Julia Hillner RELIGION, DYNASTY AND P R C.440-C

Julia Hillner RELIGION, DYNASTY, AND PATRONAGE IN ROME,

C.440-C.840

A Database Project of the Centre for Late Antiquity, University of Manchester

FINAL REPORT

December 2002

RELIGION, DYNASTY, AND PATRONAGE IN ROME, C.440-C.840 A Database Project of the Centre for Late Antiquity, University of Manchester

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 3 II. DATABASE DESIGN 4

III. ENTRY POLICIES 11

1. The Source Table 12 2. The Document Table 13 3. The Text Table and Related Tables

3.1 The Text Table and Text/Location Table 16 3.2 The Alternative Reading Table 17 3.3 The Expanded Text Table and Completion Table 18 3.4 The Comments Table 19

4. The Transaction Table 20 5. The Participants Table and Related Tables

5.1 The Particpants Table 22 5.2 The Location of Participants Table and Location of Participants /Text Table 23 5.3 The Relationships Table and Relationships/Participants Table 23

6. The Roles Table and Related Tables 6.1 The Roles Table 24 6.2 The Name Table, the Alternative Versions of Names Table, and the Roles/Names Table 26 6.3 The Function Table 27 6.4 The Title Table 28 6.5 The Status Table 29 6.6 The Mattertype Table 29 6.7 The Type of Institution Table 31 6.8 The Type of Group Table 32 6.9 The Location of Role Table 32 6.10 The Named in Text Table 33

7. The Date Table 34 8. The Location Table 34 9. The Origin Table 36

IV. QUERIES 38 V. APPENDIX: SOURCES 46

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VI. INTRODUCTION∗ “Religion, Dynasty and Patronage in Rome, c.440-c.840” (1999-2002) and its pilot

“Family and Monastery in Sixth-Century Rome” (1997-8) under the direction of Conrad Leyser are projects of the Centre for Late Antiquity at the University of Manchester, an interdisciplinary Research Centre between the Department of History and the Department of Religion and Theology. Members of staff have been: Marios Costambeys (1997-1998), Clare Pilsworth (1999-2000), and Julia Hillner (2001-2002). The database structure described here was constructed by Clare Pilsworth and, subsequently, Julia Hillner. The pilot project, which saw the construction of a prototype database on patronage recorded by the letters of Pope Gregory the Great, was funded by the University of Manchester. For 1999-2002, funding has been obtained from the Arts and Humanities Research Board to support the broad extension of the database with a full-time research associate. The design of the database (subsequently called “Patronage database”) was completed in May 2001, while the remaining time was dedicated to the analysis and entry of the relevant sources, the creation of a front end user interface and the development of a presentation strategy for conferences. The Patronage database will be deposited with the History Data Service, but a publication on CD-Rom is envisaged.

"Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Rome, c.440-c.840" is driven by a concern to retrieve the interaction between "secular" and "religious" institutions through a social history of the gift in Rome in the formative period from the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire to the rise of the Carolingians.

The documentary evidence for patronage and gift-giving in the late Roman/early medieval period is scarcer than it is for later periods. This has lent support to the unwarranted assumption that ascetic Christianity was intrinsically hostile to the family and civic order. As would have been obvious to contemporaries, however, Christianity triumphed to the extent that it did because it served the needs of the patriarchs and matronae who supported and invested in it. A social history of the gift in Rome in this period remains unwritten, however, because the different historiographies involved do not sufficiently inform each other. Cordons are strung between the history of the laity and the clergy, for example, and between 'late Roman' and 'early medieval' phenomena. For as long as these interpretative grids are in place, the social dynamics of the development of Christian institutions in Italy will remain out of sight.

By maintaining a relational database of patronage, the project seeks to make possible new kinds of comparative work through the ‘levelling’ effect of entering data from sources and periods not usually considered together. We wish to bring these records together in the database so to provide not only a catalogue of references relevant to patronage, but to allow historians to ask meaningful questions over a range of data much wider than had previously been available. Our approach to patronage looks to situate meticulous empirical work in cataloging gifts and their givers within an interpretative frame that takes seriously the symbolic aspects of this social process. A model is provided by the work of scholars of post-Carolingian Europe who, enjoying more copious evidence and drawing on the anthropology of the gift, have vividly analysed the interdependence between lay concerns and ecclesiastical institutions. Barbara Rosenwein's computer assisted study of the cartulary of Cluny, for example, shows how local families refined the art of giving to the monastery1. The database will make possible the delineation of networks of patronage and reciprocal exchange- a concrete and comparative picture of how lay elites began to divert their resources into ecclesiastical institutions.

∗ A concised version of the present description of the database “Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Rome, 440-840” will be published in F. De Rubeis/W. Pohl (eds.), La scrittura dai monasteri. Atti del Seminario Internazionale "I Monasteri nell'alto medioevo: Le scritture dai monasteri" (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae). 1 B. Rosenwein, To Be the Neighbor of Saint Peter: The Social Meaning of Cluny's Property, 909-1049, Ithaca/London,1989.

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This guideline to the database, based on a Power Point presentation at the Seminario Internazionale di Studi: I Monasteri nell'alto medioevo: Le scritture dai monasteri (Rome, Istituto Austriaco, 10 May 2002) firstly provides a general introduction to the Patronage database design and the underlying intellectual framework. Secondly, it specifies the policies developed for data entry by giving a detailed table-to-table and field-to-field description. Finally, the article discusses the possibilities of queries into the database contents, by focussing on the information concerning the monasteries of the city of Rome in general, and Gregory the Great's monastery of St. Andrew on the Caelian Hill in particular. II. DATABASE DESIGN The distinctive feature of the Patronage database is the inclusion of all sources for patronage in Rome across a wide chronological range. In terms of the concrete database design, this presented two specific problems.

Firstly, we had to clearly define the term “patronage” in order to allow a translation of the source content into structured database language. This model had to be flexible enough for an application to a widest possible range of sources, and therefore had to be found through comparison of the sources themselves.

The research on the sources, which preceded the database design, has shown that the less compromising way to reflect the nature of patronage in a structured fashion is to understand it as a dynamic transaction. All the people, institutions, and goods involved in this transaction are regarded as equal participants. In a model like this each participants assumes a determined role in a patronage transaction: the predominant roles of donor, object and recipient of the transaction; or the associated roles of enabler, witness, scribe, associate etc. Each participant is defined by his or her own unique attributions, such as name, title, office, geographical location etc.. However, we had to extent this model to represent an important feature of early medieval patronage: the existence of patronage networks through the participation of the same people, institutions, and goods in a variety of patronage transactions and in ever changing roles over a long period of time. One person, in fact, can be the donor of objects in one or more transactions, but in a different one can also be, at the same time or later, a recipient of objects, or a witness, or a scribe. Similarly, an institution, such as a monastery, can be the object of a transaction at one time, but a recipient of an object at another. Diagramme 1. The Patronage Model

donor

donor recipientobject

recipient

object

TRANSACTION 1TRANSACTION

2

=

object

TRANSACTION 3

= recipient

objectTRANSACTION 4

= witness donor

The model shows that the definition of patronage is a very broad one. We presume the phenomenon of patronage in every transaction that involves an economical commitment of the

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donor and/or involves the physical movement of objects and/or involves the change of the legal status of objects. In addition to the “classical” patronage types, such as donations and foundations, the database therefore includes also references to bequests, sales, leases etc. and also to “criminal” transactions such as bribes and thefts2. Epitaphs, even when they do not refer to the purchase or agreement of a site for the epitaph, but simply record that the parents, for example, have erected the epitaph to honour their dead child, represent a transaction as well.

The development of this model facilitated the breaking up of the sources into schematic information, even if they were not composed with the deliberate aim of documenting the legal circumstances of patronage transactions. This is particularly important for the early medieval city of Rome, which, before the 10th century, has left behind very few legal records of transactions, i.e. no trustworthy charter evidence and only a small number of papyri3. However, there is a vast amount of inscriptions, papal (and other) letters, and narrative sources, first and foremost the Liber pontificalis, which on the basis of the patronage model could be fruitfully used. The APPENDIX (Below Chapter V) indeed shows that we have been able to analyse almost every source on early medieval Rome for the compilation of this database. As a matter of fact, sources as late as the 12th century are included in the database, if they provide information about a patronage transaction during the period covered.

The following three figure give examples of three different source types we used in the compilation of the database: an inscription, a letter, and a narrative source. Although they are formally very different, they show that on the basis of our patronage model we could extract identical typologies of patronage: 1. Inscription

CIL VI, 1716b

DECIVS MARIVS VENANTIVS | BASILIVS

VC ET INL

PRAEF | VRB

PATRICIVS

CONSVL | ORDINARIVS

ARENAM ET | PODIVM QVAE ABOMI||NANDI TERRAE MO|TVS RVINA PROS|TRAVIT

SVMPTV PRO|PRIO

RESTITVIT

name of donor

title of donor

office of donor

recipient of transaction

type of transaction

title of donor

office of donor

object of transaction

2. Letter

2 However, some activities which might be regarded as patronage were not included, notably job appointments and the organisation of liturgical celebrations (sermons, prayers) in specific institutions. 3 See T.F.X. Noble, ‘The Intellectual Culture of the Early Medieval Papacy’, in Roma nell’alto medioevo, vol. 1 (Settimane di studio del centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo 48), Spoleto 2001, 180.

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S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri VIII-XIV, ed. D. Norberg, IV, 138

Cognovimus itaque

Iohannem

quondam presbyterum sanctae Romanae

cui Deo auctore deservimus ecclesiae

in domo iuris sui posita in hac urbe Roma iuxta thermas Agrippianas

oratorium

construxisse (...)

name of donor

office of donor

location of recipient

recipient

type of transaction

3. Narrative Source

Johannes Diaconus, Vita Gregorii IV,20

Igitur septimo kalendarum Maiarum,indictione sexta, imago Phocae et Leontiae, augustorum,

cum eorumdem favorabilibus litteris

Romam delata est.

Et postquam a clero et senatu acclamatum est eis in basilica Julii, jussu Gregorii

in oratorio sancti Caesarii Lateranensi palatio constituto

reponitur.

date of transaction

object of transaction

location of object

enabler

recipient

type of transaction

donorstitle of donors

location of recipient

The second problem for the database design concerned the formal differences between sources for patronage in early medieval Rome. Many databases only deal with just one type of source, for example epigraphical sources. This determines the structure of the database. If only one source type is used for the compilation of a database, the typologies recorded by the database are the same for every entered document. This means that all typologies can be stored at one place in a so-called flat-file database. A content-orientated database like the Patronage database, however, needs to deal with an array of sources. It might be possible to find a model for the

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extraction of identical information from these sources, such as the patronage model outlined above, but the sources formally are often highly divergent, especially if they are distant from each other in time. Roman inscriptions, for example, use a specific system of abbreviation often different from the one used in later medieval manuscripts. Inscriptions, as opposed to, for example, narrative texts transmitted by manuscripts, also usually have a history of geographical finding location. Yet they might not have a history of broad manuscript transmission, which produced a number of variants of the actual text. Different forms of historical sources request different approaches to source critique, which all have to be accessible to the user of a database.

The synchronic and diachronic dynamic of the patronage model and the broad variety of the source typologies required the employment of a relational database system. Th Patronage project, like many others in the Humanities, uses Microsoft Access as its database management system. Microsoft Access allows for the storage, retrieval, and, above all, highly flexible correlation of the material in a relational database.

A relational database is a collection of tables. Each table represents one of the main sections into which information can be stored. Each table, in turn, contains a number of fields (in a published table these would be called “columns”). The fields represent the breaking-down of the information into various aspects that might be useful for subsequent queries on the database contents. Every record entered into a table should consist of a unique combination of information stored in the various fields. Each record in a table has an ID (usually a number) assigned to it and to no other record.

Shown below is part of the table of the Patronage database, in which information on location is stored. We decided to store the information on location according to the hierarchical aspects Region, Main Location, Quarter, Street, Building: Table 1. The Location Table Loc ID

Region Main Location

Quarter Street Building

3 Italy Rome Caelius Clivus Scauri n/a 4 Italy Rome n/a n/a S Maria 5 Italy Rome Fora Forum Traianum n/a 6 Italy Rome Campus Martius Piazza dei SS Apostoli Foundations of the

Palazzo Savorelli

7 Italy Rome Fora Forum Romanum Column of the Emperor Phokas

8 Italy Rome Palatine n/a S Anastasia 9 Italy Rome Caelius Clivus Scauri Monastery S Andreae 10 Italy Suburbium Via Flaminia Near Orte n/a 12 Italy Rome Campus Martius Via Lata n/a

The location table is a look-up table, which means that the information stored here relates to a number of aspects of the patronage model represented in the database, for example, the location of objects, the birth-place of donors, or the place of issue of a transaction. It is the unique ID assigned to every record in the location table what makes technically possible the finding of these correlations. Relationships between tables can in fact be defined by creating common fields in different tables and by entering the same value in these common fields. The location of a participant in a patronage transaction, for example, can be retrieved by repeating the Location ID from the Location Table in a field “Location ID” in the Participant Table.

The challenge of database design, however, is to mediate the tension between software protocol and social/historical reality. In the Location-Participant example one location in the

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Location Table can be assigned to only one participant in the Participant Table. This would be a one-to-one relationship. Yet, in historical reality it is more likely that there exists a one-to-many relationship, i.e. that one location can be assigned to more than one participant. This means that the ID of the respective location has to be stored in the Participant Table as often as participants are linked to that particular location. It becomes more complicated if one location can be assigned to more than one participant, but one of these participants is linked to more than one location (because, for example different sources record a different birth-place). This constitutes a many-to-many relationship. In the database management system of Microsoft Access, however, all relationships between tables have to be many-to-one (or, seen from the other direction, one-to-many) in order for the data to be searchable.

The classic solution to this problem is to set up a link table which includes the ID’s of records from two tables. The interposition of a link table as a ‘third party’ between the two clashing tables breaks down the many-to-many relationship into two many-to-one relationships. In the Location-Participant Example, the link table would repeat the ID of location and the ID of participants as often as a location is linked to a participant and a participant is linked to a location. This prevents a breach in software protocol, while preserving the possibility of reassembling the data to produce a picture of relationships in their full complexity. Diagramme 2. The Database Design

SourceSourceAuthor

Source TitlePublisher

Place of PublicationDate published

VolumeSeries/Periodical

NumberPages

Document Document Book Number

Book ReferenceType of Text

Original or CopyAuthenticityFirst DateLast Date

TextTextText Details

TransactionTransactionTransaction Type

Transaction LocationFirst DateLast Date

RolesRolesTransaction NumberParticipant Number

Role

ParticipantsParticipantsParticipant NumberType of participant

Expanded TextExpanded Text

Origin of Expansion

CommentsCommentOrigin of comment

Alternative ReadingsAlternative ReadingsAlternative Reading

Origin of Alternative Reading

MattertypeMattertype Details

Type of InstitutionType of Institution Deatils

StatusStatus Details (lay, clerical,

monastic)

NameName Details

Alternative Versions of Names

Alternative Version

RelationshipsParticipant 1Participant 2Relationship

Location of Participants

Location Number

FunctionFunction Details

CompletionCompletionOrigin of

completion

TitleTitle Details

Location of roleLocation number

OriginName of OriginSource Page

DateYear

Month Day

LocationRegio, Main loaction, Area,Quarter, Street, Building,Location inside building

Type of GroupType of Group

Details

Location of TextLocation Number

The diagramme shown above represents the tables of the database and the relationships between them. There are 31 Tables in the Patronage database, six primary tables, 15 secondary tables, three look-up tables, and seven link tables (not shown in the diagramme). The primary tables (represented in the diagramme with a dark background) store the core information. The information recorded in the secondary tables (with a dark frame) and the look-up tables (in the bottom left corner) provides an ever more detailed interpretation of the core information. The arrows represent the relationships between the tables. A broken line means a one-to-many relationship (in the direction in which the arrow is pointing), a dotted line stands for a many-to-many relationship, i.e. where a link table has been installed.

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In the definiton of their respective relationships there is a notional distinction between a transaction and the text which records it. Therefore the database is built around two interdependent areas: the Text-area and the Content-area.

In the Text-area there are three primary tables: the Source Table, the Document Table and the Text Table. The Source Table represents the bibliographical details of the source editions used in the compilation of the database. The Document Table deals with the single document (e.g. a charter, an inscription) to be found in a source edition. The Document Table is directly related to the Source Table. It is a one-to-many relationship, because one edition of a source, for example a collection of inscriptions, can contain many documents. Each entry in the Text Table gives an extract from a document recording a transaction. The Text Table is directly related to the Document Table in a many-to-one relationship as well, because one document can contain many text sections specifying patronage transactions.

Around the Text Table circle a number of secondary tables in one-to-many relationships, which supplement the core information and deal mostly with the problems represented by different source types. In dealing with inscriptions, the plain (=abbreviated) text of the inscription as it was found on the stone is stored in the Text Table, and the expanded version(s) of the inscription in a separate Expanded Text Table. Historical variants of the text stored in the Text Table (i.e. manuscript variants, different copies of inscriptions) are recorded in the Altenative Reading Table. Completion(s) and emendation(s) of texts and of alternative readings of texts by modern authors on the other hand will be stored in a Completion Table. Since this table relates both to the Text Table and to the Alternative Text Table, two link tables have been created which repeat, respectively, the IDs of the Completion and the Text , and the Ids of the Completion and the Alternative Reading of the text. The Location of Text Table stores information about the location of inscriptions. In the Comments Table linked to the Text Table comments by modern authors relating to the form or the content of the text section included in the Text Table are stored.

The Content Area stores all the information which the text section in the Text Table provides about a single transaction and its participants. Its design reflects the patronage model outlined above. Due to its definition as a dynamic network it employs a high number of link tables. There are again three primary tables: The Transaction Table, the Participants Table and the Roles Table. The Transaction Table records the type of a transaction. It is directly related to the Text Table in a one-to-many relationship, because one transaction can be recorded in many texts. The Participant Table provides basic information about the type of participants (Person/Group/Institution/Object etc.) that does not change from transaction to transaction. One type of information that in theory should not change about a participant is the indication of his birth-place. In practice, however, different sources can record different birth places for a participant. Therefore the Participant Table is linked in a one-to-many relationship to the Location of Participant Table. This in turn, is related via a link table to the Text Table. Since participants can be mentioned in many texts, this ensures that the exact text, in which their birth-place is mentioned, can be retrieved. To identify also not changing family connections of a participant all family relationships recorded in the sources are entered into the Relationships Table, together with the two participants involved in this relationship. Because one relationship relates to two participants in the Participants Table, family relationships could not be reflected in the Participant Table itself. A link table has been created which repeats for the same Relationship ID the IDs of the two participants.

The Roles Table deals with the role (i.e. donor, recipient, enabler, witness etc) of the single participants involved in a transaction at the time of the transaction. It is a link table between Transaction and Participants, because on the one hand, many transactions involve more than one person or object. On the other hand one person and one object can be involved in more than one transaction.

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Linked to the Roles Table are a number of secondary tables, where information about the character of the participants at the time of the transaction is stored. These are the Function Table, the Title Table, the Name Table, the Status Table, the Mattertype Table, the Type of Institution Table, the Type of Group Table, and the Location of Role Table. The characteristics of participants stored in these tables are associated with specific transactions, and can therefore alter from transaction to transaction (an individual, for example, may change his or her name and title, or a monastery can be transformed into a church). This information could not be stored in the primary Roles Table, because it often depends on the type of participant (an institution, for example, does not have a title or status) and would therefore have created too many empty fields. Furthermore one person can hold more than one title, office or status at the same time and it would have meant unnecessary repetition of this information in the Roles Table. For the last reason all these tables are related to the Roles Table in a many-to-one relationship. The Name Table is the only secondary table related to the Roles Table that has another subordinated relationship: There is the option of storing alternative versions of names in an Alternative Versions of Names Table, which has a many-to-one relationship with the Name Table. The Roles Table is also linked to the Text Table via a link table called Named in Text Table. In this table information is stored in which text section the participant, whose role in a transaction is specified in the Roles Table, is actually mentioned. This is important for transactions recorded by more than one text, because not all text sections may record the same participants.

In many tables we need to store information on dates, location, and bibliographical references. Some of this information is very detailed, as can be seen from the example on the Location Table shown above. To repeat this information in the respective tables themselves would make the table unnessecarily big and would also mean a lot of repetition, because often the information is identical between two or more records (The location Italy/Suburbium/Vatican/S Petrus, for example, applies to a number of objects, people and also transactions. Likewise, the date 12 June 648 may be both the date of a transaction and the date of composition of a document. Finally, from L. Duchesne, Le Liber pontificalis, Paris 1995, 255 can be extracted a whole range of comments, emendations or expansions of inscriptions). For this kind of information we have established numerical codes: users can refer to the Look-up-Tables for a full list of the codes and their meanings.

The Origin Table stores the bibliographical reference (Name and page number) for the expansion and the completion of text sections, their alternative reading and the comments on a text section. It can be linked back to the Source Table for full details on the bibliographical reference in question.

Location appears as a field in several tables to reflect the complexity of our data: sources can record the location of legal transaction, birth places for participants, places where individuals spend parts of their lives (and therefore places associated with them at the time of a transaction), the location of institutions and the location of objects. The ID assigned to a location in the Location Table is repeated in the location fields of the various tables (Transaction Table, Location of Participants Table, Location of Roles Table, Location of Text Table) recording information on location.

The Date Table stores information on the year, month and day a document was composed or a transaction completed. The date of a transaction and the document recording it can of course be different. Both the Transaction Table and the Document Table therefore repeat the ID assigned to a date in their respective Date fields. III. ENTRY POLICIES It should be noted that by entering information we have tried to stay as close as possible to our sources of information and to keep the level of interpretation as low as possible. This means

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that if there was any doubt of the identification of, for example, a person mentioned in a source with another person mentioned in another source, they were entered as two different people into the database. However, entries into databases should not be too specific, because the user will then not be able to ask meaningful questions of the data. A degree of standardisation and categorisation is required at the point of data entry, which can in some cases imply historical assumptions.

For example, as far as standardisation is concerned, the different spellings of a name in the sources are not represented as different names within the database, because a user looking for donors with a specific name could miss out a number of records where the same name appears only with a different spelling. However, there is the possibility to check with the Alternative Versions of Names Table on the degree of standardisation. On the other hand, the information the sources provide were only standardised to a certain extent. It was not an option, for example, to assign to an institution one name with which it is designated inside this database, because names can change from role to role: the Titulus Pammachii, for example, was also known as SS Iohannes et Paulus. There is a risk that users who look for SS Iohannes et Paulus will miss out records concerning the same church but with a different name or not a name at all. However, there is the possibility to generate, via the user surface, patronage biographies for every participant in a transaction, which will also give all the different names under which the participant was known.

Other instances of data entry require categorisation. For example, liturgical objects often formed part of a patronage bequest or donation. However, it would have been too specific (and time-consuming) to record every single vessel as separate items, such as 'chalice' or 'goblet'. A broader category to which these objects belong had to be found, which, in this case, is ‘Liturgical vessels’. In the definition of these categories we clearly had to make certain assumptions about what a user might be looking for, keeping in mind a widest possible range of users. Some users therefore might find that the categories are too abstract and the richness of the data is lost. However, the aim of the database is to point out the references to patronage transactions and certain patterns affecting these transactions. It does not replace a close work with the sources themselves and it definitely does not replace the critical edition of the source. By always giving the text section from which the information is extracted and its bibliographical reference, the database enables users to do more detailed research on the broader categories it provides by pointing them back to the edition used in the compilation.

All cases where it is doubtful whether information entered belongs to a certain category the entry is followed by a question mark. Users should make sure that they consider this in their queries.

We have tried to avoid empty fields by creating sub-tables. However, where this was not possible, the abbreviation n/a (for: not applicable) is used throughout the database to indicate that we could not enter any information into the respective field.

Please note that in all fields (with the exception of Text Details (Latin), Text Details (Greek), Expanded Text, Alternative Text Reading, Completion and Comment Details) no punctuation has been used in order to facilitate queries using Selected Query Language (therefore it is “S Petrus”, not “S. Petrus”). Likewise, wherever the particles “in” and “not” have been used, they are followd by _ (for example, “In_front of the confessio”; “Not_specified”)

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1. The Source Table

The Source Table contains the bibliographical details of the editions of sources used in the compilation of the database. We have tried, whenever possible, to use the most authoritative and/or most recent edition of sources. Different volumes of one edition are entered as separate entities, because details regarding editor, publisher, place and date of publication etc. might be different. No abbreviations are used. The Source Table contains twelve fields.

• Source ID gives the unique number assigned to each single edition. • Source Title gives the full title of the edition.

Titles of articles and parts of larger series (i.e. Monumenta Germaniae Historica; Patrologia Latina), are surrounded by quotation marks. In this case the user should refer to the fields “Series/Periodical”, “Number of series/periodical” and “Page numbers” for further details.

• Author 1 and Author 2 give the last name and the initials of the editor(s) of the source. These fields only contain names of editors. Names of authors of primary sources are entered in the Source Title field (e.g. Author 1: Minard, P.; Source Title: Grégoire le Grand, Registre des Lettres)

• Publisher gives the name of the publisher. Please note, that this field was not used in a consistent way.

• Place of publication gives the place where the edition is published. Toponyms follow the language of the edition (i.e. “Roma” in case of Italian publications, “Rome” in case of English/French publications, “Rom” in case of German publications etc.)

• Date published from gives the date (or, in case it has been published over a number of years, the first date) of publication of an edition.

• Volume gives the number (or any other codification used) of the volume of the edition.

• Series/Periodical gives the full title of the series (e.g. Monumenta Germaniae Historica; Patrologia Latina) or the full title of the periodical (e.g. Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana) where a source is published.

• Number of series/periodical gives the number (or any other codification used) of the volume of a series or a periodical where a source is published.

• Page numbers gives the first and the last page number of the edition of a source in a volume of a series or a periodical.

Please see Chapter V: APPENDIX for a full list of all the sources used. The database design allows for queries both on texts themselves and on information extracted from the text to refer to the source table for further bibliographical details. However, it is also possible to start a query from an edition, or indeed the series/periodical where the edition is published. Number of Records: 245

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2. The Document Table

The division of a source into many documents usually follows the division set out by the edition of the source used. “Documents” can therefore be single sources of their own right (for example inscriptions, letters or charters), but also paragraphs in a narrative text or just pages of a primary source edition. The Document Table contains nine fields:

• Document ID gives the unique number assigned to every single document • Source ID repeats the unique number assigned to the source edition in the Source Table

from which the respective document is drawn. • Subdivision number and Edition reference

The edition references indicated may be numbers of documents (for example numbers of inscriptions, letters, charters), number of paragraphs of a narrative text, or simply page numbers. These references are entered in the field “Edition reference”. Where a broader division of the source exists, for example into books, it is entered into the field “Subdivision”. For example, the inscription no. 40807 in G. Alföldy, Inscriptiones Urbis Romae Latinae, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum 6, 3, 8, Berlin, 2000, is entered as: Subdivision number: n/a; Edition reference: 40807; the letter no. 72 in book IX in D. Norberg, S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri VIII-XIV, Turnhout, 1982 (Corpus Christianorum 140A) is entered as: Subdivision number: 9; Edition reference: 72. The methodologies used are not specified in the single cases. This decision was made in part because it would have been difficult to translate different procedures into database language, but also because of our general policy that the user is expected to refer to the edition of a text after having consulted the database. The careful use of the edition will then clarify the respective usage of referencing. A note on the references to the Liber Pontificalis: The referencing of the Liber Pontificalis employed in the database does not follow the common usage, which gives first the volume and subsequently the page number of the Duchesne-edition (L. Duchesne, Le Liber pontificalis, vols. 1-3, Paris, 21955), for example LP II, 13 (a reference to the life of Leo III). Rather, the vitae of the single popes are entered as single documents (for example, the vita of Leo III is entered as: Subdivision number: n/a; Edition reference: 98). This is due to our decision to group all the references in a vita in the Liber pontificalis to transactions between the respective pope and the same church in Rome as one single transaction. For example, in the vita of Leo III there are references to his patronage of the titular church of S Sabina on page 2, 9 and 12 of the Duchesne-edition. Instead of inserting these as three different transactions, the references are inserted together in the Latin Text field of the Text Table (divided by (...)) and given one single Transaction ID. The decision is based on the desire to speed up entry time and avoid repetition in the “Content”-related tables of the database. We are aware of the fact that this might not reflect historical reality, because the composition of the vitae may well have followed a chronological pattern (see for this R. Davis, The Lives of the Ninth-Century Popes, Liverpool, 1995 [Translated Texts for Historians. Latin Series 20]). Also, this procedure can make the verification of the reference in the edition quite time-consuming, because some of the vitae are quite long. However, it again will show users that the database is not a replacement of the edition, but that a subsequent in-depth consultation of the edition is required at all times.

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Please note that there is one exception from this rule: the long list of objects give by pope Leo III to all the churches, monasteries, diaconiae and hospices in Rome (LP II, 18-25) is treated as one transaction, which is separated from other transactions concerning these churches recorded by his vita.

• Type of text indicates the nature of the document. The typologies used are: Inscription, Letter, Narrative, Charter (including Bullae, Diplomata, Papyri), Treatise (including Itineraries) and Manuscript Subscription.

• Original/Copy specifies whether the edition of the document used in the compilation of the database relies on the original document or on a later copy of the document. For example, an inscription or a charter, the original of which have been checked by their editor prior of publishing their wording, is entered as “Original” (even though it might not survive in the original anymore today). In case both the original and one or more copies of a document are published in different places, preference is given to the edition, which relies on the original. For example, the epitaph for pope Hadrian I was transmitted, in the Middle Ages, by a number of Syllogae (published in G. B. De Rossi, Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae, vol. 2, Roma, 1888). It also survives in the original, which was published, most recently, in F. De Rubeis, "Epigrafi a Roma dall'età classica all'alto medioevo", in Roma. Dall'antichità al medioevo. Archeologia e storia nel Museo nazionale romano della Cripta Balbi (Catalogue), Milano, 2001. It is this last version, which was entered into the database. Unless the versions transmitted by the copies differ from the original as far as the information on the actual patronage transaction is concerned (in which case they are inserted into the Alternative Reading Table), no mention is made of them. Again, users are referred to the edition to pursue further enquiries on the document. In the Original/Copy field it is also specified whether the text entered into the Text Table relies on the editor’s emendation of the original document with the help of a copy (for example, the decoding of a fragmented original inscription on the basis of an earlier copy of the complete inscription). In this case the term “Both” is entered.

• Authenticity specifies whether a document is authentic, doubtful, or false. It should be noted that these categories do not refer to the authenticity of the transaction recorded. Rather, they record whether, according to the editors of the document, it has been composed at the time and under the circumstance that are claimed in the text. It should go without saying that users should not take the fact that a transaction has been included in the database as an indication that it has actually happened. Only in rare cases have we commented on the authenticity of a transaction (in the Comments Table of the database), allowing users to draw their own conclusions. Users therefore need to establish the authenticity of a transaction at all times by themselves, by investigating the nature of a source with customary historical methodology.

• Terminus post quem and Terminus ante quem give the possible first and the possible last date of the composition of a document. The date always refers to the composition of the original document, not its later copy (which might have been used in the compilation of the database, because the original has not survived). For example, the description of the basilica of St Petrus in Vaticano by Petrus Mallius ("Petri Mallii Descriptio Basilicae Vaticanae Aucta atque Emendata a Romano Presbitero", in: R. Valentini/G. Zucchetti, Codice Topografico della Città di Roma, Roma, 1946, 375-442) is dated to the years between 1145 and 1198. Paragraphs on early medieval single patronage transactions taken from Petrus Mallius’ own narrative are consequently dated to this time as well, however, whenever his transcription of early medieval papal epitaphs are inserted into the database, these are dated to the most likely time of their composition (and specified as “copy”).

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Many documents cannot be assigned to an exact date, so the two numbers give the limits of the period of time in which it was most likely composed. Where a document has an exact date, this is inserted in both fields. Where a document can be assigned to two different dates, the earlier date is inserted in Terminus post quem, the later in Terminus ante quem. The assignment of dates generally follows the opinion of the editors of a document. Diversions from this are recorded in the Comments table. Verbal descriptions of a period of time are transformed into numerical, i.e.: Fifth century: Terminus post quem: 400, Terminus ante quem: 500 First half of fifth century = Terminus post quem: 400, Terminus ante quem: 450 Beginning of the sixth century = Terminus post quem: 500, Terminus ante quem: 520 Last decade of the ninth century = Terminus post quem: 890, Terminus ante quem: 900 etc. Please see the Date Table description below for the transcription of contemporary usages of dating. Users should note that the dates inserted into the Documents Table are coded. This is due to the fact that many dates consist of more than one element (i.e. year/month/day). Rather than repeating all these elements twice in the Document Table, they are grouped in the Date Table and given one unique ID, which is then used in the Document Table. For information on the numerical codes users are referred to the Date Table, by simply linking the fields Terminus post quem and Terminus ante quem to the Date Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES). A note on the dating of inscriptions: Where an inscription itself gives an indication of a date (most commonly by indicating the consul in office, and/or the indiction, but also by giving, for example, the name of the pope who erected the inscription) the dating of the composition of the inscription in question is based on this. In case of Christian funerary inscriptions, however, the date given usually is not the date of composition of the inscription, but the date of deposition of the defunct, while the inscription itself might have been executed at a later date. This is reflected in the database by giving the date of the deposition as the first possible date, and leaving the last possible date blank (= 0, numerical code: 59). The methodology of dating inscriptions is not specified in each single case. This might be confusing, in case inscriptions are fragmentary, but the editors of the inscription have been able to restore the name of the consul indicated, or to give a number of options regarding possible names. We have usually followed this completion for the dating of inscriptions, without, however, giving the completion itself in the Completion Table. The transcription of every possible completion regarding the name of consuls would have been too time-consuming. In these cases users are referred to the edition of the inscription used.

Number of records: 2087

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The Text Table and related Tables 3. 1 The Text Table and the Text/Location Table Each text section entered in the Text Table deals with one patronage transaction only. For example, from the vita of pope Paschalis I (LP II 52-68, vita no. 100) were extracted 40 different text sections specifying 40 different transactions. It becomes clear from this that the database does not transcribe the entire document, but only the sections, which talk explicitly about a transaction. The purpose of the transcription is to permit users to understand how we have interpreted the primary sources. However, not all the information used in the “Content-Area” of the database is always transcribed in the Text Table. Names of witnesses and scribes, for example, or details about the birthplace of participants, which, in the original document, were mentioned in a different place than the patronage transaction itself, often are not repeated. For consultation of the full text users are referred to the edition. A note on the location of inscriptions: In case the text section in question is an inscription, users can check on the location where the inscription has been first found/seen. The Text Table is linked to the Location Table via the link table Text/Location Table. In this table, which contains the fields Text ID – Location ID the unique numbers assigned to a text section (inscription), and to the location of this text section (inscription) inserted into the Location Table, are repeated as often as the same location has been identified for different text sections (inscriptions); and as often as one single text section (inscription) has been assigned one or more locations. However, it should be noted that the localisation of the inscription follows the indications in the edition of the inscription used and, usually, only gives the earliest indication of the finding site/viewing site (i.e. only one). In many cases it would have been too time consuming to deal in-depth with problems of localisation. Wherever this rule is not followed it is specified in the Comments Table. The Text Table contains five fields:

• Text ID gives the unique number assigned to each single text section. • Document ID repeats the unique number assigned to the document in the

Document Table from which the respective text section is drawn. • Transaction ID repeats the unique number assigned to every single transaction in the

Transaction Table (see below Number 4: The Transaction Table). • Textdetails (Latin) and Textdetails (Greek) contain the text section detailing a

patronage transaction transcribed from the source edition used. How the Latin text is transcribed: Whenever possible, we tried to transcribe the Latin texts without the emendation of their editors (where this emendation could be identified). For the consultation of a possible emendation users are referred to the Expanded Text Table/Completion Tables (see below). The following signs are used: (...) indicates that text has been left out by us. It is used whenever sections detailing a patronage transaction are not transcribed as a full sentence (for example: (...) Capua, quae beato Petro apostolorum principi pro mercede anime vestrae atque sempiterna memoria cum ceteris civitatibus offeruistis (...); but: Ecclesia vero beati Marcelli sita in quartodecimo, quae ab igne fuerat exusta, isdem almificus presul in omnibus noviter restauravit.) It is also used if one patronage transaction is mentioned twice in the document in question, but in different places. (...) in this case replaces the text left out (for example: Fecit ubi supra, ad fontes, vela alba olosirica ornata in circuitu de fundato

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atque quadrapulo, numero X. (...) simul et ad fontes omnia et in omnibus noviter restauravit.). [---] is used to indicate a missing fragment of the text (we have not attempted to estimate the number of missing letters, but not reconstructed text is universally represented through ---). | is used in the transcription of inscriptions and poems to indicate a new line. Every fifth line is divided from the next one by ||. A note on the transcription of Latin inscriptions: We have tried to transcribe Latin inscriptions in the way they were found on the stone/in the manuscript, whenever the edition used would allow this. This means that they are mostly transcribed in capital letters and in abbreviated form. For the expansion users are referred to the Expanded Text Table. However, no symbols or images found on the stone (as, for example, +) are repeated. Ligatures are risolved. Another sign, which could not be represented by the font used (Times New Roman), is the Greek sign for the number 6. It is transcribed with the Latin numerical sign VI. A missing fragment of an inscription is replaced universally by [---], regardless how long the fragment might be estimated. A note on the transcripiton of Greek text: In MS Access one text field cannot represent two different types of fonts. We therefore decided to create a second field for Greek texts. The font used in the field giving a Greek text section is Symbol Accentuated. It is not included in the common fonts of Windows, but has to be installed (The font can be provided by us). Users are currently able to view the Greek text in Symbol Accentuated only in the form of the Text Table (i.e. Forms: Textsections), not in the Text Table itself, because the Text Table only supports one single font for all the fields. Due to the font problems, the Greek text was not equally scrupulously entered as the Latin text. To begin with, expansion and completion of the Greek texts by the editors are entered into the Text Table. At the time when a decision on how to enter the Greek text was made (i.e. by creating another field in the Text Table), it would have been to time-consuming to alter the Expanded Text Table and the Completion Table as well. Furthermore, Symbol Accentuated is not able to support the signs [ ] and |. [ ] was replaced by ( ) and | by /. Consequently, it is not possible to distinguish between completed text (usually inserted between square brackets) and expanded text (usually inserted between round brackets) anymore.

3.2 The Alternative Reading Table By using the most authoritative (and/or most recent) edition of a document, we made a definitive choice about the standard text to insert in the Text Table and from which to extract information. However, whenever it was noted that there existed an alternative version of the account detailed in the authoritative version, it was inserted, together with the indication of its origin, into the Alternative Reading Table. The Alternative Reading Table contains four fields

• Alternative Reading ID gives the unique number assigned to each single alternative reading of a text section in the Text Table

• Text ID repeats the unique number assigned to the text section in the Text Table of which the alternative reading is given.

• Reading gives the alternative reading of the text section in question. Users should note that only the alternative reading which alters details of the account of the patronage transaction in the authoritative text section in the Text Table are included, for example if different names, topographical references of numbers of gifts are

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indicated. In general, only the part in which this alteration is found is repeated. If these parts do not repeat the complete sentence they are preceded and followed by: … Since there was no way to indicate the exact location where an alteration exists in relation to the authoritative text (for example by number of line, as it would happen in a paper-based edition), users need to compare the contents of the Reading field in the Alternative Reading Table and the contents of the Textdetails fields in the Text Table carefully.

• Origin of expansion repeats the unique number assigned to a bibliographical reference in the Origin table. Users can check on the bibliographical reference of the alternative reading by linking the Alternative Reading Table to the Origin Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES)

3. 3 The Expanded Text Table and the Completion Table These two tables concern the emendations the editors of a document, or indeed we ourselves, have made to the original text inserted in the Text Table or the Alternative Reading Table. How the emendation is represented: The way in which an emendation not executed by us is represented follows in general the methodology employed by the editors of the document. This is due to the fact that different editors, especially editors distant from each other in time, used different systems of emendations. A standardisation according to contemporary procedures of emendation would have required a thorough investigation of the documents themselves, in fact a new edition. For example, nothing has been altered if an editor of an inscription choses to represent the extant parts in capital letters and his reconstruction of the lacking parts in lower case (a modern edition would have probably transcribed the entire inscription in lower case); or if he choses to represent the number of lacking letters through dots […] (a modern edition probably would have preferred hyphen [---]). However, where applicable, a number of signs, based on the Leipziger Klammersystem, have been used throughout:

- text surrounded by ( ) represents an expanded abbreviation - text surrounded by [ ] represents a reconstruction of missing text - text surrounded by < > represents additions and alterations by the editor - text surrounded by [[ ]] represents letters, which have been eliminated by the

stonemason (applies only to inscriptions) - (vac.) represents empty space on the stone (applies only to inscriptions)

The Expanded Text Table deals exclusively with the expansion of abbreviated texts. The expansion is authoritative, which means that the information inserted in the "Content-Area" of the database very often relies on it (for example the abbreviation pb is inserted as presbyter in the Function Table; vc is inserted as vir clarissimus in the Title Table). If more than one expansion of a text was possible, we chose the one, which we considered the most probable. However, the author of the expansion is indicated at all times, so that users can check on the origin. Very often we ourselves are responsible for the expansion of the texts. The Expanded Text Table is only related to the Text Table. Alternative abbreviated readings are not expanded. The Expanded Text Table contains four fields

• Expanded Text ID gives the unique number assigned to each single expanded text section

• Text ID repeats the unique number assigned to the text section in the Text Table on which the expansion is based

• Expanded Text gives the expansion of the text section in question

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• Origin of expansion repeats the unique number assigned to a bibliographical reference in the Origin table. Users can check on the bibliographical reference of the expansion by linking the Expanded Text Table to the Origin Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES)

The Completion Table deals with the reconstruction of fragmented or otherwise disturbed text. It should be noted that these reconstructions have not been used to extract information for the "Content-Area" of the database. For example, the name of a person, that has been restored to Laure[ntius] in the Completion Table, appears as Laure--- in the Names Table. The author of a completion is indicated at all times. The Completion Table contains three fields:

• Completion ID gives the unique number assigned to each single completion of a text section

• Completion gives the completion of the text section in question • Origin of completion repeats the unique number assigned to a bibliographical

reference in the Origin table. Users can check on the bibliographical reference of a completion by linking the Completion Table to the Origin Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES)

For reasons specified in Chapter II: DATABASE DESIGN the Completion Table is linked to the Text Table via a link table entitled Text/Completion Table and to the Alternative Reading Table via a link table entitled Alternative Text Reading/Completion. In these tables, which respectively contain the fields Text ID - Completion ID, and Alternative Text ID - Completion ID, the unique numbers assigned to a text section/an alternative reading of a text section, and to a completion of this text section/alternative reading of a text section are repeated as often as a completion of a text section/alternative reading of a text section has been inserted into the Completion Table. Number of records of Text: 3203 Number of records of Alternative Text Reading: 352 Number of records of Expanded Text: 357 Number of records of Completion: 482 Number of records of Text/Location: 1554 Number of records of Text/Completion: 495 Number of records of Alternative Text/Completion: 9 3.4 The Comments Table The Comments Table contains comments by an editor of a document, or by any further scholar, including us, which are considered of relevance to a user of the database. In addition to many comments on textual issues, dating, prosopographical and topographical indications in the texts, further reading etc. this table most importantly contains references inside the database. Every time participants of transactions or transaction themselves are believed to be related to other participants/transactions, but the sources do not directly support this, users are made aware of this, and the unique number assigned to the respective transaction/participant is given to allow further enquiries. The author of a comment is indicated at all times. The Comments Table contains four fields:

• Comments ID gives the unique number assigned to each single completion of a text section

• Text ID repeats the unique number assigned to the text section in the Text Table to which the commen relates

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• Comment details gives the comment on the text section in question • Origin of completion repeats the unique number assigned to the bibliographical

reference of the comment in the Origin Table. Users can check on the bibliographical reference of a comment by linking the Comments Table to the Origin Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES)

Number of records: 636 4. The Transaction Table The Transaction Table contains the unique information about each single patronage transaction contained by the database. It specifies its nature, the place where the legal procedure of the transaction was executed, and the (possible) date of the transaction. Because of the nature of the sources, however, which very rarely are proper legal sources such as charters, for many transactions the legal circumstances cannot be established. This had consequences on how the information extracted from a text section in a document was entered into the fields of the Transaction Table. If possible, we tried to establish the legal nature of the transaction. Since most of the sources however do not use or use in a confusing manner specific legal terminology, the legal transaction type often can either not be identified (and is designated as "Not Specified") or a transaction type is attributed, which relies on how we have understood the text (usually following the exact wording concerning the transaction). A number of the transaction types therefore are of a rather arbitrary nature, because they could not be more concretized in legal terms. "Assignment" is a very good examples of this: it encompasses all transactions, where a change of ownership is not recorded, but the exact nature of the legal implications could not be identified precisely (see, for example, the assignment of the income from a rented-out hospice, house and garden near S Peter to the abbot Fulradus by Pope Stephen II [PL 89, pp. 993-1030, no. 8; Transaction ID 2641]. Fulradus seemed to have had only the usufruct of these objects, while after his death they returned to the Church of Rome, who remained the owner at all times). We did not see it as our responsibility to research further on possible legal circumstances in every single case, where this was not obvious from the source itself immediately, but leave this to future users of the database.

Furthermore, the transaction type has been chosen according to the point of view represented in the source: if, for example, a source is composed from the point of view of a person buying an object, the transaction type is "purchase"; while, if it is composed from the point of view of the person who sells, it is "sale". It should also be noted that some transactions, which in the legal document might have been considered as one, in the database are reflected as two or more. The foundation of a monastery and its bestowal with a patrimony, are entered as the two transactions "foundation" and "donation", because it cannot be reflected otherwise by the Roles model, which underlies the "Content-Area" of the database. The Transaction Table contains five fields:

• Transaction ID gives the unique number assigned to each single patronage transaction.

• Transaction type specifies the (legal) nature of the patronage transaction. Criteria are: Appropriation, Assignment, Bequest, Bribe, Confirmation of possession, Dedication, Donation, Entrustment, Foundation, Inheritance, Lease, Legacy, Loan, Manumission, Not_specified, Payment, Pledge, Purchase, Rededication, Redemption, Refund, Sale, Taxation, Theft, Translation, Transmission,Vow. Users should note that all these types can be accompanied by a question mark (for example: Donation?), whenever we were not sure about the applicability of this

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criterion. We therefore recommend to include in queries, together with the chosen type of transaction, also the version accompanied by the question mark. A note on "Not_Specified": This is by far the largest entry. It encompasses all transactions the nature of which could not be established without heavy interpretation of the source. It concerns above all the transactions undertaken by a person, who, for the financiation of the transaction, is apparently not relying on his or her own patrimony, but on the one he or she is administering; this means, for example, urban prefects and other secular and clerical officials, but also, and most importantly, the bishop of Rome. Excluded from this rule are the transactions described by a verb, from which can be drawn (still arbitrary) conclusions about the nature of the transaction, such as "offerre", "donare". A note on "Translation": "Translation" refers to transactions, which involve the physical movement of objects, but do not involve any change of ownership or possession. "Translation", most importantly, is used where relics are translated between institutions in Rome (especially from the suburban cemeteries to an intramural site).

• Location gives the place where the legal procedure of a transaction is issued. Because of the nature of the sources, which contain almost no charters and very few papyri, this field is used very rarely. Users should not that the location is coded. This is due to the fact that many tables in the database contain information on locations, and to avoid repetition, a look-up table was set up (see above Chapter II: DATABASE DESIGN). For information on the numerical codes users are referred to the Location Table, by simply linking the field Location to the Location Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES).

• Terminus post quem and Terminus ante quem give the possible first and the possible last date of a transaction. This date might differ from the date of the composition of the document which transmits the information about the transaction (see above 2. The Document Table). Many transactions cannot be assigned to an exact date, so the two numbers give the limits of the period of time in which it was most likely done. Where a transaction has an exact date, this is inserted in both fields. Where a transaction can be assigned to two different dates, the earlier date is inserted in Terminus post quem, the later in Terminus ante quem. We have assigned dates on the basis of their interpretation of the text section dealing with the transaction. Where this needed clarification, a comment related to the text section in question was inserted into the Comments Table. Verbal descriptions of a period of time are transformed into numerical, i.e.: Fifth century: Terminus post quem: 400, Terminus ante quem: 500 First half of fifth century = Terminus post quem: 400, Terminus ante quem: 450 Beginning of the sixth century = Terminus post quem: 500, Terminus ante quem: 520 Last decade of the ninth century = Terminus post quem: 890, Terminus ante quem: 900 etc. For the dealing with contemporary methods of dating, please see the description of the Date Table below. Users should note that the dates inserted into the Transaction Table are coded. For information on the numerical codes users are referred to the Date Table, by simply linking the fields Terminus post quem and Terminus ante

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quem of the Transaction Table to the Date Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES). A note on the dating of the erection of funerary inscriptions: As described in 2. The Document Table, the date given on Christian funerary inscriptions is the date of deposition of the defunct. The legal procedure, which lead to the erection of an inscription, might, however, have been executed at an earlier date (for example in the will of the defunct) or at a later date. The database, unfortunately, is not able to reflect this completely, but gives the date of the deposition as the first possible date of the transaction, and leaving the last possible date blank (= 0, numerical code: 59).

Number of records: 2878 5. The Participants Table and Related Tables 5.1 The Participants Table The Participants Table records information about the participants of transactions, that does not change during their lifetime (and, consequently, stays the same whatever roles they might embody in patronage transactions). This includes their type (whether they are human beings, institutions or objects), and, in case of human beings, their birth-place and their family relationships. The Participants Table contains two fields:

• Participants ID gives the unique number assigned to each single participant in patronage transactions

• Type of participants describes the characteristics of each single participant. Criteria are: “Person” refers to a human being. “Group” refers to human beings as well. Often it is not possible to identify single individuals in the sources, because they speak about, for example, the “Frankish nobles” (Participant ID 5787), or “the relatives of pope Hadrian” (Participants 4617), without giving single names. For further information on institutions see below the description of the Type of Group Table. “Institution”: As an institution has been defined every entity that can legally be a donor or a recipient in a transaction (for example the Senate, the Church of Rome etc.), but also every entity that can become the destination of patronage, although legally it might be represented by an individual or a group of individuals or a superordinated institution. Therefore also entities such as houses, private (storehouses, shops) and public (theater buildings, fora, baths etc.) buildings, tombs, and real estate have been included as “institution”. Users should note that whenever a text mentioned an indefinite number of institutions as a participant in a transaction these have been entered as one single participant. For further information on institutions see below the description of the Type of Institution Table. “Object” and “Action”: Participants entered under this category are exclusively objects of transactions. “Object” designates a physical item, such as liturgical vessels, chandeliers or simply money. Please note that in the case of physical items we have not given attention to the quantity given. For example, “Object” might refer to twenty liturgical vessels, but these are entered as only one participant of a transaction into the database. A participant is identified as “Action”, if in a transaction not a physical item is exchanged, but a transaction involved some kind of action of the

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donor, such as the decoration or restoration of a church. For further information on objects and actions see below the description of the Mattertype Table.

Number of records: 6451 5.2 The Location of Participants Table and the Location of Participants/Text Table As stated above in Chapter II: DATABASE DESIGN a location regarding a participant that should, in theory, never change, is his birth-place (here called: “location of participant”. However, different sources can of course record different birth-places for the same person. Therefore we needed to create a separate table for the birth-places of participants, rather than including them into the Participant Table itself. The Location of Participants Table contains two fields:

• Location of Participants ID gives the unique number assigned to each birth place of of each single participant for whom such a location is recorded in our sources.

• Location ID repeats the unique number assigned to the location(s) of a participant in the Location Table. Users can therefore check on the birth-place(s) of a participant by linking the Location of Participant Table to the Location Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES)

The Location of Participant Table is linked to the Text Table via the link table Location of Participant/Text Table. In this table, which contains the fields Location of Particpant ID – Text ID the unique numbers assigned to a location of a participant, and to the texts which record locations of a participant, are repeated as often as the same location of a participant has been identified in different texts; and as often as locations of participants are recorded in one single text. Users should not, however, that the actual text section inserted into the database in question does not necessarily mention the location of a participant. When we chose a section of a document to be displayed in the Text Tabel , we usually gave priority to the section detailing the transaction itself. Further information on the participants of the transaction was not repeated in the Text Table if it was found in a different place in the document, although the information was inserted into the database. The link table Location of Participant/Text Table therefore allows users to check on the bibliographical details of the document mentioning a locaton of a participant, not on the wording of the text itself. Number of records of Location of Participant: 64 Number of records of Location of Participant/Text: 64 5.3 The Relationships Table and the Relationships/Participants Table Family connections of participants also do not change whatever roles they might embody in patronage transactions. The database reflects family relationships as “flat”, which means that a relationship can only involve two participants (two people, or one person and a group) at a time (e.g. husband/wife, mother/son etc.) and can only specify one role in a family relationship (e.g., husband, wife etc) at a time. This means that to reflect both directions of a relationship (i.e. husband > wife, wife> husband) two records needed to be created. Also, if a participant has more than one relationship a new record for every relationship has been created. For example, the fact that a mother had two sons, lead to the creation of four records: mother-son1, mother-son2, son1-mother, son2-mother (there is no relationship brother-brother defined, if the source in question did not identify one or both of the sons as “brother/frater”).

Users should note firstly that the database only records family relationships if the members of this relationship are all participants of patronage transactions. If therefore a source records the name of a father of a participant (as, for example, the Liber pontificalis usually does

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for popes) we inserted this paternal relationship only if the father came up in the same or a different patronage transaction. This procedure (which is, admittedly a weakness of the database) is due to the fact, that further information on participants (such as names) can be retrieved only via the Roles Table, and the Roles Table of course can only record people involved in patronage transactions. It shows that the database does not replace a prosopography, but that every participant needs further investigation into his biography. Secondly, users should be aware of the fact that we have identified family relationships only if they were explicitely stated as such in the sources (through definition of somebody as, for example, coniux or filius). For example, we did not regard a funeral inscription mentioning a male donor and a female memorand as recording a married couple. The Relationships Table contains four fields:

• Relationship ID gives the unique number assigned to each relationship between two participants of patronage transactions.

• Participant ID1 repeats the unique number of the participant whose role in the relationship (i.e. wife, husband) is defined by the record of the relationship table in question.

• Participant ID2 repeats the unique number of the other member of the relationship in question.

• Relationship defines (in English) the role of Participant1 in the relationship. Relationships are “brother”, “brother-on-law”, “child”, “children (=Type of Participant: Group)”, “daughter”, “daughters (=Type of Participant: Group)”, “family (=Type of Participant: Group)”, “father”, “father-in-law”, “grandchildren(=Type of Participant: Group)”, “grandfather”, “grandmother”, “grandson”, “greatgrandfather”, “greatgrandson”, “husband”, “mother”, “nephew”, “parent”, “partner”, “relative”, “sibling”, “siblings (=Type of Participant: Group)”, “sister”, “son”, “son-in-law”, “uncle”, “wife”.

The Relationship Table is linked via the link table Relationship/Participant Table to the Participant Table, because one participant can have more than one relationship, and one relationship always involves more than one participant. In this table, which contains the fields Participant ID – Relationship ID the unique numbers assigned to a participant and to a relationship, are repeated as often as a relationship has been identied for a participant. Number of records of Relationships: 602 Number of records of Relationships/Participant: 603 (attention: one record must be a duplicate) 6. The Roles Table and related tables 6.1 The Roles Table The Roles Table concerns the role of a participant in a transaction (see above Diagramme 1: The Patronage model) The Roles Table contains four fields:

• Roles ID gives the unique number assigned to each single role in a specific patronage transaction.

• Transaction ID repeats the unique number assigned to a transaction in the Transaction Table. The same Transaction ID is repeated as often as there are participants in this transaction (because they all take part in the same transaction)

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• Participant ID repeats the unique number assigned to a participant in the Participant Table. Every participant in the same transaction has a separate entry.

• Role gives the role of a participant in every given transaction. Possible Roles are: Associate, Donor, Enabler, Matter, Memorand, Recipient, Scribe, Witness. Users should note that all these types can be accompanied by a question mark (for example: Donor?), whenever we were not sure about the applicability of this criterion. We therefore recommend to include in queries, together with the chosen type of transaction, also the version accompanied by the question mark. The possible roles in patronage transactions: “Associate” designates every participants whose exact role could not be determined, but whose mentioning in the context of the patronage transactions was considered worth recording. “Donor” designates the participant, who is considered as the main motor of the patronage transaction, even if he or she does not seem to have used his or her personal resources (such as urban prefects and popes, see above the remarks on the transaction type “Not specified” in the Transaction Table). It is basically the participant, from whom, in the patronage model underlying the database, the dynamics of the transaction originate (therefore, also vendors, founders of institutions etc. but also tax-payers, the victims of thefts etc, since they “give” something away). “Enabler” designates the participants who is not the donor himself, but whose help is crucial in brokering the deal. These are mostly messengers and other officials, but also clerics who take care of the patronage transactions directed at the institution they are in charge of. “Matter” designates the object of a transaction. Often transactions do not deal with physical items (estates, liturgical vessels), but with actions (restoration, decoration); to encompass all these, we chose the term matter for the object of a transaction. “Memorand” designates a (mostly dead) person, honoured by the erection of an epitaph, a tomb, a honorary inscription or statue or any other public honouring, which did not involve any direct material profit for the honoured, or the profit of which rather concerned his or her relatives. “Recipient” designates the participant to whom, in the patronage model underlying the database, the dymanics of the transaction are directed. Users should note that, in case the transaction is a foundation of an institution, the founded institution is attributed the role of “Recipient” and not “Matter”. “Scribe” designates the participant who executed the legal document concerning the transaction, wherever this is recorded. “Witness” designates the participant who witnessed and subscribed the legal accomplishment of the transaction, wherever this is recorded.

Linked to the Roles Table are a number of tables specifying the nature of the participant at the time of a transaction. Sometimes it depends on the type of participant, whether information can be entered into these tables. “Function”, “Title” and “Status” are applicable only if the participant is a person or a group of people; “Type of institution” only if the participant is an institution; “Type of group” only if the participant is a group of people. Sometimes, however, it depends on the role of the participant, whether information can be entered into these tables: “Mattertype” is only applicable if the role in the transaction is “Matter” (while the type of participant of a matter can be “Person”, “Institution”, “Object” etc.). Tables, which applies to all types of participants and all types of roles are the Name Table and the Location of Roles

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Table: all types of participants can have names and locations, regardless their role in a patronage transaction. Number of records: 9039

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6.2 The Name Table, the Alternative Versions of Names Table, and the Roles/Names Table The Name Table records all names of participants. It contains names of people as well as names of institutions (users should note that only the toponym has been inserted into the Name Table, not the specification of the institution type, i.e. basilica, oratorium etc.) It also contains names of matters, if the mattertype is

1. Relics, in which case they have been assigned the name of the saints. 2. Rural/Urban estate. (Users should note that only the toponym has been inserted into the Names Table, not the specification of the estate type, i.e. fundus, massa etc.). 3. Water supply, in which case the name of the aquaduct has been inserted, in case it is

recorded by the source. The Name Table contains two fields:

• Name ID gives the unique number assigned to each name of a participant • Name gives the standardised version of any given name found in the sources. If a name of participant only survives in fragments, the fragmented name has been inserted in the Name Table, while the sign --- represents the missing letters, regardless how many letters are missing. For a possible reconstruction of the name users are referred to the completion of the Text section in question in the Completion Table. This means that some names might have been inserted more than once into the Name Table, because some fragmented names could be restored to a version of a name the Name Table contains as well (for example: “Sthefan---“, “Step---“, “St---nus”, and “Ste---“, which all could be Stephanus). It is therefore recommended to check the list of names, which the CD-Rom version of the database will provide, prior to including a name in a query. A note on the name of religious institutions/relics: We have regarded the patrocinium of a religious institution (churches, monasteries, diaconiae etc.) as its name. Likewise, we have regarded the saint, from which relics survive, as the name of the relics. Users should note that the patrocinium of an institution has been inserted on its own and in the nominative (i.e. S Laurentius) rather than, as is often the case in the sources, in the genitive and accompanied by the institution type (i.e. basilica sancti Laurentii). If, however, the patrocinium of an institution is accompanied by a further specification in the source it is regarded as a different name from the simple patrocinium. For example, S Petrus qui appellatur Eudoxiae is different from S Petrus; S Maria ad Martyres is different from S Maria, S Laurentius in_Damaso is different from S Laurentius (but not different from S Laurentius qui appellatur in_Damaso, see below Alternative versions of name Table). If therefore an institution at one time is known by a simple patrocinium and at another by a more specified patrocinium, the database records a name change. A query in Selected Query Language (SQL) requires the exact field entry, so users here will have to refer to the list of names, which the CD-Rom version of the database will provide, to find out whether the database includes the name they are looking for. A number of standardisations have been exercised on the names of saints:

- All specifications about the spiritual status of a saint (i.e. beatus, venerandus, sanctus etc.) have been standardized into S(anctus), i.e. S.

- If a name of an institutions or of relics relates to more than one saint, the names are preceded by SS and separated by et (e.g. SS Marcellinus et Petrus).

- The various designations of the Virgin Mary, such as Dei genetrix et semper virgo have all been transformed into S Maria.

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- Attributes of saints, such as martyr, confessor, virgo etc. have not been repeated, unless there are two or more saints with the same name (for example, S Stephanus martyr and S Stephanus pontifex).

As can be seen names have been standardised to a certain extent to enable better queries, where this did not mean an irresponsible interpretation of the content of a source. However, alternative versions of names are recorded in the Alternative versions of names Table. This table deals with different spellings of names (e.g. Theodericus – Theodoricus), but also with syntactic changes, which might allow conclusions about the nature of the participant: for example, the church S Laurentius in_Formonsum usually appears with this name in the sources and for the database it is its standard name. It is, however, also recorded as S Laurentius quae appellatur ad Formonsum, which has been entered into the Alternative Versions of names Table.

Users should note that they cannot check directly on which text section uses which version of names, but that they have to investigate all text sections which deal with the participant in question. The aim of the Alternative versions of names Table is purely to allow users an insight into the level of standardisation in the Names Table. The Alternative Versions of Names Table contains three fields

• Alternative versions of names ID gives the unique number assigned to each alternative version of names

• Name ID repeats the unique number assigned to the name in the Name Table, the alternative version of which is entered into the Alternative versions of names Table

• Alternative version gives the alternative version of the name in question Participants may have more than one name at a time of a transaction. This is particularly the case, if a transaction is recorded by more than one text. On the other hand, a number of different participants might be called by the same name. The Name Table is therefore linked to the Role Table via a link table Roles/Names Table. In this table, which contains the fields Name ID – Roles ID the unique numbers assigned to a name of a participant in the Names Table, and to the role of a participant in the Roles Table, are repeated as often as a participant has the same name in different transactions; and as often as the same name can be assigned to different participants in different transactions. Users should note that participants might change their name between one patronage transaction and another. Many of the religious institutions in Rome, for example, over the 400 years the database encompasses are known by a number of different designations, and in some recordings of patronage they are not given a name at all in the sources. If users therefore are looking for the church sometimes called S Petrus ad Vincula under this name, they will not find all the patronage transactions this institution is involved in, because it was also called Titulus Eudoxiae. It is therefore recommended to check on the patronage biography of every participant. Number of records of the Name Table: 1729 Number of records of Alternative Names: 160 Number of records of Roles/Name 5683 6.3 The Function Table The Function Table (in the database called the “Current or Most Recent Function Table”) stores all recorded offices of participants. If a text mentions more than one function, as is often the case with inscriptions which indicate the entire cursus honorum of an individual, the function regarded as the most recent is stored. Often individuals have more than one function at the time of a transaction (for example “presbyter” and “abbas”). In this case all functions are stored. We are aware of the fact that the term “function” is arbitrary. As functions are defined attributes to

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participants in the text, which seem to imply certain duties and responsibilities inside and/or for an institution. Other attributes are stored in the Title Table (see below), although definitons might overlap (for example, the attributes “princeps” and “imperator” of emperors are stored in the Function Table, while “augustus” and “dominus” are entered into the Title Table). The Function Table contains three fields:

• Function ID gives the unique number assigned to each single function of a participant at the time of a transaction

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to the role of the participant at the time of a transaction in the Roles Table

• Function gives the details of the function in question. Only functions, which are actually mentioned in the document in question, are entered. This means that, for example, a bishop, who is recorded with this function in a document not entered in the database, but is not called a bishop in any of the documents entered here, will appear without a function. Users should note that the function has been entered into the Function Table as it is found in the text (or the responsibly expanded version of the text, see above Expanded Text Table). This means that functions are recorded with their Latin denominations (or Greek denominations transliterated into Latin). Sometimes there is more than one Latin denomination for one function (for example “episcopus”, “praesul”, “papa”, “antistes” etc. for the office of a bishop). As we did not want to make any assumptions whether all these denominations actually were used to designate the same thing they are entered as they are. Users therefore should note that they will not find all bishops if they only look for the term “episcopus”. However, some changes have been made to facilitate queries. In many cases spelling has been standardised, but only to an extent where it did not involve any assumption about the which function the term actually involved. For example “prepositus” has been changed to “praepositus”, but “propsitus” has been left as it is. Also word order sometimes has been changed, for example “urbi praefectus” to “praefectus urbi”. Functions which a text only records in a fragmented way, have however been entered in this fragmented form. Users should therefore be aware that their search for example for “praepositus” will not catch all participants with this function, if they do not include also forms like “---positus” or “praep---“ (The CD-Rom version of the database will provide a full list of all Functions the database contains)

Number of records: 2397 6.4 The Title Table The Title Table stores all recorded titles of a participant. Often individuals have more than one title at the time of a transaction (for example “illustris” and “patricius”). In this case all titles are stored. We are aware of the fact that the term “title” is arbitrary. As titles are defined attributes to participants in the text, which seem not to imply certain duties and responsibilities inside and/or for an institution (which are stored in the Function Table, see above). As there is a largely clear system of titles connected to secular offices in the late Roman period, this becomes less so for later times, and for ecclesiastical offices. We have tried to enter all attributions recorded by the texts, which could be regarded as titles, however users should be aware that this might be inconsistent. As a rule, attributions have been entered as titles, where no function was recorded and the attribution could help to identify the participant’s status (i.e. lay/clerical/monastic, see below). The Title Table contains three fields:

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• Title ID gives the unique number assigned to each single title of a participant at the time of a transaction

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to the role of the participant at the time of a transaction in the Roles Table

• Title details gives the details of the function in question. Only titles, which are actually mentioned in the document in question, are entered. This means that, for example, a vir illustris, who is recorded with this title in a document not entered in the database, but is not called a vir illustris in any of the documents entered here, will appear without this title. Users should note that the title has been entered into the Title Table as it is found in the text (or the responsibly expanded version of the text, see above Expanded Text Table). This means that titles are recorded with their Latin denominations (or Greek denominations transliterated into Latin). However, some changes have been made to facilitate queries. In many cases spelling has been standardised (for example “inlustris” into “illustris”), but only to an extent where it did not involve any assumption about which title the term actually involved. Also word order sometimes has been changed, for example “illustris vir” to “vir illustris” (but not cases like “illustris v---“). In cases where a title has not been given in full, for example “illustris” instead of “vir illustris” the lacking element has not been added. Titles which a text only records in a fragmented way, have however been entered in this fragmented form. Viri illustres, for example, are therefore to be found under “vir illustris” and “illustris” and any fragmented form of this (The CD-Rom version of the database will provide a full list of all Titles the database contains)

Number of records: 935 6.5 The Status Table The Status Table stores information about the status of participants regarding ecclesiastical institutions. These have been defined as “lay”, “clerical” and “monastic”. Often individuals have more than one status at the time of a transaction (for example somebody who is a “presbyter” and an “abbas”). In this case all status are stored. The status has only been defined if a function or a title of the individual in question allowed a conclusion. A person who is recorded as a bishop in other documents not entered in the database, but in none of the ones entered here, has therefore not been identified as a “clerical”. We are aware of the fact that the identification of somebody as a lay, clerical or monastic implies certain assumption about the way ecclesiastical institutions worked and about the way individuals defined themselves spiritually. Users should note that these assumptions are of course not unchallengeable, and have been employed here merely to facilitate queries. The StatusTable contains three fields:

• Status ID gives the unique number assigned to each status of a participant at the time of a transaction

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to the role of the institution in a transaction at the time of that transaction in the Roles Table

• Status details gives the details of the status in question: lay, clerical, monastic. Number of records: 2221 6.6 The Mattertype Table This table stores information about the type of an object of a transaction. Since the object of a transaction can both be a physical item (e.g. a chandelier) and an action (e.g. the decoration of a church) we have chosen the term “matter” to reflect this. The table only specifies the type of a

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matter (in singular form), which means that it does not take into consideration any quantity of items given or actions undertaken. This is partly due to the fact that sources often do not specify the quantity of objects, if they were not composed with the deliberate aim to record a concrete transaction (for example, sources indicate that somebody gives “alms” or “money”. In the first case, it cannot even be established what the alms contained, while the second case does not give an idea of the amount of money concerned). To be sure, many sources, especially the Liber pontificalis do detail objects given or exchanged (such as 17 veils, 3 altarclothes etc.). We nonetheless have decided to only give the mattertype because it would have been to time-consuming to enter all these items individually. This means, that the database cannot be used for statistical reasons concerning the quantity of certain mattertypes (while it can be used to group all refernces for certain mattertypes which can then be used as basis for statistical investigation). We have, however, made an exception from this rule wherever there is a name or a location attached to the matter, because we needed to define clear entities for the assignement of names and locations. For example, rural estates without denomination are entered only once as “rural estate”, while rural estates accompanied by a toponym and/or the indication of a location are entered individually. The Mattertype Table contains three fields:

• Mattertype ID gives the unique number assigned to each type of a matter at the time of a transaction.

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to the matter of a transaction in the Roles Table

• Mattertype details specifies the type of matter (A full list of all matterypes will be available on the CD-Rom version of the database). Usually an English term was found for every mattertype, unless it was safer, in terms of interpretation, to keep the Latin/Greek term, such as “annona”, “roga”. We are aware of the fact that, because we do not repeat the Latin/Greek term in the mattertype table, users might find it hard to compare our terminology to the actual text – because it requires some level of re-translation from English into Latin/Greek (for example, users need to know that “incensory” translates as “turabulum”). However, it was not feasible to find a Latin designation of a mattertype. We have tried to find categories which are neither too abstract to not taking into account the diversity of objects/actions, nor too specific to not taking into account the wider context of an object/action. The main problem was to reflect the terminology of the sources without making too many assumptions of what might be expressed. For the Liber pontificalis in general we have followed the glossaries in R. Davis, The book of pontiffs (Liber pontificalis): the ancient biographies of the first ninety Roman bishops to AD 715, (Translated Texts for Historians 5) Liverpool 1989, and R. Davis, The Lives of the Ninth-Century Popes (Liber pontificalis), (Translated Texts for Historians 20) Liverpool 1995. There are three categories which are so broad that it should be specified here what has been entered under this: 1. “Lighting”: Canthara, Fara canthara, Cereostatum, Candelabrum, Fara aerea,

Lucerna, Lampada, Farocantara, Paria, Cerea argentea, Porticandelum, Regnum, Corona, Canistrum, Delphinus (please note that crux has not been entered as a item of lighting, although it sometimes might designate this, but as “cross”).

2. “Liturgical vessel”: Patena, Calix, Scyphus, Gabata, Ama, Cymelia, Ministeria, Saxisca, Amula, Vasa

3. “Manuscript”: Codex, Epistola, Cartula, Documenta, Scripta, Carta/Charta, Volumen, Liber, Exemplarium, Littera, Libellum.

For other mattertypes we did not find a category which embraces them all, although this might have been possible. Since we followed the wording of the sources in the

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definition of categories, for many items there are broad and detailed designations, and therefore types might overlap or integrate each other. However, we did not want to impede any query future users might want to undertake on the contents of the database. The following is a suggestion on how to expand investigations on certain mattertypes, but obviously mattertypes can also be combined in completely different ways. 1. Users interested in the context of the “annona” could also check the

mattertypes: annona, food, roga, grain, salary, vegetables, storehouse, mill, alms, dole

2. Users interested in the context of “money” could also check on: money, expenses, tax, roga, salary, treasure, fare, luminarium, life necessities, property.

3. Users interested in “building material” could also check on: tiles, timber, beams, chalk, marble.

4. Users interested in “buildings” could also check on: presbyterium, secretarium, tribunal, baptistry, triclinium, bath, hospice, monastery, camera, fountain, tower, deambulatorium, matroneum, nympheum, crypt, house, storehouse.

5. Users interested in “textiles” could also check on: altarcloth, blanket, clothes, curtain, veil, linen, napkin, towel, drapery.

6. Users interested in “real estate” could also check on: rural estate, urban estate, house, garden, storehouse, territory, mill, saltworks, monastery, hospice, church

7. Users interested in “building ornament” could also check on: column, arch, canopy, chevron, chimney, handbasin, pulpit, coat of arms, sculpture, statue, gargoyle (or indeed “lighting”, “decoration” see below)

8. Users interested in “decoration” could also check on: image, painting, picture, mosaic, relief (or indeed “lighting”, “building ornament” see above)

9. Users interested in “familia” could also check on: slaves, coloni. Please note that we did not repeat any indication of material (such as “golden”, “silver”). We also did not specify whether an entire object was concerned in the transaction or only a part of it (for example, in case of lease of only a part of a house, this was entered as “house”, not as “part of house”). If the object of a transaction concerned the income from property, the property itself was defined as the mattertype (so not “income from shop”, but “shop”). “Restoration” and “Decoration” do not specify where these actions were undertaken in the Mattertype Table, but a location is indicated whenever this was mentioned in the source (so “Restoration of the roof of St. Peter”, was entered as “Restoration” in the Mattertype Table, and “Roof of St Peter” in the Location of Role Table). The mattertype “Funeral inscription” was only entered if the inscription in question did not mention the erection of a tomb (users interested in funeral inscriptions should therefore check both on “funeral inscription” and “tomb”). Please note that we have not entered any mentioning of the wider context/reasons for a patronage transaction. For example, if money was given to a church to finance the lighting of the church (“ad lumenaria”), the exchange of the money is recorded, but not the items it was then spent on.

Number of records: 3695 6.7 The Type of Institution Table This table stores information about the type of an institution that takes part in a patronage transaction. The CD-Rom version of the database will provide a full list of all Types of Institutions the database contains. The Type of Institution Table contains three fields:

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• Type of institution ID gives the unique number assigned to each type of institution of a participant at the time of a transaction

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to the role of the institution in a transaction at the time of that transaction in the Roles Table

• Type of institution gives the details of the type of institution in question. Users should note that the type of institution has been defined in English, because the semantic richness of the Latin (or Greek) often allows a variety of designations for the same type of institution. It would have made this table to confusing to enter all these, but it also was not feasible to find a Latin designation which embraces them all. As churches have been regarded for example all institutions called ecclesia or basilica, as monasteries all institutions called monasterium or coenobium. However, types of institution have only been attributed if the text itself mentions them. In the following passage, for example, no type of institution is indicated and therefore none has been entered: Sarta tecta vero beati Agapiti martyris, sita iuxta basilicam beati Laurentii martyris foris murum, qui iam prae nimia vetustate emarcuerat, noviter restauravit (LP II, 33).

Number of records: 1840 6.8 The Type of Group Table As described in chapter 5.1: The Participant Table some participants are groups of individuals, rather than single individuals. If a source mentions a group of people, such as a family, it is not possible to establish of how many single individuals this group is composed and it would, therefore, be irresponsible to decide on a random number. Please note that to some groups, who are always presented as an abstract corpus in the sources, rather than as a number of individuals who also could come up as single participants in other transactions (such as family members), we have assigned the same Participant ID throughout. These are “Clergy”, “Pilgrims”, “Poor people”, “Sick people”, “Population”, “Soldiers”. It is therefore possible to construct a patronage “biography” for these entities, which will contain all references to them in the sources the database contains. The CD-Rom version of the database will provide a full list of all types of group the database contains. The Type of Group Table contains three fields:

• Type of Group ID gives the unique number assigned to each type of group of a participant at the time of a transaction.

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to each group that is a participant in a transaction in the Roles Table

• Type of Group gives the details of the type of group of a participant at the time of a transaction. The types of group are usually specified in English, but there might be overlaps with the Function Table (if the group are, for example, “monks”, it is entered as “monks” in the Type of Group Table, but as “monachi” – if this was the term the text in question used – into the Function Table. Likewise an entry into the Type of Group Table often generated an entry into the Status Table (for example, for “monks” the status is identified as “monastic”).

Number of records: 182 6.9 The Location of Role Table The Location of Role Table records locations associated with participants during their lifetime, which can change from transaction to transaction. For human beings these include, for example, places of residences and places of office holding. It has to be noted, that we have decided to

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insert also the location of institutions (which in theory should not change, because institutions usually are connected with a specific building or piece of land) into this table to reflect the fact that institutions could actually change locations, if, for example a church was reerected in a different place, or boundaries of real estate changed. The Location of Role Table is a separate table from the Roles Table for a number of reasons. First of all, participants can have more than one location associated with them at the time of a transaction, for example place of office and place of residence. Furthermore, in the same way as for birth-places of participants sources can record different places for the same participant in the same transaction.

Users should note that physical items given in a transaction (such as chandeliers, columns etc.) obviously have two locations, where they originate from and where they go. Usually it is recorded in the sources where they go, while the place where they originate from could, if ever, be detected from where the donor resides (although this is not entirely precise, since origin of object and place of donor could differ in theory). There are, however, sources which record both origin and destination place for the object itself. Both locations are inserted into the Location of Role Table, although this does not really describe the dynamic involved. Users should therefore check on the text section in question whenever more than one location is recorded for a participant to find out about the exact circumstances of this location. Users should also note that only topographical information from the sources has been inserted into the Location of Roles Table. This means that for example a church, whose location is well known, but is not specified by the sources of the transaction in question, has been entered without a location of role into the database. Users starting a query for a specific geographical area, such as, for example, the Vatican, should be aware of the fact that they will not catch every reference to a church in the Vatican area, but only those where sources mention a location in the Vatican area. The Location of Role Table contains three fields:

• Location of Role ID gives the unique number assigned to each location of a participant at the time of a transaction.

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to a participant in a transaction in the Roles Table, whose location at the time of a transaction can be identified.

• Location ID repeats the unique number assigned to the location(s) of a participant at the time of a transaction in the Location Table. Users can therefore check on the locations of a participant by linking the Location of Role Table to the Location Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES)

Number of records: 1799 6.10 The Named in Text Table Many transactions are recorded in more than one text. Not all of these texts may record the same participants. For example, in the seven texts recording the composition of an epitaph for Cynegia, wife of Probus in or after 512, the help of the presbyter Adeodatus is only mentioned in two (the transaction is recorded in Magni Felicis Ennodi Opera 219.2, 361.2-4, 362.2-3, 398.1, 406.1-2, 407.2, and in ICUR I 3902, but Adeodatus is only mentioned in 361.2-4 and 407.2). In the Named in Text Table information is stored in which text section the participant, whose role in a transaction is specified in the Roles Table, is actually mentioned. It is a link table between the Roles Table and the Text Table, because the role of a participant in a transaction can be recorded in more than one text (as, in the example above, Adeodatus is), but one text can obviously record more than one role of participants in a transaction (such as the roles of Cynegia and Probus). The Named in Text Table contains three fields:

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• Text ID repeats the unique numbers assigned to each text section in the Text Table recording the transaction in question

• Roles ID repeats the unique number assigned to a participant in a transaction in the Roles Table

• Named in Text specifies (by declaring “yes” or “no”) whether the role in question, whose ID has been inserted, is actually defined in the text, whose ID has been inserted, or not.

Number of records: 11475 7. The Date Table In the Date Table users can find the reference for the numeric code entered in the Terminus post quem and Terminus ante quem fields of the Document Table and the Transaction Table. In this table a hierarchy of dates is created, based on the common modern dating system of Year/Month/Day. Please note that there are dates only specifying the year in question, but dates which only give months and days (as many funeral inscriptions do, due to fragmentation) and not a year have been ommitted. Contemporary methods of dating (as using names of consuls or popes, numbers of indictions, the different sections of the Roman month) are universally transformed into the modern standard (for example, the inscription DEPOSITVS PVER NOMINE | ANASTASIVS III KALEND[AS] | FEBRARIAS VIXIT ANN<O>S [---] | MINVS DIES XXXVI CO[NSVLE] | V(IRO) C(LARISSIMO) FESTO is dated to 30 January 439 or 30 January 472). The Date Table contains four fields:

• Date ID gives the unique numbers assigned to each date in the Date Table . • Year gives the number of the year of a document or a transaction. • Month gives the number (1-12) of the month of a document or transaction. • Day gives the number of the day (1-31) of a document or transaction.

Number of records: 793 8. The Location Table In the Location Table users can find the reference for the numeric code entered in the Location fields of the Text Table, the Transaction Table, the Location of Participant Table and the Location of Roles Table. In this table a hierarchy of location is created. Most sources mention toponyms on one of the detailed scales of this hierarchy, for example the name of a church. We have decided to nonetheless establish the hierarchy as far as possible for every toponym, even if not mentioned in the source, to enable users to find locations from the widest prospective possible. If a source mentions a church in Rome, also the quarter of Rome it is situated in is given, if this could be traced, as well as the indication that it lies in Rome and the location of Rome in Italy. The table includes location from the sources covering the period 440-840, but also from much later finding locations of inscriptions. Toponyms in the Location Table therefore can derive, in theory, from the period 440-2002. In this period the same locations may be given different names in different languages. It is however not reasonable to record every place name exactly as it is recorded in the source or the edition of the source, because recording all the names in all their variety and languages means that the fields will be less or not at all searchable. It has therefore been the general rule to translate all location information into English and to find standardised toponyms with standardised spelling. Users should note that all information on locations derive either from the text itself, or, in case of the location of inscriptions, from the edition used (and recorded by the Source Table).

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The Location Table contains seven fields: • Location ID gives the unique number assigned to each location described in the

Location Table. • Regio stores information about the European or Mediterrenean region a participant/text

can be located in. The names of the regions are chosen by contemporary country distinctions (based on a late Roman usage), although this obviously changed over the time. They therefore only serve the purpose of giving the user a guideline for geographical location and do not say anything about the political background. “Africa” designates the whole of North Africa with the exception of “Egypt”. “Graecia” encompasses the entire Eastern part of the Roman Empire, “Occident” the entire Western part. “Gallia” means the whole of modern day France up to the Rhine (so including Germania inferior and superior, but excluding “Corsica”), while “Germania” designates the region east of the Rhine. “Italy” is the whole of modern day Italy, including the islands.

• Main Location stores the name of either a city or a region located inside the wider region a participant/text can be located in. If a toponym refers to an urban location, the city in question is recorded, if it refers to a rural location, the region is recorded. Usually the modern name of the city/region is given. For many urban settings this works well, because many cities have survived until today. Because of administrative and political changes many regions however do not have a modern equivalent, (as for example in the case of “Bruttii”) or the modern name does not refer exactly to the contemporary definition of the region (as, for example, “Tuscia” and “Tuscany”). In this case the historical name is entered. “Suburbium” defines the region around Rome outside the Aurelian Walls and up to the 20th milestone.

• Area stores the name of a quarter inside a city or a smaller area inside a region a participant/text can be located in. Users should note that in the Suburbium of Rome the consular roads have been considered as areas of the suburbium, and therefore have been entered into this field (with standardised spelling). In the city of Rome it was decided to follow a geographical division rather than an administrative by regions, unless these are specifically mentioned in a source. The quarters in Rome therefore are:

- “Aventine” referring to the entire south western part of the city including the area between the proper Aventine hill and the walls south of the modern Via delle Terme di Caracalla and Via di Porta Latina.

- Caelius referring to the Caelian hill itself and the entire part between the hill and modern Via Labicana and the entire part west of Viale Manzoni (therefore the Lateran area as well).

- „Campus Martius“ referring to the entire part of the city between the Tiber, modern Porta del Popolo, the Pincio and the Velabrum.

- “Capitol” referring to the Capitoline Hill - “Esquiline” referring to the entire part of the city between Via Labicana/Viale

Manzoni, the Imperial Fora Area, and modern Via Cavour - “Fora” referring to the area of the Forum Romanum and the Imperial Fora. - “Ianiculum”. - “Palatine” - “Pincio” - “Quirinal” referring to the area between modern Via Nazionale and the Aurelian

walls.

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- “Transtiberim” (which excludes the Vatican Area located in the Suburbium) - “Velabrum” referring to the Area west of modern Via del Teatro di Marcello and

between Capitoline Hill, Palatine and Aventine. - “Viminal” referring to the area between modern Via Cavour and modern Via

Nazionale • Street stores the name of the street inside a quarter of a city/the smaller section inside

the rural area of a region where a participant/text can be located. While the fields Regio, Main location and Area do not rely on information the sources/editions themselves provide, the content of this field exclusively records locations mentioned in the sources/editions (with standardised spelling and translated into English where appropriate). Unless these deal with discoveries of inscriptions in modern times, they very rarely mention the proper name of a street. As a reference to a “street” therefore have also been defined:

- A toponym preceded by “in” (for example: “In Arenario”) - “near”, “in front of”, “outside”, “opposite”, “between” etc. a well-known

building or landmark (for example “Near Porta S Pauli”) - “villae”, vineae”, and “milestones” of the consular roads in the Roman

suburbium • Building stores the name of a building/a landmark in a street of a city/a small section of

a rural area inside or near which a participant/text can be located. While the fields Regio, Main location and Area do not rely on information the sources/editions themselves provide, the content of this field exclusively records locations mentioned in the sources/editions (with standardised spelling). For buildings mentioned with different toponyms in the sources and the modern editions, a standardised name has been found. The church known today as “S Giovanni in Laterano” has been entered as “S Iohannes” throughout, also when the sources call it “Basilica Constantiniana”, “Basilica Salvatoris” etc.. Likewise the church today known as “S Maria Maggiore” has been called “S Maria Maior”. The standardised name usually is in Latin form, with the exception that, if a building is mentioned only in a modern edition with an Italian name, this Italian name has been entered. Not all references in this field are to buildings. All toponyms of administrative entities such as fundus and massa. in rural areas have been assigned to this field as well.

• Specific location refers to a site inside a building/landmark. The content of this field exclusively records locations mentioned in the sources/editions, which have been translated throughout into English. The information provided by the sources/editions sometimes can be very detailed (for example “Above the entrance of the vestibule”), which might make this field hard to use in queries relying on Selected Query Language (which requires the exact field entry). The CD-Rom version of the database will provide a full list of all Locations the database contains.

Number of records: 1283 9. The Origin Table The Origin Table functions in a similar way as the footnote/endnote section of a customary text. Here users can find a bibliographical reference for every entry in the Expanded Text Table, the Completion Table, the Comments Table and the Alternative Reading Table. The Origin Table contains four fields

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• Origin ID gives the unique number assigned to each single reference for the Expanded Text Table, the Completion Table, the Comments Table or the Alternative Reading Table.

• Name of origin consists, if the reference is to a secondary work, of the name of the author of the expansion, completion, comment or alternative text reading. In case of alternative readings the reference very often is to a variant in one of the manuscripts which transmitted the document and is quoted by the editors of the document in the critical apparatus of the edition. We have decided against giving the exact manuscript denomination, which, without a careful description of the manuscript as it is provided by scholarly editions, would make no sense to users. In these cases, therefore, simply "Manuscript variant" is entered into this field. However, because the exact location of the quotation in the edition is indicated, users can refer to the edition itself if they would like to investigate on the manuscript. Expansions, completions and comments which we have made are designated as “internal”.

• Source ID repeats the unique number assigned to an edition/a secondary work, from which an expansion, completion, comment or alternative text reading is drawn, in the Source Table. Users can check on the edition/secondary work by linking the Origin Table to the Source Table (see below Chapter IV: QUERIES). Please note that there is no Source ID for “internal” origins.

• Page number indicates the page number(s) inside an edition/secondary work on which an expansion, completion, comment or alternative text reading can be found.

Number of records: 828

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IV. QUERIES The database should be helpful as a research tool in two instances. Firstly, as mentioned,

it points users, in a matter of seconds, to particular references in the primary sources.Secondly, the database allows users to discover patterns in the social make-up of the era, whether over a very broad sweep of time, or focused on one particular location.

Querying is how users extract information and/or correlations from a database. Microsoft Access allows users to tailor-make the kind of data search that they want, using Selected Query Language (SQL). Using the query design facility the user selects fields from one or more tables, and then runs the query to view the results. So, to take an example, if a user wanted information on all Roman monasteries involved in transactions between 440 and 590 (including textual and bibliographical references), he would select the Type of Institution Table, the Name Table, the Roles/Name Link Table, the Roles Table, the Transaction Table, twice the Date Table, the Text Table, the Document Table and the Source Table. These tables should then be linked via the unique ID’s attributed to the single records inside a table and repeated in one or more of the other tables whenever required (see above Chapter II: DATABASE DESIGN). In this particular case tables should be linked as follows: Diagramme 3. Query Example

Source IDSource IDAuthor

Source TitlePublisher

Place of PublicationDate published

VolumeSeries/Periodical

NumberPages

Document IDDocument IDSource IDSource ID

Book NumberBook Reference

Type of TextOriginal or Copy

AuthenticityFirst DateLast Date

Text IDText IDDocument IDDocument ID

Transaction IDTransaction IDText Details LatinText Details Greek

Roles IDRoles IDTransaction IDTransaction IDParticipant IDParticipant ID

Role

Name IDRoles ID

Date IDYear

Month Day

Transaction IDTransaction IDTransaction Type

Transaction LocationFirst DateLast Date

Name IDName

Details

Date IDYear

Month Day

Type of institution ID

Roles IDType of institution

Subsequently the user needs to select the Type of Institution field from the Type of Institution Table, the Name details field from the Name Table, the Role field from the Roles Table, the Transaction Type field from the Transaction Table, the Text details (Latin) field from the Text Table, the Subdivision number and Edition reference fields from the Document Table and the Source Title fields from the Source Table. In the Type of Institution field of the Type of Institution Table and the respective Year fields of the Date Tables should be added the parameters 'Monastery', '>439' and '<591'. The query will then select and list the results in tabular form. Extracts from the results (in chronological order) of this particular query are shown in the table below.

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Table 2: Patronage of Roman Monasteries, 440-590 First Date

Last Date

Name Role Transaction type

Text Source

440 461 Recipient Foundation Hic constituit monasterium apud beatum Petrum apostolum.

Le Liber Pontificalis 47

461 468 Recipient Foundation Hic fecit monasterium ad sanctum Laurentium.


461 468 Ad Luna Recipient Foundation Item monasterium intra urbe Roma ad Luna.


461 468 S Stephanus Martyr

Recipient Foundation Fecit etiam, ibidem prope, Sancti Stephani monasterium, in baptisterio Lateranensi.

"Descriptio Lateranensis Ecclesiae" 354

508 533 Recipient? Foundation? Mox ergo ut eius coniux defunctus est, abiecto saeculari habitu, ad omnipotentis Dei servitium sese apud beati Petri apostoli ecclesiam monasterio tradidit (...)

Grégoire le Grand, Dialogues 4, 14

554 574 S Paulus Recipient Foundation Narses vero patricius fecit aecclesia cum monasterium beati Pauli apostoli, qui dicitur ad Aquas Salvias, reliquiae beati Anastasii martyris adductae venerantur.

"Benedicti Sancti Andreae Monachi Chonicon A. C. 360-973" 9

556 590 Recipient Foundation (...) in quo etiam oratorio servorum Dei congregationem esse constituit; et haec omnia ut debuissent impleri, testamenti sui pagina sanctae memoriae Pelagio decessori nostro mandaverat. Sed quia morte occupatus hoc non occurrit implere (...) iustitiae nos ratio vehementer invitat huiusmodi piae dispositionis arbitrium implere (...) Praeterea considerantes ante dicti presbyteri voluntatem, perpetuo illic tempore monasterium esse (...)

S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri VIII-XIV, 6, 44 and 9, 138

556 590 Recipient Legacy (...) ibique quosdam reditus legati titulo per testamenti sui seriem reliquisse (...) ad eandem domum in integro cum horto suo et rebus inferius designatis, quae a testatore relictae sunt, proprietatis iure constituimus pertinere (...) .

S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri I-VII, 6,44 and 9,138

573 587 S Andreas Recipient Foundation Sancto et venerabili monasterio sancti Andreae apostoli nostro loco constituto (...)

Gregorii Papae Registrum Epistolarum; Appendix I

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If a user, starting from a query of this type, became interested in the patronage transaction involving one particular monastery of those outlined above, he could run the same query again by inserting the parameter 'S Andreas' into the Name details field from the Name Table and deleting the parameters '>439' and '<591' in the respective Year fields of the Date Tables. For the purposes of this article we have designed, however, a more complex query on this particular monastery indicating all donors and objects of transactions concerning the monastery of St Andrew on the Caelian Hill over the entire period the database covers, in order to demonstrate the capability of the database. The table below displays the results (in chronological order) of this query: Table 3: Patronage of the Monastery of St Andrew on the Caelian Hill

First Date

Last Date

Transaction type

Recipient Donor Object Source

573 587 Foundation S Andreas Gregorius Le Liber Pontificalis 66; "Sancti Gregorii Magni Vita a Joanne Diacono Scripta Libris Quatuor", 1, 6; Gregorii Episcopi Turonensis Historia Francorum, 10, 1; Gregorii Papae Registrum Epistolarum, Appendix I

573 590 Donation S Andreas Gregorius Paintings "Sancti Gregorii Magni Vita a Joanne Diacono Scripta Libris Quatuor", 4, 83-4; Scriptorum Veterum Nova Collectio E Vaticanis Codicibus Edita, 20, 1

573 601 Donation S Andreas Rusticiana Alms S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri VIII-XIV, Appendix, 11, 26

573 604 Purchase S Andreas S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri VIII-XIV, Appendix, 11, 26; "Sancti Gregorii Magni Vita a Joanne Diacono Scripta Libris Quatuor", 1, 11;

587 587 Donation S Andreas Gregorius Rural estates

Gregorii Papae Registrum Epistolarum, Appendix I and II; Gregorii Episcopi Turonensis Historia Francorum 10, 1

592 592 Translation S Andreas Gregorius Altars; Relics of SS Cosmas et Damianus; SS Gordinaus et Epimachus; S Balbina; SS Sergius et Bachus; S Andreas; S Lucas

"Cronichetta inedita del monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri", 13, 20

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First Date

Last Date

Transaction type

Recipient Donor Object Source

750 882 Not specified S Andreas Painting "Sancti Gregorii Magni Vita a Joanne Diacono Scripta Libris Quatuor", 4, 85

795 816 Not specified Clibuscauri Leo Altarcloth Le Liber Pontificalis 98

795 816 Donation S Andreas Leo Canistrum; Crown


827 844 Not specified S Andreas Gregorius Altarcloth Le Liber Pontificalis 103

The database allows for an almost indefinite exploration of the patronage network of early medieval Rome. Every one of the records displayed above could make a starting point for a subsequent query on the contents of the database, be it on transaction types (for example, all records on 'purchases' the database contains), on individual owners (for example the patronage biography of 'Rusticiana'), or indeed on a specific source (for example all transactions recorded by the vita no. 66 of the Liber Pontificalis). The fourth record in the table above displays the information from a curious source. A manuscript codex (Vat lat 600) of the 14th century contains, apart from Gregory’s Dialogues, the Vita Gregorii of John the Deacon and the Adhortationes Sanctorum Patrum ad Profectum Perfectionis Monachorum, various narrative paragraphs on the history of the Monastery of St Andrew, which I. Carini edited under the name Cronichetta inedita del monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri. According to him, most of the paragraphs were composed at the turn of the 12th to the 13th century to fix the traditions of the monastery, but some of them might be of much older date4. If a user, on the basis of this unreliable account, wanted to learn more about further transactions involving these relics, he could also start a query on the object type “relics” combined with the name of the saints in question to generate a list of all transactions concerning the relics of these Roman saints up to the middle of the ninth century in Rome and originating from Rome. The table below shows the results (in chronological order) of a query on the relics of St Andrew: Table 4: Relics of St Andrew

Relics Transaction type

First Date

Last Date

Donor Recipient Type of institution

Source Title

S Andreas

Translation 0 0 Scriptorum Veterum Nova Collectio E Vaticanis Codicibus Edita, 48, 1

S Andreas

Translation 579 585 Tiberius

Pelagius "Cronichetta inedita del monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri", 13-20

S Andreas

Translation 585 586 Gregorius "Petri Mallii Descriptio Basilicae Vaticanae Aucta atque Emendata a Romano Presbitero"

S Andreas

Donation 590 604 Gregorius

S Andreas Church "Petri Mallii Descriptio Basilicae Vaticanae Aucta atque Emendata a Romano Presbitero", 396

S Translation 592 592 Gregori Anonymou "Cronichetta inedita del

4 I. Carini, ‘Cronichetta inedita del monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri’, Il Muratori. Raccolta di documenti storici inediti or rari tratti dagli archivi italiani pubblici e privati 2 (1893), 4-58

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Relics Transaction type

First Date

Last Date

Donor Recipient Type of institution

Source Title

Andreas us s monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri", 13-20

S Andreas

Translation 592 592 Gregorius

S Andreas Church "Cronichetta inedita del monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri"

S Andreas

Translation 592 592 Gregorius

S Andreas Monastery "Cronichetta inedita del monastero di Sant’Andrea ad Clivum Scauri", 13-20

Because the database requires a structured analysis of the sources, it is very difficult to reflect any scholarly hypotheses about the interpretation of the sources. In many cases we have found ourselves in front of long established traditions of interpretation, which the "raw" data of the sources, bare the framework of a narrative, did not seem to support. Since the structure of the database needs a clear definition of entities, it was, for example, necessary to decide on identities of individuals or institutions, and, as outlined above in Chapter III: ENTRY POLICIES, in doubtful cases we always decided to separate identities. The monastery of St. Andrew on the Caelian Hill presents a good example to demonstrate this procedure.

The monastery of St Andrew on the Caelian Hill was nobably founded by Gregory the Great in his own property. The table below displays all the evidence we possess about the actual act of the foundation, and the dates at which this evidence was produced (in chronological order):

Table 5: Sources for the Foundation of St Andrew on the Caelian hill

Text Details (Latin) Source Title First Date Last Date

Sancto et venerabili monasterio sancti Andreae apostoli nostro loco constituto (...)

Gregorii Papae Registrum Epistolarum, Appendix I

587 587

(...) in rebus propriis sex in Sicilia monasteria congregravit, septimum infra urbis Romae muros instituit (...)

Gregorii Episcopi Turonensis Historia Francorum, 10, 1

591 595

Hic domum suam constituit monasterium. Le Liber Pontificalis 66 604 0

(…) septimum vero intra urbis muros instituit, in quo et ipse postmodum regulari tramite, multis sibi sociatis fratribus, sub abbatis imperio militavit.

"S. Gregorii Magni Vita auct. Paulo Diacono" 4

775 775

Septimum, intra Romane urbis moenia, sub honore sancti Andreae apostoli, juxta basilicam sanctorum Joannis et Pauli ad clivum Scauri, monasterium in proprio domate fabricavit.

"Sancti Gregorii Magni Vita a Joanne Diacono Scripta Libris Quatuor" 1, 6

873 876

The first record shows that according to his own letter, Gregory owned the place (locus) where he founded the monastery before he became bishop of Rome in 590. Scholars usually presuppose, on the basis of the third and the fifth record in this list, the evidence of, respectively, the Liber pontificalis and John the Deacon, that the locus was a private dwelling (domus/doma). This seems reasonable, and we have therefore designated the institution as both “house” and “monastery” in the database.

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There exists a long established belief that Gregory inherited this house either from his father or another family member. Very often, therefore, the house is called his "family house"5. However, since the sources in question do not tell us where the house originated from, it was impossible to insert the transmission of the house into the ownership of Gregory as a transaction into the database. To be sure, there is epigraphical evidence that it was in the area of the later monastery of St. Andrew where Pope Agapitus during his short pontificate in 535/6 might have installed a library6 and Agapitus, in turn, might have been an ancestor of Gregory. The hypothesation of this relationship between Gregory and Agapitus, however, relies entirely on the fact that both popes' fathers were called Gordianus7. This again presents “fuzzy” data, which we chose not to reflect in the database. The family relationships the database contains for Gregory are only those clearly marked as such by the sources: with his father Gordianus8, his mother Silvia9, and his ancestor, pope Felix III10. But even if there existed a relationship between Gregory and Agapitus, it does not prove that they both owned the same property on the Caelian hill (apart from the fact that both the interpretation of the inscription recorded by the Anonymus Einsiedlensis on the clivus Scauri and the archaeological remains of the so-called bibliotheca Agapiti present too many hypothesis to fully support the very existence of Agapitus' library11), or that in fact Gregory’s father had owned it as well. Gregory did, however, inherit a house from his father, as he tells us in his Dialogi. For the above stated reasons we have inserted this property as a separate identity from his monastery into the database. Users looking for this transaction will find the following entries:

5 Since the identification of the monastery as Gregory's former "family house" has become a topos in almost every work relating to the sixth-century pope it is impossible to cite the complete evidence here. As representative should be mentioned R. Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations in Ancient Rome, Boston/New York 1897, 349; E. Wuescher-Becchi, ‘Le memorie di S. Gregorio Magno nella sua casa del Monte Celio’, Dissertazioni della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia 8 (1903) 419-450; A. M. Colini, Storia e topografia del Celio nell'antichità, (Memorie della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia 7), Roma 1944, 205; G. Ferrari, Early Roman Monasteries. Notes for the History of the Monasteries and Convents of Rome from the 5th through the 10th Centuries, (Studi di antichità christiana 23), Rome 1957, 142, and, more recently, E. M. Steinby (a c. di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, vol. 2, Roma 1995, s.v. ‘S. Andreas quod appellatur Clivus Scauri, Monasterium’, 40, and s.v. ‘Domus: Gregorius I (Anicii Petronii?)’, 112; R. Markus, Gregory the Great and his World, Cambridge 1997, 10. 6 E. Diehl, ILCV I, 1898. 7 See F. Guidobaldi, ‘L'edilizia abitativa unifamiliare nella Roma tardoantica’, in: A. Giardina (a c. di), Società romana e impero tardoantico, vol. 2, Roma 1986, 201. 8 LP I, 312; B. Colgrave (a c. di), The Earliest Life of Gregory the Great by an Anonymous Monk of Whitby, Cambridge 1968, 72; C. Plummer (a c. di), Venerabilis Baedae Historia Ecclesiastica, Oxford 1896, 73; Paulus Diaconus, Vita Gregorii, 1 (Patrologia Latina 75, 41); Johannes Diaconus, Vita Gregorii, 1,1 (Patrologia Latina 75, 63). 9 B. Colgrave (a c. di), The Earliest Life of Gregory the Great by an Anonymous Monk of Whitby, Cambridge 1968, 72; Paulus Diaconus, Vita Gregorii, 1 (Patrologia Latina 75, 41); Johannes Diaconus, Vita Gregorii, 4, 83 (Patrologia Latina 75, 229). 10 Gregorius, Hom. Eu.., 38, 15 (Patrologia Latina 76, 1291); Gregorius, Dial. 4, 17, 1 (Source chrétiennes 265, 86). 11 See E. M. Steinby (a c. di), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, vol. 1, Roma 21993, s.v. ‘Bibliotheca Agapiti’ 196; E. Giuliani/C. Pavolini, ‘La "Biblioteca di Agapito" e la basilica di S. Agnese’, in: W. Harris (a c. di), The Transformation of Urbs Roma in Late Antiquity (Journal of Roman Archeology. Supplementary Serie 33), Portsmouth 1999, 5-107.

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Table 6: Gregory the Great’s Paternal House First Date

Last Date

Transaction type

Donor Recipient Source Text Details Location of

inscription

0 579 Inheritance Gordianus Gregorius Grégoire le Grand, Dialogues 4, 36

(...) quod dum adhuc laicus viverem atque in domo mea, quae mihi in hac urbe ex iure patris obvenerat, manerem (...)

0 579 Inheritance Gordianus Gregorius Inscrizioni delle chiese e d'altri edifici di Roma dal secolo XI fino ai giorni nostri 129, 232

BENEDICTO XIII PONT MAX QVOD ECCLESIAM HANC B V MARIAE | ET S GREGORII MAGNI | HUIUS OLIM UT FAMA EST PATERNAM DOMUM | EIUSQUE ARAM MAXIMAM | IN DEI HONOREM VI ID NOVEMBRIS DEDICAVERIT (… )| ANNO DOMINI MDCCXXIX

Velabrum, Ponte Quattro Capi, S Gregorius, On the wall on the right hand side of the main altar

The records show that nothing in the evidence allows a conclusion about the identity of this house, and the monastery on the Caelian hill, on the contrary: Gregory had to tell his interlocutor Petrus in the Dialogi, who presumably would have known his monastery, where he used to live before becoming a monk. This seems to indicate that the two buildings were not identical and supports the decision not to enter them as the same entity into the database. The second record, a modern inscription from the time of pope Benedict XIII (1724 – 1730), certainly does not provide any more insight into the historical circumstances of the transmission of the house from father to son, but shows that, at least in the 18th century, Gregory’s paternal house was not identified with his monastery, but with the church of S Gregorio al Ponte Quattro Capi. The scholarly assumption about a “family house” on the Caelian hill must therefore have originated later.

The described procedure certainly exposes itself to the accusation of fragmenting the source evidence, by not taking into consideration the interpretive work of generations of scholars to link the sources in a reasonable way. It should be noted that we have inserted hypotheses on ways to analyse the sources, including assumptions about identities of individuals and institutions, into the Comments Table, together with indications how to find the evidence they are referring to inside the database (for example, via Transaction ID or Participant ID). However, the aim of the database is to enable innovative combination of the sources, to inform new understandings of patronage in early medieval Rome and beyond. The discussed, admittedly famous, case of the monastery of Gregory the Great not only presents an opportunity to reconsider a long established tradition regarding the foundation of this particular monastery.

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The silence of the sources about the existence of Gregory’s “family house” on the Caelian hill, but the likely existence of such an institution elsewhere in Rome, shows that we have to reconsider the act of transforming a house into a monastery operated by Gregory, and many other late antique ascetics. It might often have been not as dramatic and hostile to the family as we have suspected12.

12 For a further discussion of the significance of the urban residence for late Roman senatorial families, and their ascetic members, see J. Hillner, ‘Domus, Family, and Inheritance: The Senatorial Family House in Late Ancient Rome’, forthcoming in the Journal of Roman Studies.

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V. APPENDIX Sources Used for the Compilation of the Patronage Database

Author Source Title Place Date Volume Series /Periodical

No. Page numbers

"Miraculum Sancti Anastasii Martyris"

n/a 1892 n/a Analecta Bollandiana

11 233-241

Alföldy, G. Inscriptiones Urbis Romae Latinae: Titulos Imperatorum Domusque Eorum

Berlin 1996 8 CIL 6.2 n/a

Alföldy, G. Inscriptiones Urbis Romae Latinae


Allodi, L. Il Regesto Sublacense del Secolo XI

Roma 1885 n/a n/a n/a n/a

Anderson, W. B.

Sidonius, Poems and Letters London/Cambridge, Massachusetts

1936 1 Loeb Classical Library

420 n/a

Anderson, W. B.

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Tjäder, J.-O. Die nichtliterarischen lateinischen Papyri Italiens aus der Zeit 445-700

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Tjäder, J.-O. Die nichtliterarischen lateinischen Papyri Italiens aus der Zeit 445-700

Lund 1982 2 Acta Instituti Romani Regni Sueciae

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Tommassetti, G.

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Roma 1942 n/a Codice Topografico della Città di Roma

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1 67-99

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3 319-373

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3 137-167

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Roma Valentini, R. "Petri Mallii Descriptio

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Van Dam, R. Gregory of Tours, Glory of the confessors

Liverpool

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1966 n/a Prokop: Werke

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Veh, O. Prokop, Anekdota Muenchen

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Waitz, G. "Catalogus Regum Langobardorum Et Ducum Beneventanorum"

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Waitz, G. "Pauli Historia Langobardorum"

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Waitz, G. "Vita Anselmi Abbatis Nonantulani"

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15 328-341

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15 238-264

Wallace Hadrill, J. M.

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1960 n/a Medieval Classics

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Wattenbach, W.

"Nachrichten" n/a 1887 n/a Neues Archiv

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60



No. Page numbers

Watten- bach, W.

"Translatio Sanctorum Alexandri Papae et Iustini Presbyteri"

Hannover


15 286-288

61