Learning Styles and Strategies Aug 2004

LEARNING STYLES AND

STRATEGIES

Revised August, 2004

Learning Styles & Strategies

Prepared by:

Lori Herod, M.Ed., B.A.

Note: Content changes may have been made since the course material was originally prepared by Ms. Herod in 2000.

Revised August, 2004

Adult Learning & Literacy 310-800 Portage Avenue

Winnipeg, Manitoba R3G 0N4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Adult Learning and Literacy Branch of Manitoba Advanced Education and Training wishes to thank the following people for their support under which this course was produced: Curriculum Development: Lori Herod Curriculum Consultants: Marie Matheson and Judy Baker Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge ownership of copyright. The Adult Learning and Literacy Branch of Manitoba Advanced Education and Training would be happy to make arrangements with those copyright holders whom it has not been able to contact. Errors or omissions will be corrected in a future edition. This training resource may be reproduced for educational purposes and on a non-commercial basis, provided appropriate credit is given.

Course Information................................................................................................ 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3 Module 1: Physical Domain.................................................................................. 5 Module 2: Cognitive Domain ................................................................................ 12 Module 3: Affective Domain ................................................................................. 23 Module 4: Culture and Learning ........................................................................... 34 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 50 Appendix A: Course Assignment Cover Sheet .....................................................55 References............................................................................................................ 56

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Learning Styles and Strategies 1

“Learning Styles and Strategies” is a core course for the Level II Literacy Certificate. It is offered here in correspondence mode and should take between ten and fifteen hours to complete. Course Objectives: The objectives of this course are to:

• examine three broad categories of learning styles: physical, cognitive, and affective

• examine the effects of culture on learning

• assist literacy practitioners to identify their preferred learning style in each

domain

• provide information and tools for assisting students to identify their preferred learning styles

• identify instructional techniques and strategies for supporting students with a

wide range of learning styles

COURSE INFORMATION


Course Outline: The topics that will be covered in this course include:

• Introduction to learning styles • Physical domain

• Cognitive domain

• Affective domain

Culture and learning style Assignments and Evaluation : The course will be evaluated on a “Complete/Incomplete” basis. There are assignments at the end of each module that should be completed at your own pace. Completed assignments should be forwarded as a package to AL&L via one of the following methods: ⇒ Mail: Marie Matheson

Rural and Northern Adult Literacy Coordinator Room 102, 340-9th Street Brandon, MB R7A 6C2

⇒ E-mail: [email protected] ⇒ Fax: (204) 726-6583 Questions/Comments/Assistance : If you require assistance, clarification or have questions or comments about the materials, please telephone the Correspondence Course Coordinator, Marie Matheson at:

(204) 726-6027 or 1-800-262-3930 Toll free

Please complete the Course Assignment Participant Cover Sheet found in Appendix A and attach it with your assignment package when forwarding to the address above. This will ensure proper registration and course credit recognition for you.


As literacy practitioners and volunteers, it is important for us to understand that people have preferred ways of learning. For example, some of us learn best when we have the opportunity to work “hands on” with the material being learned. Others of us are more comfortable working “in our heads” with more abstract theories and concepts. This is what is referred to in general as a person’s “learning style.” Unfortunately, often both instructors and students approach learning as though there were a “right” way to learn, not realising that any learning style that works is the right one. Defining “Learning Style” According to MacKeracher (1996), learning styles may be thought of as the way in which people:

take in information select certain information for further processing use meanings, values, skills, strategies to solve problems, make

decisions, and create new meanings change any or all of the processes or structures described in this list

Categorising Learning Styles There has been a growth of research into the subject of learning styles in the last decade or so. The result has been numerous ways of categorising learning styles. For the purposes of this course, these have been broadly grouped into four categories:

physical domain – visual, auditory and motor styles cognitive domain – concrete, abstract, sequential, random styles affective domain – internal and external psychological and physiological

factors that affect how we feel culture and learning

Most of us have a preferred learning domain and within that domain, a preferred learning style.

Introduction


Why Look at Learning Style? Firstly, we need to be aware of learning styles to avoid mismatches in style between instructors and learners. As the cartoon below nicely illustrates, when we teach using our own preferred style not all of our students will have the identical style. Inevitably learning will be diminished for some.

Secondly, we need to assist our students to identify their learning styles in order that they may build confidence and more effectively manage their own learning. Thirdly, in that our own preferred learning style can influence our approach to planning, implementing and evaluating instruction, it is equally important for us to be conscious of our style. We need to become informed about alternate styles, and strengthen our ability to work in these styles in order to develop instruction for students with a broad range of styles. Finally, although most of us have a preferred learning domain, this does not mean that we don’t use or cannot develop alternate domains. Similarly, within a domain we are likely to have a preferred learning style. Becoming aware of other styles and working to strengthen weaker ones can enhance learning by providing a variety of strategies for taking in and processing information. This course examines the three domains and the predominant styles within each. A fourth module examines the effect of culture on learning with particular emphasis on the Aboriginal learner.

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Module Outline - Introduction - Visual Style - Auditory Style - Motor Style - Identifying Physical Style - Addressing Physical Style in

Instruction - Assignment - Physical Style Questionnaire

Module 1: PHYSICAL DOMAIN


Introduction When we speak of learning styles in the physical domain, we are referring to people who feel most comfortable using their physical senses – sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste when learning. Although we use all or most our senses when learning, many of us have a strong preference for one modality over another for taking in and processing information. The predominant physical or sensory styles are described in the following paragraphs.

Visual Style Learners with a visual style prefer to use their eyes to learn; that is, see something in writing, watch a demonstration or video, and so on. In order to learn most effectively, these learners need to “see” the information or material in one form or another, thus the use of visual aids such will enhance learning. For example, when learning to read, these learners are likely to prefer a whole word versus phonetic approach.

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Auditory Style Learners with an auditory style will prefer to use their hearing to learn; that is, listen to a lecture about a certain topic rather than read about it, talk about the material with others or through “self-talk” (talking to themselves “in their heads”). For example, contrary to visual learners these students are likely to learn to read best when a phonetic approach is used.

Motor Style This style is also referred to as a kinaesthetic or physical style. Learners who prefer this style can be thought of as “hands on” learners. That is, they need to do an activity, practise a skill or manipulate material physically in order to learn most effectively. For example, when learning to spell these learners are likely to prefer writing out words since muscle movement assists in their learning process. Identifying Physical Learning Style Identifying learners’ preferred physical learning style can be approached in either a

formal or informal way. Informally, learning sessions can be planned to incorporate approaches and learning aids appropriate for each style. The practitioner would then simply note what seems to work best with each learner. This will be easier to accomplish with small rather than large groups, and in individual tutoring situations. With medium to larger groups, a more formal approach in which learners complete a questionnaire may be more advantageous. A “Physical Learning Styles Questionnaire” has been included at the end of this module and may be reproduced for use by programs.


Addressing Physical Style in Instruction Of the different types of learning styles discussed in this course, physical style is perhaps the simplest and most straightforward to identify and incorporate into instruction. Once you have identified your learners’ preferred physical learning style, learning sessions can be easily structured to specifically address each or all of the styles. Listed below are some instructional techniques and learning aids for each style. Some techniques and aids can be used effectively for more than one style.

Techniques and Learning Aids for Visual Style - Maximum use of visual aids will greatly enhance learning for individuals with a visual style. Some examples of visual aids include: videos and films, written materials with lots of graphics (i.e., charts, tables, pictures/clip art, photographs, etc.), overhead projectors, computers, and so on. In general, any technique that allows these learners to use their eyes will be effective, so instruction should include activities that involve watching, reading and writing. For example, if a student is learning about pronouns (e.g., “I,” “he,” “they,” etc), reading through a story and highlighting all the pronouns together would be effective.


Techniques and Learning Aids for Auditory Style - Providing maximum

opportunities to “hear” the material to be learned will prove most useful for individuals with an auditory style. In general, any technique that involves listening and/or talking will be effective. Some examples include: group discussions, lectures, guest speakers, reading out loud, listening to cassettes/videos/films, and so on. Contrary to the approach used with the visual learner above when looking at pronouns, auditory learners need to hear the material. Thus, one approach might be to read a story and have the learner stop you whenever he/she hears a pronoun.

Techniques and Learning Aids for Motor Style - Individuals with a motor style need to be physically involved in their learning, thus the key to enhancing their learning is lots of “hands on” activities. Some effective approaches include: field trips, experiments, role playing, puzzles and games, three dimensional learning aids, or more generally, writing things out and reading out loud. In the case of learning about pronouns for example, one approach might be to break a story into four parts, post the parts around the room, and have the students go around to the “stations” and write out the pronouns at each.

Today, we will discuss


Assignment – Module 1 1. The following are techniques or learning aids that are most effective with a

particular physical style. Please check the appropriate column for each:

Visual Auditory Motor

a. Read out loud

c. Trace letters and numbers

d. Beat out syllables of words for student

e. Have learner beat out syllables

f. Show a video

g. Use different fonts or graphics

h. Give verbal directions

i. Give written directions

j. Learners use a computer

k. Learners read silently to

themselves from a computer screen

l. Learners listen to tapes of

themselves reading 2. Please complete the ”Physical Learning Styles Questionnaire” and answer the

following questions on a separate page. a. According to the questionnaire, what is your preferred physical learning style? b. What are several ways that being aware of their preferred physical learning

style might help your learners to manage their learning better? c. If you think about your personal instructional approach, is your physical

learning style reflected in how you plan and conduct learning sessions (e.g., if you are a visual learner, you may tend to use a lot of visual aids in your classes)? Explain.

d. You are going to teach a group of Stage 1 and 2 learners about contractions,

(i.e., that is = that’s, I am = I’m, they are = they’re). Describe how you might teach contractions for each style.

You are tutoring a Stage 3 learner and are working on reading comprehension. Your plan is to have the learner read a book of his/her choice, then relate back the main ideas/themes at the end of each chapter. Explain how you would approach this for each style.


Physical Learning Styles Questionnaire Below are a number of incomplete sentences. Next to each sentence are three possible ways to end each sentence. For each sentence select ONE ending that best reflects how you normally do things. The column with the largest number of ticks indicates your preferred physical learning style.

A B C 1. When you want to know

the day’s news do you… read the newspaper thoroughly?

listen to the radio or TV?

watch TV and/or quickly scan the newspaper?

2. When you read a novel do you …

like descriptive scenes and imagine them?

enjoy reading dialogues and “hear” the characters voices?

prefer action stories?

3. When you need to spell a difficult word do you…

try to “see” the word in your head first?

sound it out and then write it?

write the word a number of ways until it “feels” right?

4. In your spare time would you rather …

watch TV, go to the show, read?

listen to music, attend a concert or play an instrument?

do something physical (e.g., sports, crafts)?

5. When you forget something do you …

forget names but not faces?

forget faces but not names?

remember best what you did?

6. When you have to do business with someone do you …

prefer a face-to-face meeting or writing letters?

prefer to discuss things on the telephone?

prefer to discuss things while doing another activity (e.g. playing sports)?

7. In terms of the arts do you prefer…

Paintings? music? dance?

8. When you are talking do you…

talk sparingly, but dislike listening?

enjoy listening, but are impatient to talk?

gesture a lot and are quite expressive?

9. When you attend a meeting do you …

come prepared with notes?

enjoy discussing issues and hearing other points of view?

want to be somewhere else and spend the time doodling?

10. People can best interpret your emotions by…

your facial expressions by the tone of your voice

by your body language

11. When you visualise something do you …

see vivid, detailed pictures?

think in sounds? see images that involve lots of movement?

12. When concentrating are you …

Distracted by untidiness or movement?

distracted by sounds or noise?

distracted by movement?

13. When you are praised do you …

like written comments? like oral comments? like a physical action such as a pat on the back or hug?

14. When you try to interpret someone’s mood do you …

Primarily look at their facial expression?

listen to the tone of their voice?

watch their body language?

15. When you are inactive do you …

look around, doodle, watch something?

talk to yourself or others?

doodle, draw, fiddle with something?

16. When you are learning do you …

like to see diagrams, slides, or demonstrations

prefer verbal instructions, lectures, group discussions?

prefer direct involvement such as role-playing?

Total ticks in Columns A, B and C

(Visual style) (Auditory style) (Motor style)


Module Outline - Introduction - Gregorc’s Cognitive Learning

Styles a. Concrete Sequential b. Abstract Sequential c. Concrete Random d. Abstract Random

- Instructional Planning Checklist

- Assignment

Module 2: COGNITIVE DOMAIN


Introduction:

“Cognition” can be defined simply as the way a person thinks. Thus, when we speak about someone as having a “cognitive learning style” we mean that his or her preferred approach to learning in general is mentally centred. In the first module, we were discussing people whose preferred approach to learning is physically centred. While we all learn cognitively (i.e., we all think as we learn), for some of us the processing of information is more centred in the physical or affective domain, whereas others of us prefer to “think” our way through problems (e.g., problem-solve, brainstorm, analyse, etc). Gregorc’s Style Delineator Dr. A. Gregorc is a professor and researcher in the field of education. He developed “The Style Delineator,” a questionnaire that allows adults to identify their preferred cognitive learning style or way of thinking. (A copy of his questionnaire can be found at the end of this module.) Gregorc identifies two major processes involved in learning:

• perceiving information • ordering information

In terms of perceiving information, Gregorc suggests that our brain does so along what can be described as a continuum from concrete to abstract. Learners who are more towards the concrete end of the continuum will prefer lots of examples of material, as well as concrete products from their learning. In contrast, learners who lean toward the abstract will be more interested in the process of learning than the end product. (e.g., the central notion, key concepts, principle, etc of the material).


In terms of ordering information, the brain does so along a continuum from sequential to random. Some learners will prefer to have material presented to them in a very linear or step-by-step way. Gregorc identifies these individuals as sequential learners. In contrast, other learners will prefer a more “holistic” or global approach. That is, the sequence the information is presented is less important to them. As long as the information gets to them, it doesn’t matter what the order is. Based on these dimensions of the learning process Gregorc identified four cognitive learning styles:

• concrete sequential • abstract sequential

• concrete random

• abstract random

PERCEIVE INFORMATION

ORDER INFORMATION

Concrete Abstract

Sequential Random

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Each style of learning is described in detail below, as are several ideas for planning instruction. Concrete Sequential (CS) Learners… can be described

as… have natural abilities such

as…

work best when they …

may have difficulty…

can stretch their style by …

- habitual - particular about their appearance - punctual - rarely giving compliments - having high expectations - disciplinarians - having keen sensory perceptions - seeing issues as black or white

- focus on details and specific results - like to work with facts - carry out tasks in a step-by-step way - plan their time - are accurate and precise - prefer working under structured conditions

- know the accepted way of doing things - are given exact directions and examples - can apply ideas in a practical, hands-on way - are given approval for specific work done - can be consistent and efficient

- choosing from many options - acting without specific directions - with change if a reason is not given - taking new approaches - dealing with opposing views - interpreting abstract ideas - relating to feelings - waiting, sitting still - answering “what if” questions

- seeing the “big picture” - not reacting to first impressions - expressing their feelings - considering the means as well as an end result - working with an organized, divergent thinker - accepting less than immediate answers or results - considering others’ points of view - lowering expectations

In general, CS learners need a structured approach to learning. Specific schedules and stated course requirements will be important them. Clear expectations of performance are needed and they will appreciate a step-by-step approach to learning with continual validation along the way. The majority of present day educational institutions approach learning in a concrete sequential manner.


Abstract Sequential (AS) Learners … can be described

as… have natural abilities such

as…

work best when…


can stretch their style by …

- disliking public displays of affection - wanting to know the rationale for doing something - enjoy the news and educational programs - keep a record of important events - forgetful, preoccupied - very verbal - dresses for comfort and practicality

- debating points of view - organising ideas in a logical way - gathering information - analysing ideas - thinking in a structured way - patience - examining key ideas - formulating theory - research - striving for intellectual recognition

- have reading references and expert resources - are sure of themselves - follow traditional procedures - have time to learn material thoroughly - can work alone - do library research - ask “Why is this …?” -write analytical essays - rely on lecture notes and written materials

- expressing emotion constructively - working co-operatively - writing creatively - discovering unusual ways of doing things - playing games, role plays or simulations - making physical products - convincing others diplomatically - being criticised - taking risks

- seeing the lighter side of things - take time to “smell the flowers” - be less concerned with perfection - consider alternatives in a non-judging way - explore personal feelings - try new experiences - worry less - listen rather than argue

These learners work best on their own. They are able to formulate theory, and are expert at doing research and learning from books. Structured learning is helpful, but

these learners do not depend on direction and reinforcement from an instructor to the extent that concrete sequential learners do. They are especially suited to academic environments and often succeed exceptionally well at university.


Concrete Random (CR) Learners …

can be described

as…

have natural abilities such

as…

work best when…


can stretch their style

by … - competitive - refusing to accept “can’t” or “don’t” - not people who read instructions or follow directions - curious - leaders, not followers - like trial and error methods - strategic - not afraid to experiment - independent

- finding answers by experimenting- discovering new information, processes and options - creating change - considering alternatives - taking calculated risks - investigating “why”

- they can try new approaches - problem-solving - self-directed - competing - can ask, “How many different ways can I …?” - brain-storming - they can produce real, but creative products - given “hands-on” experiences - use trial and error methods

- pacing themselves - meeting timelines - doing formal reports - showing how they arrived at an answer - choosing one answer - keeping detailed records - being graded on products only - not having variety, options or choices

- learn to prioritise - follow through with projects - integrate information and experience - ask others to provide reasonable deadlines - learn to pace themselves - delegate responsibility - recognise limitations

These learners need concrete experiences to reinforce their learning. They are divergent thinkers; that is, they excel at brainstorming, problem-solving and being innovative. Experiential or “hands-on” learning is essential for

them to grasp ideas and formulate opinions. These learners can work equally well in groups or on their own. They prefer choice and encouragement to solve problems independently. These learners are often least accommodated in educational institutions since they need open-ended and experiential learning experiences.

Now if I try “A,” “x” will happen, and if I try “B,” “y” will happen, so what if I try…


Abstract Random (AR) Learners …

can be described

as…

have natural abilities

such as…

work best when…


can stretch their style

by … - sociable - bored by routine and orderliness - artistic - romantic, sentimental - forgetful of details - emotional - idealistic - sensitive - seeing things holistically

- reflecting on their feelings - being flexible and adaptable - relating to others - sensitivity - appreciating the arts, beauty, nature - personalise information - being imaginative - socializing - interpreting feelings and ideas

- working with others - receive personal attention and emotional support - have social activities to balance work - can ask, “How can we interpret this?” - are free from control by others - can express themselves - in a non-competitive atmosphere

- giving details or exact answers - memorising - competing -being corrected - working alone, step-by-step or under time limits - organizing plans - focusing on one task at a time - working with authoritarian personalities

- attend to details versus the “big picture” - meet timelines - react less emotionally - follow through with assignments and projects - include objective data in decision- making

These learners work best in groups. Clarifying their thinking through discussion with others is the way they learn best. They enjoy interacting with others and will often work hard to obtain an instructor’s approval.

Relationships are key to effective learning for these learners. Academically, they may struggle without some positive encouragement from and interaction with their instructor(s).


Instructional Planning Checklist The table below outlines points to consider when planning instruction which addresses learners’ cognitive styles. INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING POINTS

CONCRETE SEQUENTIAL

ABSTRACT SEQUENTIAL

CONCRETE RANDOM

ABSTRACT RANDOM

Do the objectives include …

“hands-on” problem solving?

theory and/or analysis?

opportunities to learn via interpersonal interaction?

use of problem solving skills?

Is the structure of the learning session …

a very organised format with exact directions?

a general, predictable structure?

such that there is opportunity for personal input and ideas?

such that there is opportunity for independent work?

Do the methods include …

“hands-on” activities, and practical, experiential learning?

reading and research?

interpersonal and/or group work?

opportunity for discovery, inquiry and exploration?

Is the general approach …

structured and organized?

logical and conceptual?

thematic and interpretative?

investigative and experimental?

Do the techniques used provide for...

practical, “hands-on” experience?

time to plan, organize and think analytically?

personalized experiences?

choices and alternatives?

Will learners achieve results that provide …

Practical information and results?

conceptual understanding of material?

personal meaning? unusual or innovative solutions?


Assignment – Module 2

Please complete the “Style Delineator” at the end of this module and answer the following questions on a separate page:

a. What cognitive style does the “Style Delineator” indicate you have? b. Were you aware that you use this particular style?

c. Does your preferred cognitive style influence your instructional approach?

Explain.

d. Please give a few brief examples of how you might broaden or strengthen your instructional approach to address the three cognitive styles you least prefer.

1. You are planning a learning session for Stage 3 learners on how to use reference

material, in this case a dictionary. Briefly outline a lesson that will address each of the four cognitive styles.

2. Each of the sentences below are relevant to one of the four cognitive styles

discussed in this module. Please check the most appropriate box for each.

CS AS CR AR

a. is most comfortable with explicit instructions

b. gets impatient with routine

c. prefers to do research in the library

d. needs a relationship with the instructor

e. prefers conducting an experiment to a lecture

f. enjoys working on their own

g. prefers to work in a group

h. likes to brainstorm

i. enjoys figuring out the moral or point of stories

j. needs to talk about personal experiences

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Gregorc’s Cognitive Style Delineator 1. To identify your preferred style, read each row of words and mark the TWO in

each that describe you best.

Number A B C D 1. Imaginative

investigative realistic analytical

2. Organised

adaptable critical inquisitive

3. like to debate

get to the point

creative sociable

4. Personal

practical academic adventurous

5. Precise

flexible systematic inventive

6. Sharing

orderly sensible independent

7. Competitive

perfectionist co-operative logical

8. Intellectual

sensitive hardworking risk taker

9. enjoy reading

people person

problem solver

planner

10. Memorise

associate think through originate

11. Changer

judges spontaneous want direction

12. Communicator

discovering cautious reasoning

13. Challenging

practising caring examining

14. complete work

seek options enjoy ideas interpretation

15. Doing

feeling thinking experimenting

2. Once you have marked TWO words in each row above, score yourself as per

the following instructions. In each of the columns below, circle the letters of the words you chose for each row. Add your totals for each column (I, II, III, IV). Multiply the total of each column by 4. The box with the highest number represents your preferred cognitive style.


I II III IV 1. C D A B 2. A C B D 3. B A D C 4. B C A D 5. A C B D 6. B C A D 7. B D C A 8. C A B D 9. D A B C 10 A C B D 11. D B C A 12. C D A B 13. B D C A 14. A C D B 15. A C B D Totals

Multiply: x 4 x4 x4 x4

Equals ____ CS ____ AS ____ AR ____ CR

3. Chart your results on the graph below. Place a dot on the number that corresponds to your score in each of the classifications then link the dots with a straight line from CS to AS, AS to AR, AR to CR, and CR to CS. The resulting shape will range from a skinny diamond to a tilted square and will provide you with a good visual picture of your strongest or most preferred style to your least preferred or weakest.

CS

- 60 - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10

CR ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ AS 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60

- 10 - 20 - 30 - 40 - 50 - 60


Module Outline - Introduction - Physiological Factors - Psychological Factors - Accommodating the

Affective Domain a. Physical Needs b. Emotional Needs

- Assignment

Module 3: AFFECTIVE DOMAIN


Introduction: The affective domain encompasses how we feel emotionally and physically. These feelings are affected by factors both internal and external to ourselves. The affective domain is also often referred to as the emotional/relational domain. Physiological Factors: Physiological factors refer to those things that affect how we feel physically.

Internal factors that may diminish our ability to learn include hunger, thirst,

fatigue, and illness.

external factors involve environmental “comfort” concerns such as temperature, noise and light levels, amount and type of distractions, and physical surroundings (e.g., comfortable furniture, adequate working space, etc).

Psychological Factors: Psychological factors refer to those things that affect how we feel emotionally.

internal factors that may affect our learning include: our personal style,

motivation, willingness to take risks, persistence and attention abilities, and attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions

external factors may include: personal style of others, stressful situations at work or home, support from others, etc


Accommodating Learners Affective Needs

Physical Needs - The following checklist identifies the basic physical factors that need to be considered when planning and implementing instruction. Most are easily identified and remedied if they are affecting the learning environment negatively. Each will, of course, fluctuate in terms of importance as various factors in the learning situation change (e.g., location, time of day, length of class, learners’ motivation and personal styles, subject matter).

ITEM CHECK …

1. Furniture - Are adequate and comfortable desks, chairs, and so on available?

- Is the furniture arrangement conducive to Learning (e.g., can everyone hear/see)?

2. Light - Is the light too weak or strong? - Do learners have a place to work/study outside of class, which

has adequate lighting? 3. Noise - Is it too noisy?

- Are learners aware of the need for quiet when working/studying?

4. Temperature - Is the learning environment too hot or cold? 5. Thirst, hunger - Do learners have access to beverages and food?

- Are food and beverages consumed at a non-distracting time and place?

- Are learners aware of the fact that their ability to learn will diminish if they are overly hungry/thirsty?

6. Washroom needs - Have learners been advised where the Washrooms are located?

7. Breaks - Have an adequate number of breaks been included in the learning session based on time of day, length of learning session and type of material being learned?

- Are learners aware of the importance of taking breaks to prevent fatigue?

8. Safety - Has adequate consideration been given to the safety needs of learners? (e.g. building fire escape procedures, safety measures when working with hazardous materials or tools, etc)

- Are learners conducting themselves safely in the learning environment?

9. Distractions - Is the learning environment as free as possible from distractions to the learning process?

- Are learners aware that their personal study space needs to be as free from distraction as possible (e.g., no TV or radio on, nobody talking, etc)?

10. Illness/fatigue/stress - Are both the instructor(s) and learner(s) sufficiently well, rested and free of stress to concentrate on the learning session?

- Do any learners have physical problems that may impede learning (e.g., poor eyesight or hearing, a back problem, blood sugar sensitivities, allergies, etc)?

Are any learners overly nervous about taking tests, speaking in class, giving presentations, etc?

Psychological Needs


Motivation - All adults can learn. However, many adults who return to

learning after an absence have negative views about their ability to learn. Based on their past performance they may expect to do poorly or fail and so come to the learning situation with poor self-esteem and low expectations. Thus, part of our role as practitioners and volunteers is to help the learner change this perception. The following checklist is material summarized from an article entitled “Practical Proposals for Motivating Students” (Forsythe and McMillan, 1991). It outlines several excellent suggestions for helping learners to increase and maintain their confidence.

1.

Capitalize on the desire to learn - pique curiosity, - highlight stimulating and interesting

material - present material at a challenging, but

appropriate level - use a variety of creative and

interesting instructional techniques - focus on higher order learning rather

than rote learning or memorisation - model enthusiasm - give responsibility for learning to the

learner as much as possible 2.

Avoid external motivators - use caution when using grades, tests, quizzes, etc., to motivate learning, promoting instead interest and enjoyment in the learning itself

- minimize competition among learners 3.

Create positive expectations about learning

- provide opportunities for self-determination in the learning material, process, and outcomes

- minimize fear of failure - minimize comparisons with others

4.

Provide feedback - specific rather than global feedback is more effective

5.

Goal setting - assist learners to set realistic goals - emphasise positive (things desired)

versus negative (things to avoid) goals

- help learners develop strategies for achieving their goals

6.

Increase value of learning by … - making material personally relevant to learners

- selecting topics and tasks that are interesting

- take time to find out what learners perceive as important and interesting

- expecting interest not boredom Personal style - One of the main factors that every


instructor and learner bring into a learning situation is their personal style. Much as in the first two modules, a mismatch in personality types can substantially detract from effective learning (e.g., when individuals have a “personality conflict,” can’t seem to “click,” etc). Although we each know that there are different “types” of people, often we have not “named” or categorised these similarities and differences in any formal way. Doing so can assist practitioners and volunteers to know when and how personal style can affect a learning situation.

A tool for identifying your own and/or your learners’ personal style, the

“Kiersey Temperament Scale,” has been included below following pages. The sorter is based on the work of Carl Jung’s theory of psychological types. It identifies four main personality types broken down further into four variants each. The types and variants are based on Jung’s concepts of several aspects of personality that tend to lie at opposite ends of a continuum. These include the notions of:

♦ Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I)

E - sociable, draws I - private, draws energy from external energy from sources internal resources

♦ Intuition (N) versus Sensation (S)

N - innovative, prefers S - practical, possibilities wants facts

♦ Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)

T- prefers to make impersonal, F – prefers to make logical judgements personal or value

judgements

♦ Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P)

J – prefers closure over P – prefers things to open options, very time be open and fluid,

conscious less time conscious


The Kiersey Temperament Sorter A B 1. At a party do you… interact with many,

including strangers? interact with a few who are known to you?

2. Are you more inclined to be … realistic? philosophic? 3. Are you more intrigued by … facts? similes? * 4. Are you usually more … fair minded? kind hearted? 5. Do you tend to be more … dispassionate? sympathetic? 6. Do you prefer to work … to deadlines? just “whenever?” 7. Do you tend to choose… rather carefully? somewhat

impulsively? 8. At parties do you … stay late with

increasing energy? leave early with decreased energy?

9. Are you a more … sensible person? reflective person? 10. Are you more drawn to … hard data? abstruse** ideas? 11. Is it more natural for you to be … fair to others? nice to others? 12. In first approaching others, are you

more … impersonal and detached?

personal and engaging?

13. Are you usually more… punctual? leisurely? 14. Does it bother you more having things

… incomplete? completed?

15. In your social groups do you … keep abreast of others’ happenings?

get behind on the news?

16. Are you usually more interested in … specifics? concepts? 17. Do you prefer writers who … say what they mean? use lots of

analogies? 18. Are you more naturally … impartial? compassionate? 19. In judging, are you more likely to be

… impersonal? sentimental?

20. Do you usually … settle things? keep options open? 21. Are you usually rather … quick to agree to a

time? reluctant to agree to a time?

22. In phoning do you … just start talking? rehearse what you’ll say?

23. Facts … speak for themselves.

usually require interpretation.

24. Do you prefer to work with … practical information? abstract ideas? 25. Are you inclined to be more … cool-headed? warm-hearted? 26. Would you rather be … more just than

merciful? more merciful than just?

27. Are you more comfortable … setting a schedule? putting things off? 28. Are you more comfortable with… written agreements? handshake

agreements? 29. In company do you … start conversations? wait to be

approached? 30. Traditional common sense is… usually trustworthy. often misleading. 31. Children often do not… make themselves

useful. daydream enough.

32. Are you usually more … tough-minded? tender hearted? 33. Are you more … firm than gentle? gentle than firm? 34. Are you more prone to keep things … well-organized? open-ended? 35. Do you put more value on the… definite? variable? 36. Does new interaction with

Others … stimulate and energize you?

tax your reserves?

37. Are you more frequently … a practical sort of person?

an abstract sort of person?


38. Which are you drawn to … accurate perception? concept formation? 39. Which is more satisfying? discussing an issue

thoroughly? achieving agreement on an issue?

40. Which rules you more? your head? your heart? 41. Are you more comfortable with work

… contracted? on a casual basis?

42. Do you prefer things to be… neat and orderly? optional? 43. Do you prefer… many friends with

brief contact? a few friends with longer contact?

44. Are you more drawn to… substantial information?

credible assumptions?

45. Are you more interested in… production? research? 46. Are you more comfortable when you

are … objective? personal?

47. Do you value in yourself that you are more…

unwavering? devoted?

48. Are you more comfortable with… final statements? tentative statements? 49. Are you more comfortable… after a decision? before a decision? 50. Do you … speak easily and at

length with strangers?

find little to say with strangers?

51. Are you usually more interested in the …

particular instance? general case?

52. Do you feel … more practical than ingenious?

more ingenious than practical?

53. Are you typically more of a person of …

clear reason? strong feeling?

54. Are you more inclined to be … fair-minded? sympathetic? 55. Is it preferable mostly to… make sure things are

arranged? just let things happen?

56. Is it more your way to … get things settled? put off settling things?

57. When the phone rings, do you… hasten to get to it first?

hope someone else will answer?

58. Do you prize more in yourself… a good sense of reality?

a good sense of imagination?

59. Are you more drawn to … fundamentals? overtones? 60. In judging, are you usually

More … neutral? charitable?

61. Do you consider yourself more… clear-headed? good-willed? 62. Are you more prone to … schedule events? take things as they

come? 63. Are you a person who is more… happy with routine? whimsical? 64. Are you more inclined to be… easy to approach? somewhat reserved? 65. Do you have more fun with… hands-on

experience? blue sky fantasy?

66. In writings do you prefer… the more literal? the more figurative? 67. Are you usually more … unbiased? compassionate? 68. Are you typically more… just than lenient? lenient than just? 69. Is it more like you to… make snap

judgements? delay making judgements?

70. Do you tend to be more … deliberate than spontaneous?

spontaneous than deliberate?

• Simile: comparison of one thing with another using “as” or “like,” especially in poetry. • Abstruse: obscure, difficult to understand, profound.


Answer Sheet

A B A B A B A B A B A B A B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

E I S N T F J P

Instructions for Scoring: 1. Add the number of “A’s” and “B’s” in each column and total at the bottom. 2. As indicated by the arrows, add the 2nd set of columns together with the 3rd, the

4th with the 5th, and the 6th with the 7th. (The 1st set of columns is not added with any other.)

3. Again, as indicated by the arrows, write the totals in the last row of boxes.

4. Circle the letter below the larger number of each pair. The resulting set of four letters corresponds to 16 variants of 4 personality types as described

on the following pages.


Kiersey Temperament Descriptions

PERSONALITY TYPE TYPE VARIANTS

SP Action Oriented - strong desire for “action” - values adventure, fun,

variety - prefers the process of

learning and work versus the end product

- easily bored with routine, lives in the moment

- common career choices: performing arts, artists, musicians, thrill seekers (climbing, racing, hunters…) entrepreneur, police, rescue worker, military, sports, politics ...

ESTP – resourceful, outgoing, witty, clever, fun, empathetic; promotional and entrepreneurial skills; live in the moment, desire excitement and action ISTP – impulsive, fearless, risk-takers, thrive on excitement; drawn to mastering tools (from microscopic drill to supersonic jet) and weapons ESFP – warm, optimistic, smooth, witty, charming clever, gregarious and generous; outstanding conversationalists, sophisticated, enjoys the good things in life ISFP – kind; highly developed senses; drawn to fine arts (composing, painting, dancing), do not plan and prepare rather submerge themselves in their art

SJ Responsibility Oriented - strong work ethic and

desire to be useful - prefers to be a “giver”

rather than a receiver - sense of obligation and

responsibility for others - common career choices:

service occupations, administrative, medical, banking, teaching ...

ESTJ – responsible, realistic and matter-of-fact; outstanding at organizing procedures and detailing rules and regulations; comfortable in evaluating others; loyal to work, community and family ISTJ – decisive in practical affairs; guardians of time-honoured institutions; dependable; quiet, serious, persevering; interested in thoroughness, details, justice and practical procedures ESFJ – outgoing personality, sociable; pursues harmony; nurturers of home, school, church and civic groups, traditions important; need to be appreciated and loved ISFJ – primarily desire to be of service to the individual; believe work is good, play must be earned; super-dependable, relate well to people who need them, execute sequential procedures well


NT Excellence Oriented

- strong desire to excel - values intelligence,

competence, ingenuity - common career choices:

sciences, mathematics, philosophy, architecture, engineering (anything complicated and exacting)

ENTJ – driven to lead, lead well and with vision; highly developed empirical, objective and extraverted thinking; pursue positions of responsibility INTJ – very self-confident; focus on possibilities; prefer that people and events serve some positive use; a builder, pragmatist and decision-maker ENTP – deals imaginatively with social relationships and physical/mechanical relations; have a tolerance for and enjoyment of the complex; good at functional analysis; always alert for new projects, ideas … INTP – exhibits precision in thought and language; architect of ideas and systems; search for the relevant and pertinent, prize intelligence

NF Socially Oriented - strong desire to seek

meaning, significance, relationships, interaction with others

- sense of integrity, honesty, straightforwardness

- common career choices: ministry, psychology, humanities, social sciences, literary arts …

ENFJ – outstanding leaders of groups; are co-operative, caring, concerned, and willing to become involved INFJ – focus on possibilities, think in terms of values, make decisions and deal with complexities easily; good students, achievers; hard to get to know ENFP – uncanny sense of the motivations of others; strive to be authentic; seek out intense emotional experiences; keen and penetrating observers INFP – appear reserved, shy and calm; profound sense of honour; seek unity in their lives; adaptable and welcome change


Assignment - Module 3 Please answer the following questions on a separate page. 1. Describe your instructional environment (e.g., teach a group in a classroom, tutor

individuals in their homes). 2. List several physiological factors that may affect your student’s learning and

explain. 3. List three psychological factors that typically affect your student(s) learning and

explain: 4. Complete the Kiersey Temperament Sorter and answer the following:

a. What temperament are you according to the sorter? b. What personal styles would you feel most and least comfortable

instructing? Explain. c. You are going to be instructing an introductory course on computers for a

medium-sized group of Stage 3 and 4 learners, the majority of whom have never used one. Many of them have expressed some concern or hesitancy about using a computer. You know you need to appeal to each type of person in selling the importance of computer literacy. Briefly outline how you will plan your first session to appeal to each of Kiersey’s four basic personality types?


Introduction: In many cultures a teacher is revered, treated with great respect, and is not questioned. For individuals with this cultural view, a facilitated or guided learning session in which differences of opinion are encouraged may make them very uncomfortable and diminish their learning. An instructor who does not realize this may attribute a learner’s lack of participation to a lack of knowledge or laziness. Thus, the effectiveness of the learning can be substantially diminished. Being aware of this underlying cultural difference, however, would help the instructor to adapt instruction accordingly. He/she might avoid certain techniques, explicitly tell the individual that differences of opinion are not a sign of disrespect, and so on.

Canada has a rich and diverse mix of cultures. As literacy practitioners and volunteers, we need to be aware that culture can affect learning to greater or lesser degrees, depending on such things as: the individual’s unique learning style, the similarities and differences of the learner’s culture to that of the facilitator, the ability of the facilitator and learner to identify and adjust to differences, and so on. In view of this, this last module will look at the notion of culture and learning in general and the Aboriginal culture specifically. The Meaning of “Culture” How do we begin to think about what is meant by “culture?” The following list is

Module Outline - Introduction - The Meaning of

“Culture” - Culture and Learning - Incorporating Culture

into Instruction - Aboriginal Culture and

Learning - Assignment

Module 4: CULTURE AND LEARNING


commonly used by those who study the notion of culture and is referred to as the “Nine Universals of Culture.” It provides a simple outline of areas that when taken together make up a people’s culture. Think of how each area applies to your own culture as you read through the list.

Material culture - food, clothing, housing, transportation, tools

Arts - including recreation, play, concepts of beauty, literature

Social Organization - societies, families and kinship system

Communication - language and non-verbal

Social Control - government systems, rewards and punishments

Conflict and Warfare - defence systems, practices of warfare, conflict

resolution


Education - formal and informal

World view - belief system, religion, values, rituals, traditions

Economic Organization - trade, production, labour, property

Culture and Learning Once we have developed an adequate definition or picture of what constitutes culture, we need to begin to think about what cultural factors may come into play in the classroom.

The following summary provides a framework for thinking about this in each


individual learning situation.

Cultural attitudes towards education definitions of literacy may vary in terms of lower or higher expectations of

what constitutes being literate may be differences in how much time, money and effort should be given to

education (e.g., is it a frill, an individual choice or a necessity?) expectations of the teacher/student relationship may vary from distant,

authoritarian, and revered to personal, facilitated and collegial expectations of classroom behaviour may range from formal to informal views about the role of the teacher may range from director to facilitator views about the role of the student may vary from being a passive

recipient of knowledge to being an active participant in the learning process

Cultural attitudes towards language

differences may exist as to whom can talk to whom and in what manner

(i.e. based on gender, age, occupation/class/social position, etc) timing in language exchange may vary from ‘rapid-fire’ to slower with long

pauses parameters when talking to others may vary from it being acceptable to

talk to peers, but not interrupt the teacher to talking to anyone, anytime

Cultural attitudes towards social interaction

attitudes towards time may range from doing things very quickly to very slowly

behavioural expectations of children, parents, etc., may vary social strata may range from rigid and formal to flexible and informal

Individual differences

It should be noted here that while culture can affect learning, practitioners

and volunteers should not assume that every person within a certain culture will learn in the same way. Perhaps more important are individual differences such as:

• time, effort and money towards education ( a frill, choice or necessity?) • motivation, persistence, and attention abilities • cognitive and/or physical learning style • affective factors (e.g., chronic illness, stress, etc) • personal abilities (physical, intellectual, emotional, interpersonal)

Incorporating Culture into Instruction By now, you might find yourself asking, “How can I possibly hope to be knowledgeable about every culture?” While obviously we can’t hope to know about a wide variety of cultures in detail, we can be strive to instruct in a sensitive,


informed and inclusive manner. In her article “Culture in the Classroom,” Barer-Stein (Stein & Draper, 1991) lists several simple and practical ideas for doing so:

Be aware that many peoples of the world are accustomed to offering and demonstrating great respect for teachers. Offer them a choice in addressing you by first name or surname; accept each with aplomb. Do the same for them.

Make a point to learn and to pronounce the students’ names

correctly and as formally or informally as the students indicate. They have pride in their names and identity even as you do. Recognize and respect this. Your effort will be appreciated.

Be sensitive to current political situations not only in the obvious arena of discussions, but also in grouping and seating arrangements and take care not to favour one culture over another.

Be alert to cultural slurs. Be open to incorporating several views of a discussion topic by making use of the differing views and backgrounds within the classroom to give a personal slant. Take the time for clarification and examples when there seems to be evidence of prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping or just a misunderstanding.

Encourage individual questions and contributions relating to cultural background. For example, after an explanation of a skill or metaphor, encourage the offering of differing skills and differing metaphors from other cultural contexts.

Be aware of differing language abilities in English and take care

to speak loud enough as well as distinctly. Use examples whenever possible and encourage feedback to determine when further repetition or a better example may be required. Often simply speaking more slowly can be of great help.


Be critical of class resource materials and persons: Do they represent varied points of view? Do they avoid offending minority groups? Are they accurate, well qualified and current?

Be alert to a different structuring of daily life. For example, in manners of greeting, inviting, praising and criticising. “Yes” does not always mean that things are being understood; it may simply signify politeness. An invitation however casually expressed may be understood seriously. Laughter may indicate embarrassment rather than humour. There may be initial misunderstanding of punctuality and deadlines. It may be important not to insist on male-female mixed groups for projects or discussions: allow people to form their own groups, find their own seating. Respect those involved in differing holidays, eating restrictions, wearing unusual apparel or even stepping aside to perform prayers during class time.

Flexibility in the curriculum is important for all learners but especially for adults. … The teacher as facilitator, is in a position to point out the similarities and differences in any situation and in this way increase the involvement of the people from differing cultures.

Replace mere tolerance with serious and continued efforts to

understand and accept the reality of differing values and perceptions.

“Reading the Culture” Exercise

In the 1960’s an adult educator named Paul Freire was teaching farmers in Brazil to read. He began with activities that he called “reading the culture.” He designed a number of drawings or pictures that related to the daily lives of his students and asked them to “read” the pictures. He had them list all the things about their culture that they could tell an outsider. This was a beginning step for them in the development of critical thinking and strategies for learning, and assessing prior knowledge.


Culture can be used in the classroom as a rich learning resource. The following exercise draws on Paulo Freire’s concept of “reading the culture” to demonstrate that reading not only involves text or printed material, but pictures, graphics and symbols as well.

Hand out the “Nine Universals of Culture,” compare with the class list for any missed points, and discuss.

Break the class into groups of three or four and have them draw up a list of what they think makes up a culture of a people.

Reconvene into one group after fifteen minutes or so, and make up a class list of points.

Have each learner bring in several pictures or drawings of about their own culture for discussion in a subsequent class. Pictures of people doing things are most valuable. Discussion questions to ask might include: Who is making or creating something in this picture? Who made the articles they are using? What is part of the picture, but isn’t interacting? (e.g. trees,

animals, etc) What can we learn about the people in the picture? What activities correspond to the categories in the “Nine

Universals of Culture?”

End the exercise by emphasising the point that we use many clues or cues when we read. In addition to text or written material, we “read” such things as pictures/graphics/symbols.


Aboriginal Culture and Learning

In Manitoba the Aboriginal culture makes up a substantial percentage of the province's population. As such, this next section will examine the culture to identify differences in approaches to learning between Native and non-Native students. We will then look at appropriate and effective instructional techniques for working with Aboriginal learners. It should be reiterated at this point that in addition to cultural differences, practitioners and volunteers must consider individual differences when planning instruction so that it is truly responsive to learners needs. That is, it is best not assume that all Native students can be approached in the same manner. There will, of course, be individual differences among students as in any culture.

In the preceding section "Culture and Learning," one of the items listed for identifying potential cultural differences in the classroom had to do with language. The following chart was taken from Narrative Literacy and Face in Interethnic Communication (Scollon & Scollon, 1981), a study of the Athabascan culture. It lists some cultural differences in communication between English speakers and the Athabascan Natives. It nicely highlights how misunderstandings can arise in the learning environment when culture is not taken into account.


What's confusing to English speakers about Athabascans

What's confusing to Athabascans about English speakers

• They avoid situations involving talking • They only want to talk to close

acquaintances • They play down their own abilities • They act as if they expect things to be

given to them • They deny planning • They avoid direct questions • They never start a conversation • They talk off the topic • They never say anything about

themselves • They are slow to take a turn in talking • They ask questions in unusual places • They talk with a flat tone of voice • They are too indirect; not explicit • They don't make sense • They just leave without saying

anything

• They talk too much • They always talk first • They talk to people they don't

know • They think they can predict the

future • They brag about themselves • They don't help people even

when they can • They always talk about what's

going to happen later • They ask too many questions • They always interrupt • They only talk about what they

are interested in • They don't give others a chance

to talk • They are always getting excited

when they talk • They aren't careful when they

talk about things or people What is made clear by this chart is that a non-Native instructor who is not aware of the need for using strategies such as pausing between sentences, using group activities versus individual work, is much less likely to be effective when working with Native learners. The following chart further illustrates this point by identifying both Native and non-Native approaches to life in general and to learning specifically (Hawthorne, 1967).


Native Non-Native World View • Cyclical (oral tradition

• Tribe and extended family as social base

• Tolerance of individual differences

• Customs and situational ethics

• Less emphasis on materialism

• Linear (print tradition) • Individual and nuclear

family as social base • Emphasis on conformity

and compliance • Rules and rigid morality • Greater emphasis on

material values

Language • More non-verbal communication

• Observant (less talkative)

• Often speak non-standard English dialect

• More visually and orally oriented

• Rarely read to, few print materials

• More verbal communication

• Participant (more talkative)

• Generally speaks standard English dialect

• More print oriented • Often read to; variety of

print materials in home

Preferred Teaching Style

• Concrete demonstration by elders and experts

• Integrated with family, community and life

• Learning takes place in extended (natural) setting

• Lecture and reading by certified professionals

• Separated from community and life

• Learning takes place in restricted (classroom) setting

Preferred Learning Style

• Exploratory • Peer and personal

reward system (intrinsic)

• Process oriented (doing)

• Cooperative • Independent and

autonomous

• Forced • External rewards • Product-oriented

(achieving) • Competitive • Dependent and

controlled

Preferred Learning Routines

• Flexible and often non-existent

• Staying with a task not emphasized

• Time is a minor factor

• Rigid, structured • Staying with a task

emphasized • Time is a factor

How then does being knowledgeable about cultural differences translate into appropriate instructional approaches and techniques? The next section will provide some ideas for instructional planning in this regard.


Teaching and Learning Techniques for Native Students Build Native culture into your curriculum

Use poetry and other arts activities such as storytelling, dance, song and drama as a means for instruction

Include learning activities and projects that incorporate Native tradition, symbols, way of life, history, etc.

Involve members of the Native community in the learning process (e.g., guest speakers)

Approach instruction of Native learners in a manner generally preferred within this culture

Allow learners to privately rehearse a skill before demonstrating competency publicly

Avoid spotlighting individual learners (i.e., singling individuals out)

De-emphasize competition and emphasize cooperative/collaborative learning

Assist learners to integrate/synthesize new material with prior knowledge and experiences

Use more global, holistic instructional approaches which emphasize the development of self-esteem, confidence and empowerment

Build life skills into learning

Utilize warmer, more personal teaching styles and establish relationship with learners

Be sensitive to non-verbal cues signalling the need for assistance or the desire to discuss an issue with the instructor

Accept silences and allow longer pauses after asking questions


Facilitate rather than direct learning

Share classroom control and responsibility

Allow learners to have as much control as possible over their own learning

Avoid doing all the talking; listen and talk

Use small group work and discussion over lecturing

Use experiential (hands-on, active) learning techniques

Field trips, demonstrations, small group work, etc.

Use specific instructional techniques to develop literacy skills

Emphasize a writing process approach rather than focus on development of grammar-based sub skills

Use a whole language approach that emphasizes the experiences of students

The Talking Circle Exercise - The talking or sharing circle is a traditional Native technique that is used to assist people to express their thoughts and feelings. A Native instructor at Assiniboine College recently described it as follows:

The traditional sharing circle is a very old way of bringing Native people of all ages together in a quiet, respectful manner for the purposes of teaching, listening, learning and sharing. When approached in the proper way, the circle can be a powerful means of touching or bringing some degree of healing to the mind, the heart, the body, or the spirit. Within the circle we are encouraged to speak not only from the mind, but also from the heart. We are free to share our innermost feelings if we choose. Regardless of whether one brings a traditional teaching or a personal problem to the circle, all persons are valued, respected, and listened to. There is an Indian belief of right time, right place, right people, hearing right things, and we rely on that belief within the circle.

The "Talking Circle" exercise is a good one to use to with Aboriginal learners. It is conducted as follows:

Write a topic on the board and explain what is going to be discussed (e.g., individual attitudes toward education, teachers, preferred ways of learning, etc. It can be any topic).

Have participants sit in a circle. Normally the room and each participant


would be "smudged" (blessed) before the circle, but this step may be omitted.

A feather or talking stick is passed one by one around the circle. The person holding the stick or feather speaks on the topic, taking as much time as s/he needs, without interruption or comment by the other members of the circle. Members may pass if they do not wish to speak.

After everyone has had the opportunity to speak individually, the group discusses the topic in general.

Conclusion In addition to individual differences in learning style, cultural differences also affects how students learn. Therefore, these should affect how we approach our teaching. This section has examined cultural differences in general and the Aboriginal culture specifically. Various aspects of culture such as language, education and art were examined and techniques for incorporating culture into the learning environment were discussed. Although culture must be addressed in instructional planning, it is important that instructors avoid "pigeon-holing" students based on their cultural background and maintain their awareness of individual differences.


ASSIGNMENT - MODULE 4

1. What are four "universals" of culture 2. What are several ways you might find out some information about a learner's

culture?

3. In addition to cultural differences in attitudes toward language, what are two

other areas that may affect learning?


4. What are three ways you might ensure that your instruction and/or learning environment are culturally sensitive?

5. Do you think your literacy program strives to be culturally sensitive? Please explain.

6. How might your program become more responsive to the cultural differences of learners?


7. You are teaching the first class of the course, "Introduction to Computers" to

two groups: the majority of the students in Group A are Native, while those in Group B are predominantly non-Native. Briefly outline a lesson plan, noting where and why your approach might differ between the two groups.


Putting It All Together Now that you have an idea about some different types of learning styles and factors such as culture that affect learning, you may be wondering how to go about applying the material in your program. Just a general awareness of such things as learning domains, preferred learning styles and cultural differences in learning will affect how you approach instruction. For example, if a learner is having difficulty, a mismatch in style will likely be one area you may now consider as the source of the problem. In the past you may have attributed the difficulty to the learner’s lack of ability or motivation, that the material was too advanced, and so on. And indeed, this may be the case. However, learning style may also be the problem and one that is fairly simple to deal with. Using the Course Material You might want to use the information from this course to:

identify suspected mismatches between instructional and learning styles plan instruction which generally addresses different styles (i.e., includes a

variety of instructional approaches and learning aids) help instructors and/or learners to identify their preferred styles, thereby

assisting them to manage their instruction/learning better and perhaps strengthen weaker styles

Identifying Preferred Learning Domain

CONCLUSION


Identifying an individual’s preferred learning domain can be accomplished in either a general or specific way. In a general sense, you could interview or observe individuals about their ways of learning. Keeping the three domains in mind (physical, cognitive, and affective), some questions you might ask include:

Think of a recent learning experience that was good. What made it a good experience?

Think of a recent learning experience that wasn’t good. Why do you think that it wasn’t good?

How do you learn best? (prompts - hear something many times, see it written down, use the word or idea, do something with it, when it’s quiet, by talking to others, through reading, from practising, etc.)

What makes learning difficult for you? (prompts - writing, listening, doing, speaking, working alone, working in groups, when the teacher talks too fast, when other people interrupt, when I’m called on in class, when I don’t have enough time to think, etc)

What kind of learning activities do you like to do the most? (prompts - songs, playing games, doing exercises from workbooks, discussions/debates/ presentations, writing stories/articles, listening to cassettes, watching videos, etc). The least? (prompts - taking tests, lectures, reading, working in groups, etc)

How is the way you learn different from the way others learn? You may also use the questionnaires included in the different modules of this course to specifically identify learning styles within each domain. As a starting point, however, one final questionnaire has been included on the next page that will assist you in determining whether a learner is more centred in the physical, cognitive or affective domain.


Assessing Preferred Learning Domain

Circle the letter after each question that best reflects how you learn. 1. How do you usually learn best?

a. from working on my own and taking as much time as I need b. from an instructor’s lecture c. from an instructor who works personally with me d. from working in a small group of people I feel comfortable with e. from seeing a practical application of the material f. from following written directions g. from working with a small group of people for which an instructor is available to

answer questions 2. What most helps your learning? (check as many answers as you’d like, but please rank them in order of helpfulness/importance)

a. having my own routine b. talking with others while learning c. being able to take my time d. having fun while learning e. being able to practise what I am learning f. getting support and encouragement from instructors/people at home

3. What occurs to you first when you are learning something?

a. remembering something you did once that was similar b. thinking up a picture of how something ought to be c. getting as much information as you can about the topic

4. What is the easiest part or stage of learning for you?

a. beginning something b. working on the details and practising c. completing something

5. What is the most difficult part of learning for you?

a. beginning something b. working on the details and practising c. completing something


6. In putting something together do you …

a. read instructions first, then look at the pieces b. look at the pieces, then read the instructions c. go back and forth between reading the instructions and putting the pieces

together d. look at the instructions, but make up your own way of putting the pieces

together e. try to put the pieces together first, then if it doesn’t work look at the instructions

7. In what order do the following skills come in your learning process (rank 1-2-3):

a. thinking b. assessing c. doing

8. How do you best learn mechanical or technical things?

a. by tinkering b. having someone explain it to me c. reading instructions d. watching someone, then doing it myself

9. How do best learn theories and ideas?

a. talking about them b. working on applying them c. reading about them

10. How do you know when you have really learned something?

a. I feel comfortable doing it again b. I show or tell my friends or family what I have learned c. I want to move on to something new


Learning Domain Assessment – Marking Key

P = Physical Domain C – Cognitive Domain A = Affective Domain Question #1 P = d, e, h C = a, f A = b, c, g Question #2 P = d, f C = b A = a, c, e, g Question #3 P = b C = c A = a Question #4 P = b C = c A = a Question #5 P = a C = b A = c Question #6 P = b, d, f C = a, e A = c Question #7 P = c C = a A = b Question #8 P = c C = b A = a Question #9 P = b C = c A = a Question #10 P = a C = c A = b

Physical Cognitive Affective Score Score Score Physical Domain – See Module 1 Cognitive Domain – See Module 2 Affective Domain - See Module 3


Appendix A

Course Assignment Cover Sheet

In order to ensure proper and accurate record keeping of your professional development, please complete the information contained in the box below. Once this cover sheet has been completed, please attach it to your completed assignments that you send in to the Adult Learning and Literacy Department for marking. Thank you. Name of participant: (Please print clearly) ____________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Mailing address of participant: ______________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Phone number: _________________________________________________ Email address: _________________________________________________ Name of Correspondence course completed: _________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Signature of participant:: _________________________________________ Date assignment package was sent to ALL:__________________________ Remember: Please attach this cover sheet with your assignments when you send them to: Marie Matheson Rural and Northern Adult Literacy Coordinator Room 102, 340-9th Street, Brandon, Manitoba R7A 6C2 Fax: 204-726-6583


References

Barer-Stein, T. & Draper, J. (1991) The Craft of Teaching Adults (4th Ed). Toronto: Culture Concepts. Crider, A., Goethals, G., Kavanagh, R. & Solomon, P. (1989) Psychology (3rd ed.). United States: Harper Collins Forsythe, D. & McMillan, J. (1991). “Practical Proposals for Motivating Students” in New Directions for Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hawthorne, H. (1967). A Survey of Contemporary Indians of Canada. Canada: Ministry of Supply and Services. Kiersey, D. & Bates, M. (1984). Please Understand Me (5th ed.) Cel Mar CA: Prometheus Nemesis Book Company. MacKeracher, D. (1996) Making Sense of Adult Learning. Toronto: Culture Concepts. Scollon, R. & Scollon, S. (1981). Narrative Literacy and Face in

Interethnic Communication. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.

Additional Resources Sonbuchner, G. (1991). How to take Advantage of Your Learning Styles. Syracuse, NY: New Readers Press.

This book was recommended by Karen Boskamp, Director of the Transcona Literacy Centre. As she writes: There is an easy to administer learning styles inventory that you can self administer; handy suggestions, a good problem solving section, and easy to grasp strategy for preferred learning styles section.

Documents

Learning Styles and Strategies Aug 2004