali (2005), the IWE is built onfour primary concepts: effort, competition, transparency, and morally responsibleconduct. Ali suggests that these pillars, taken collectively, inspire confidence in themarket and reinforce social contract, ethical understanding, and motivates marketactors to focus on meeting their primary business responsibilities. Hence, managersand employees acquire faith in each others’ good intentions and adequately performtheir responsibility at the workplace.

McClelland (1961) signified the linkage between the PWE and the need forachievement. Since then, researchers have shown an increasing interest in examiningthe relationships between work ethics and organizational and social factors. Congleton(1991) suggested that a cultural work ethic facilitates economic development.Numerous researchers (Aldag and Breif, 1975; Blood, 1969; Furnham, 1991) have

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investigated PWE and its correlates. Furnham and Rajamanikam (1992) found thatPWE is highly correlated with just world beliefs. Ali (1988a; 1992) demonstrated a highcorrelation between IWE and individualism. Yousef (2001a, b) studied the relationshipsbetween IWE and job satisfaction and organizational commitment and found a strongcorrelation among these factors. Previously, Yousef (2000) found positive highrelationships between IWE and role ambiguity and locus of control scales.

Loyalty is a work-related attitude that is linked to work ethic. The linkage betweenwork ethic and loyalty has evolved over the years. The classical work ethic valuedindividualism and autonomy. According to Zuboff (1983) this state changeddramatically after the rise of the new enterprises in the mid 19th century. Managers ofthe newly emerging corporations promoted obedience and docility as a form of loyaltyand efficiency. That is, commitment to hard work implies strict obedience to managers’instructions. Developments in the1960s and international competition, however, haveinduced profound change in work attitudes and management orientation. Work loyaltyno longer revolved only around obedience. Loyalty to the organization, profession, andimmediate supervisor, among others, appears to have gained acceptance andencouragement in the workplace.

Work ethics and loyalty are important subjects in organizational studies. Employeeloyalty is essential for building a profitable base of faithful customers (Reichheld,1993). In a review of the literature, Ali (1993) indicated that loyal employees

. show high attachment to organizations, even during difficult times,

. are willing to exert additional efforts to achieve organizational goals,

. display positive attitudes in their relations with other employees,

. are receptive to planned organizational changes, and

. have relatively less absenteeism than less loyal employees.

Similarly, Salancik (1983) argued that loyalty enhances productivity, ensures thequality of final products, and guarantees the flow of adaptive innovation.

In the context of the Arab environment, Ali et al. (1997) stated that loyalty to socialorganizations prevents the materialization of a conflict or crisis at the national level,arguing that, in the Arab world, loyalty is manifested by two contradictory qualities: apassionate sentiment and an affiliation to sustain shared values, on the one hand, andstrong identification with a communal, regional, or tribal group on the other hand.Khalaf (1989) argued that such qualities in the Arab world clarify the inherentlyambivalent and inconsistent character of the interplay between traditional and modernloyalty. Contrary to conventional wisdom, Ali (1992) found that executives displayed ahigher commitment to organizational loyalty (e.g. work hard to accomplish tasks,complete tasks successfully, observe work norms and values) than to personal loyalty(e.g. defend me and do not stab me in the back, obey me and comply with myinstruction, respect me). In the UAE Ali et al. (1997) found that Arab and indigenousemployees are highly committed to organizational loyalty relative to expatriate (non-Arabs) employees who display a higher attachment to personal loyalty.

In Kuwait, Abdel-Halim and Ashour (1995) pointed out that lavish and generousgovernment economic programs have induced unrealistically high expectations andaspirations among Kuwaitis for higher jobs, more benefits, and less work. Previously,Ali (1988b) found that Kuwaiti managers are highly tribalistic and are mostly outer-directed. Recently, Metle (2002) speculated that, specifically in the public sector,Kuwaiti work attitudes and behavior have never been satisfactory. Metle indicated that

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Kuwaiti culture and tradition negatively influence feelings toward work amongthe Kuwaiti citizens. These studies suggest that the general environment is nothospitable for hard work and productive work involvement. That is, Kuwaiti citizensmay not involve in hard work and generally display a weak commitment to theirorganizations and work.

MethodParticipantsThe participants were managers randomly selected from government and privatesectors in 1998. Six public organizations were randomly selected to be included in thestudy. Likewise, ten enterprises in the private sector were selected randomly fromthose listed on Kuwait’s stock exchange. A personalized letter was sent to the head ofeach organization included in the study to acquaint him/her with the study objectivesand to gain support for distribution of the survey. Once the approval to distribute thesurvey was obtained from each organization, the survey was distributed toparticipants. Participants were assured in a cover letter of confidentiality andanonymity. Assistants to the researchers distributed the questionnaires directly toparticipants in each organization. Participants were asked to drop the completedquestionnaires in a box that was placed in each organization.

Of the 1,000 questionnaires distributed, 762 usable questionnaires were returned, aresponse rate of 76 per cent. Among participants 50 per cent were female; 73 per centwere Kuwaitis. About 68 per cent were 35 years old or less, 54 per cent had a collegedegree, 40 per cent were senior managers, and 24 per cent of the participants had amonthly salary of 751 Kuwait dinars or more.

InstrumentThe measures for the IWE and Loyalty Scale were adopted from Ali’s Survey ofManagement and Organization in the Arab World. The focus of the IWE scale is on theview that work enables people to be independent and is a source of self-respect,satisfaction, and fulfillment. Success and progress on the job depends on hard work andcommitment to one’s job. The version of the scale adopted in this study has 17 items andwas found to be reliable (see Ali, 1992; Yousef, 2000, 2001a, b). The statements were ratedon a five-point Likert-type scale, with one representing the least important and five themost important. The current Cronbach’s reliability coefficient is 0.85.

The Loyalty Scale is a modified version of the original scale. The scale containsseven items. It measures managerial views of loyalty. Participants were asked to ratetheir preference to each statement on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree(1) to strongly agree (5). The current Cronbach alpha is 0.81.

ResultsTable I presents the items and item-total correlations of IWE and loyalty. Anexamination of item-total correlations for IWE indicates that with the exception of item9, all items have high positive correlations with the total score on the scale. Item 9 has anegative correlation with the scale. Item-total correlation for the Loyalty Scale revealsthat all items correlate positively with one another. In almost all cases, both scales havehigh mean concentrations.

Table II shows the relationship between the IWE scale and the loyalty index (andeach item of the Loyalty Scale). The IWE index was highly and significantly correlatedwith the Loyalty Scale (r¼ 0.61, p< 0.01, N¼ 762). All items of Loyalty Scale had

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significant correlations with the IWE; p< 0.01. This pattern of relationships isconsistent with the Islamic emphasis on hard work, achieving tasks, honesty,frankness, and loyalty to one’s organization, work group, and supervisor.

The results of one-way multivariate analysis (MANOVA) are presented in Table III.The results demonstrate that the number of years working in the same position had noeffect on the two scales. Nevertheless, there are significant differences among IWE andloyalty across the rest of the selected individual and organizational variables.For example men scored relatively higher than women on IWE (M¼ 4.36 vs M¼ 4.30;F (17,744)¼ 2.18, p< 0.01. Men, however, scored less than women on the LoyaltyScale, M¼ 4.38 vs 4.42, respectively; F (7,754)¼ 6.03, p< 0.01. Expatriates scoredhigher than Kuwaiti managers on both IWE and loyalty (M¼ 4.41 vs M¼ 4.30;F (17,744)¼ 2.75, p< 0.01; M¼ 4.52 vs 4.36; F (7,754)¼ 3.52, p<0.01, respectively).Participants who were 46 years or older displayed relatively higher commitment to

Table I.Item-total correlations,means, and standarddeviations of islamicwork ethic and loyaltyscales

Item M SDItem-totalcorrelation

Islamic work ethicLaziness is a vice 4.57 0.81 0.40Dedication to work benefits both one’s self and others 4.72 0.58 0.58Good work benefits both one’s self and others 4.74 0.56 0.53Justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions forsociety’s welfare 4.57 0.73 0.49Producing more than enough to meet one’s personal needscontributes to the prosperity of society as a whole 4.62 0.69 0.61One should carry work out to the best of one’s ability 4.72 0.57 0.61Work is not an end in itself but a means to foster personal growthand social relations 4.15 0.97 0.36Life has no meaning without work 4.46 0.84 0.50More leisure times is good for societya 2.48 1.11 �0.20Human relations in organizations should be emphasized andencouraged 4.64 0.63 0.44Work enables mankind to control nature 4.17 0.85 0.53Creative work is a source of happiness and accomplishment 4.70 0.64 0.59Any person who works is more likely to get ahead in life 4.01 1.06 0.38Work gives one the chance to be independent 4.48 0.76 0.60A successful person is the one who meets deadlines at work 4.26 0.86 0.53One should constantly work hard to meet responsibilities 4.51 0.64 0.58The value of work is derived from the accompanying intentionrather than its results 3.77 1.02 0.31

LoyaltyWork hard to accomplish task 4.57 0.67 0.61Achieving tasks successfully 4.53 0.73 0.63Express ideas freely and honestly 4.64 0.65 0.57Supporting the goals of the organizations as long as they do not goagainst one’s principles 4.39 0.81 0.50Sticking with the organization through good and bad years andmaking sacrifices when necessary to keep the organization strong 4.32 0.85 0.51Loyalty to one’s supervisor/boss 3.65 1.18 0.36Complying with the professional code of ethics 4.70 0.59 0.55

Note: aScoring reversed

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IWE (M¼ 4.46) and loyalty (M¼ 4.40) than others ( p< 0.01). A similar pattern is foundacross income, education, and years of experience; those with the higher income,education, or experience scored higher than other managers on both scales.Furthermore, senior managers showed higher commitment than other managers toIWE (M¼ 4.45) and loyalty (M¼ 4.55); p< 0.01. Managers working in the public sectorscored higher than those working the private sector on IWE (M¼ 4.44 vs 4.23) andloyalty (M¼ 4.54 vs 4.28); p< 0.01.

DiscussionThe underlying assumption in undertaking this study was that the investigation ofIWE and loyalty in Kuwait would clarify peculiar societal and organizational issuespertaining to the society. Specifically, this study was undertaken to demonstratewhether or not managers in Kuwait espouse elements of work ethic and work loyalty.The findings appear to raise new questions while shedding light on organizational andcultural reality. Indeed, four important results stand out: high commitment to workethic and loyalty; strong correlation between IWE and loyalty index; and significantdifferences among managers across gender, nationality, management level, and type ofsector.

Contrary to previous research, the results show that managers in Kuwait score highon work ethic. It is possible that managers have become more aware of theirorganizational responsibilities and the economic challenge that Kuwait faces. Thisawareness may motivate them to work hard to improve the competitiveness of theirfirms. The more plausible explanation is that participants are educated managers whoare not only aware of what is sanctioned by religion, but also are infatuated with theideal. According to previous research, Arabs believe that actual experience is impliedin principle and vice versa. That is, Arabs are infatuated with ideal forms, even whenthey know these forms are contradicted by reality. For Arabs, the ideal is carried out inconduct and is identical with practice, rather than merely constituting the criterion bywhich practice is to be judged (Ali, 1988b; Berger, 1964; Berque, 1978). In an open andcompetitive environment this tendency constitutes an asset as it leads to purposefulinvolvement and higher productivity. But in a situation where free expression andeconomic competition are lacking, this tendency may sanction illusion, perpetuate

Table II.Person correlations

between islamic workethic (IWE) index and

loyalty scale

Scale M SD Ra

IWE index 4.33 0.41 1.00

LoyaltyWork hard to accomplish task 4.57 0.67 0.47Achieving tasks successfully 4.53 0.73 0.55Express ideas freely and honestly. 4.64 0.65 0.41Supporting the goals of the organizations as long as they do not goagainst one’s principles 4.39 0.81 0.45Sticking with the organization through good and bad years andmaking sacrifices when necessary to keep the organization strong 4.32 0.85 0.41Loyalty to one’s supervisor/boss 3.65 1.18 0.26Complying with the professional code of ethics 4.70 0.59 0.46Loyalty index (total items) 4.40 0.53 0.61

Note: aAll significant at 0.01

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Table III.One-way MANOVA testfor islamic work ethicand loyalty by selectedorganizational variables

Variable N IWE Loyalty

GenderMale 379 4.36 4.38Female 383 4.30 4.42

F 2.18* 6.03*

NationalityKuwaitis 554 4.30 4.36Other 208 4.41 4.52

F 2.75* 3.52*

Age20-25 132 4.27 4.3726-30 200 4.30 4.3831-35 186 4.31 4.4036-40 130 4.38 4.3341-45 63 4.38 4.5146-50 51 4.44 4.58

F 1.78* 1.51*

Income<300KD 50 4.30 4.38300-500 KD 283 4.32 4.39501-750 KD 246 4.41 4.42751-1,000 KD 89 4.44 4.38Over 1,001 KD 94 4.46 4.40

F 1.44* 2.44*

EducationHigh school 109 4.23 4.33Two years college 213 4.26 4.40Bachelor’s degree 409 4.38 4.42Graduate degree 31 4.43 4.38

F 1.66* 2.44*

Year of experience<2 83 4.26 4.342-4 years 134 4.30 4.425-7 years 134 4.26 4.278-11 years 155 4.33 4.4312-15 years 102 4.37 4.4116-20 years 154 4.41 4.49

F 1.44* 2.36*

Number of years served in present position1 137 4.31 4.382 94 4.36 4.413 83 4.30 4.484 51 4.38 4.405 53 4.32 4.296 47 4.25 4.357 46 4.30 4.348 251 4.35 4.42

F 1.11 1.25(Continued)

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laziness, and hinder genuine development. In the contemporary Middle East, thistendency may contribute largely to the current economic and political calamity.

The strong commitment to all items on the Loyalty Scale provides significant insightsinto the personality of Kuwait managers. In fact, this commitment accurately depicts thereality of managers in Kuwait and their keen awareness of the state of the economy andsociety. Unlike statements in the IWE, which are uttered daily by people, most of thestatements in the Loyalty Scale are not normally discussed even among researchers.Loyalty in Kuwait, like the rest of the Arab countries, is traditionally expressed in termsof ‘‘Isabya’’ – intense loyalty to a primary group. The identity of the individual revolvesaround this group. Researchers suggest that this intense loyalty precludes the need forlarger groups (Ali, 1988b; Bill and Leiden, 1984). The results demonstrate thatparticipants appear to have an identity that is not traditional, immediate or particular(loyalty to family, tribal or community members), but rather larger, cosmopolitan, and orimpersonal (e.g. profession, organization, etc.). Focusing on expressing ideas freely andhonestly, successful achievement of tasks, supporting the goals of their organizations,and complying with the professional code of ethics represent qualitative evolution in thethinking of participants regarding the meaning of loyalty.

The positive correlation between the IWE and loyalty is an issue that has a far-reaching implication for organizational studies. The IWE places exceptional emphasison stressing social aspects at work (e.g. hard work, serving the community, and moralclarity). This emphasis transcends selfish concerns and primary social groups and isconsistent with the general orientation of the loyalty scale. Enforcing this emergingbroad loyalty should be of utmost concern to organizations and senior executives.Nurturing such orientation, more likely, could lead to broadening the traditionalmeaning of loyalty (Isabya) to include commitment to business organizations andprofessional affiliations. More importantly, it could set the stage for sound economicdevelopment and positive involvement at the workplace.

The influence of some demographic and organizational variables on the IWE andloyalty is insightful. Even though all participants scored high on both scales, thedifferences within each group need to be addressed in their organizational and societalcontext. The fact that female managers scored relatively higher than their malecounterparts on loyalty, may indicate that women capitalize on the new emergingopportunities in the marketplace by espousing new organizational concepts and trends.Traditionally, women participation in the marketplace was limited and the male head

Table III.

Variable N IWE Loyalty

Managerial levelSenior management 110 4.45 4.55Middle management 195 4.42 4.45Supervisor 457 4.26 4.34

F 1.98* 2.39*

Type of sectorPrivate 405 4.23 4.28Public 357 4.44 4.54

F 4.87* 8.6*

Notes: *p<0.01; **p<0.05

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of the family, along with other males, were responsible for the economic welfare for allmembers. Furthermore, recruitment and appointment in organizations are usuallyinfluenced by family and tribal connection. (Al-Remahy, 1995). After the establishmentof the Kuwait University, in late 1960s and the sudden increase in oil revenue in the1970s, women have entered the workforce in a large number. The relative higher scoreon loyalty scale of the female participants may underscore that women have come tounderstand that it is not their family or tribal identity that secures their place in theorganization, but rather it is work involvement and the commitment to theirorganizations and their professions.

Expatriate Arabs showed a higher commitment to the IWE and loyalty thanKuwaiti managers. This result is consistent with previous findings in the Arab Gulfregion (see Ali, 1992; Ali et al., 1997). Possibly, expatriates have to engage in work anddisplay loyalty to the organization and its goals to maintain their jobs. In particular,this was true after the Kuwaiti 1990-1991 crisis. The aftermath of that crisis shockedthe foundations of the labor market and job security for expatriates. Many lost theirjobs and were never allowed to return back to work; especially Palestinians and otherswho were accused of sympathizing with the Iraqi invasion. The crisis highlighted thevulnerability of the expatriates and that their cultural and language similarity to theKuwaitis was not enough to guarantee job security.

The finding that senior managers scored higher than other managers on the IWEand loyalty is startling. In Kuwait and the rest of the Arab Gulf region, seniormanagers rely heavily on their subordinates to conduct business. In recent years,however, these managers have discovered that oil prosperity should not be taken forgranted. This realization, coupled with political uncertainty in the region has morelikely motivated them to ponder their future and their role in society. Commitment tothe IWE and loyalty, therefore, may be seen as a sign of reconsideration of theirbusiness and societal role. Indeed, the recent surge of entrepreneurial activities in theArab Gulf region provides evidence of new positive thinking and involvement. Thisnew development is also evidenced in the recent revitalization of the public sector. Formany years, the sector had been the favorite place for employment for indigenouspersonnel. In Kuwait, in particular, the government was willing to accept lowerproductivity to please Kuwaitis resulting in high economic and financial costs (Abdel-Halim and Ashour, 1995; Abdel-Halim and Al-Tuhaih, 1989). The significant reductionin oil revenues and steady increase in population, along with political uncertainty, haveinduced profound changes in hiring and tenure policies with an emphasis on aproductive work environment, skills, and professionalism. This may explain the factthat managers in public sectors scored high on the IWE and loyalty.

In summary, the results of this study show that Kuwaiti managers, unlike the generalobservations and findings in the literature, endorsed work ethic, hard work, and loyalty.The sample was relatively large and most participants were relatively young andeducated. The results demonstrate that the IWE index is correlated with loyalty. Moreimportant, this study highlights the necessity of measuring work ethic and other workrelated factors in order to understand and to compare, over time, changing work beliefsand their relationship, if any, to social and economic development.

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Further reading

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Corresponding authorAbbas J. Ali can be contacted at: aaali@iup.edu

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