Learning and Remembering »Overview of Long Term Memory ◊Mnemonics and Mnemonists ◊Ebbinghaus Tradition »Storing to Episodic Memory ◊Encoding specificity

• Learning and Remembering» Overview of Long Term Memory

◊ Mnemonics and Mnemonists

◊ Ebbinghaus Tradition

» Storing to Episodic Memory◊ Encoding specificity

» Retrieval from Episodic Memory◊ Decay and interference

◊ Encoding specificity

» Implicit /Explicit memory

Study Question.• Why would it likely be better for a student to write their exams in the same

classroom in which they attend lecture? Relate Tulving’s encoding specificity principle to this phenomenon.

• Describe the levels (depth) of processing approach to memory. What are incidental learning task and how have they been used to support the depth of processing position.

04/21/23

• An overview of long term memoryEndel Tulving

Memory

Declarative(Explicit)

Nondeclarative(Implicit)

Skills/Habits

PrimingClassical

Conditioning

NonassociativeLearning

Facts(Semantic)

Events(Episodic)

Learning and Remembering

• An overview of long term memory» Tulving’s episodic and semantic distinction

◊ Episodic memory: Memory for events.◊ Semantic memory: Memory for facts.

» The implicit / explicit distinction◊ Implicit memory: Memory without awareness

– tested using indirect measures.E.g., Fragment completion: D A N __ __ __

◊ Explicit memory: Memory with awareness. – Tested using direct measures.

E.g., Recognition: D A N G E R

Endel Tulving


• An overview of long term memory» The procedural / declarative distinction

◊ Procedural memory: Memory for doing things.

◊ Declarative memory: Explicit memory.– E.g., Milner’s Experiment with H.M.

Endel Tulving


• An overview of long term memory


<Selection of clips from “Memento”>

• An overview of long term memory



• An overview of long term memory» Mnemonics

Video clip: Memory Wizards available athttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vsYCSmBcM0



◊ How good is your memory?



◊ Mnemonics: Strategies and tricks for improving memory.

◊ Mnemonists: Individuals who demonstrate extraordinary memory

ability.

◊ Imagery and Memory– Advantage of Pictures over Words

– Advantage of concrete over abstract nouns

– Many mnemonics exploit imagery

The method of loci

The pegword method

◊ Luria’s Mnemonist (SV).– Synaesthesia


• An overview of long term memory» Three mnemonic principles

1.Structure for learning– Encoding (rehearsal)

2.Use of images/rhymes/acronyms– Deep, durable memories

3.Storage or retention (depth of processing)– Retrieval Cues

– Retrieval (encoding specificity)


• An overview of long term memory» The Ebbinghaus tradition

◊ Uber das Gedachtnis (1885)

◊ Method– Used nonsense syllables (GAH, SIF, etc.)

– The relearning task

Savings score: the reduction in the number of trials necessary for relearning as compared with original learning.

– MacLeod (1988)

Relearning savings are a result of improved recall.

Hermann von Ebbinghause



◊ The forgetting curve


Savin

gs

(%)



◊ Evaluation– Problems with the (exclusive) use of nonsense syllables

AUP, DWN, LEF, RGT, BAK, FOW

– Real life memory

◊ The current position– Meaning is central to the study of LTM

– Participants in studies use mnemonics

– Ecological validity is important


• Storing information in LTM» Frequency

◊ We are very sensitive to the frequency of events

» Distinctiveness◊ The von Restorff effect: improved memory for information that is

made distinct from surrounding information.

» Rehearsal, organization, and imagery


• Storing information in LTM » Rehearsal

◊ Atkinson & Shiffrin’s definition

– A deliberate practicing (recycling) of the contents of STM.

◊ Two effects

1. Maintains information in STM

2. Increases the likelihood that the item will be transferred to LTM

◊ Hellyer (1962)

– Had participants rehearse out loud and perform a Brown-Peteson task (arithmetic).


• Storing information in LTM » Results


• Storing information in LTM » Rehearsal and serial position effects

◊ Rundas (1971)– Participants rehearsed out loud.


• Storing information in LTM » Rehearsal and serial position effects

– Craik & Watkins (1973)Participants learned 12 lists of twelve words

Instructed that the last four were the most important

Learning and RememberingA

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• Storing information in LTM » Levels of Processing

◊ Two postulates of the levels of processing approach1. Physical properties --> shallow processing

Semantic properties --> deep processing

2. The deeper the processing, the more durable the memory.

◊ Two forms of rehearsal

1. Maintenance rehearsal: Rote repetition of information.

2. Elaborative rehearsal: The processing of information on a meaningful level.


• Storing information in LTM » Empirical support for levels of processing

◊ Hyde & Jenkins (1973)– Intentional vs Incidental learning

– Three incidental learning conditions

1. Pleasantness (semantic/deep)

2. Letter ‘E’ present? (Physical/shallow)

3. Number of letters (Physical/shallow)



◊ Hyde & Jenkins (1973)



◊ The self-reference effect


» “The Trouble With Levels”◊ Defining levels

– Circularity of argument

We know that shallow processing leads to poor memory because..

Processing letters leads to poor memory and…

We know processing letters is shallow…

Because shallow processing leads to poor memory and …

– Task differences

Recall vs. recognition

Glenberg et al. (1977)

• Used Brown-Peterson task with repeated words for phonological suppression

• Recognition showed effect of amount of rehearsal, not recall

Alan Baddeley


• Storing information in LTM

04/21/23

• Storing information in LTM » Organization

◊ List as many “things that you can eat” as you can.– Are your answers organized?

Category clustering– Organization in semantic memory (next week)– Tulving’s subjective organization

Organization generated by the rememberer for structuring a list where no organization is supplied by the experimenter

» Imagery◊ Paivio’s dual coding hypothesis

– Memory can be coded visually and verballyWords that can imaged can be stored twice


• Retrieving information from LTM» Decay

◊ Thorndyke’s law of disuse (use it or lose it)

◊ Bartlett and the reconstructive nature of memory– We remember only the gist, not details.

» Interference in memory recall◊ Proactive Interference : Previously learned material

interferes with the learning of new material

◊ Retroactive Interference : New material interferes with previously learned material.


• Retrieving information from LTM » Accessibility vs. availability


• Retrieving information from LTM» Accessibility vs. availability

◊ Tip-of-the-tongue (Brown & MacNeil)– 49 low-frequency words (e.g., apse, nepotism, sampan), prompted by

brief definitions.

8.5% of trials -> TOT

– Total of 360 TOT states:

224 similar-sound TOTs (e.g., Saipan for sampan)

48% had the same number of syllables as the target

95 similar-meaning TOTs (e.g., houseboat for sampan).

– > 50% can guess the first letter


Endel Tulving


• Retrieving information from LTM» Encoding specificity

◊ When is recall better than recognition?– Tulving’s recognition failure experiment

– Step 1: Study list

head LIGHT

bath NEED

pretty BLUE

etc.

– Step 2: Free association and recognition

Endel Tulving

dark _______ ________ ________ ______

want _______ ________ ________ ______

sky _______ ________ ________ ______Etc.



◊ When is recall better than recognition?

Endel Tulving



◊ When is recall better than recognition?– When recall is cued.

◊ What makes a good cue?– Encoding Specificity Hypothesis.

A cue will be an effective aid to retrieval if it is stored as part of the original memory.

◊ An empirical example (Goddan & Baddeley, 1975).– Participants are assigned to one of four conditions and were presented

with a list of words.

Encoding: Underwater or on land

Retrieval: Underwater or on land

Endel Tulving



◊ Context-dependent memory.– The context/ environment is stored as part of memories

• Amnesia and implicit memory» Amnesia - loss of memory or memory ability due to brain

injury or disease.◊ Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory for events occurring before

injury

◊ Anterograde amnesia - inability to form new memory for events occurring after injury


• Amnesia and implicit memory» Anterograde amnesia


Video clip: The man with a 30 sec memoryhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmzU47i2xgw&feature=related

• Amnesia and implicit memory» Anterograde amnesia

◊ H.M.

» Tools and objects, revisited» Role of the hippocampus» Dissociation of declarative and procedural memory

◊ Korsakoff’s syndrome


• Amnesia and implicit memory» Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)

◊ Amnesic patients and institutionalized controls study a list of words.

◊ Three memory tests1. Free Recall

2. Yes/No recognition

3. Word stem completion:

tab____?

gar____?


• Amnesia and implicit memory» Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)


• Amnesia and implicit memory» Repitition priming - a previous encounter with information facilitated

later performance on the same information.

◊ Does not require conscious recognition

◊ Is independent of level of processing

◊ Jacoby & Dallas (1981)– Three orienting tasks

1. Physical (e.g., contains an ‘L’ ?)

2. Rhyme (e. g., rhymes with train?)

3. Semantic (e. g., is it the center of the nervous system?)

– Two memory tests

1. Yes/No recognition

2. (Masked) perceptual identification


• Amnesia and implicit memory» Repitition priming - a previous encounter with information facilitated

later performance on the same information.

◊ Jacoby & Dallas (1981)


Documents

Learning and Remembering »Overview of Long Term Memory ◊Mnemonics and Mnemonists ◊Ebbinghaus Tradition »Storing to Episodic Memory ◊Encoding specificity