Lecture 10: Marine Restoration and Marine Protected Areas

Lecture 9: Marine Restoration and Marine Protected AreasRestoration of Marine HabitatsRestoration = returning a system to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance, with both the structure and the function of the system recreated (NRC 1992)Represents one end of a continuum of conservation biology (Hobbs and Norton 1996) and can be thought of as a strategy to conserve biodiversity (Jordan et al. 1988) and ecosystem integrity (Cairns and Heckman 1996)Should not include fisheries enhancement as restoration activitiesLandscape-based approaches could benefit fisheries indirectly

Restoration of Marine HabitatsScope of restoration intervention necessary varies depending on:The bottleneck that is currently limiting the population or habitatUltimate goal of the restoration activitySocietal value placed on the resource to be restored

Role of Marine EcologistsWork to identify and address the bottlenecksIdentify positive effects that promote reestablishment of speciesCommunicate the benefits of restoration to the publicUse of Historical BenchmarksHistorical data is useful in setting goals for restoration projects but should be used with cautionProblem with historical data is that it does not acknowledge:Uncertainty of reconstruction of historical population sizeDynamic nature of ecosystemsLosses of keystone speciesEstablishment of invasive speciesEffects of climate changeLogistical and financial difficultly associated with some of these goalsLong-term SustainabilityIs the project sustainable under current and future environmental conditionsDoes restoration plan take climate change and sea-level rise into account?

seaturtlecamp.comal.comHabitat-Level RestorationBottleneck of many fish and inverts is habitat loss and degradationFocuses on target species that are habitat formers (foundation species)Have the potential to benefit multiple species and trophic levels, as well as energy flows and ecosystem functionLessons Learned.Species diversity and genetic variation is important when restoring vegetation-based habitats (salt marsh, mangroves, seagrass)Positive species interactions can be beneficial to restoration of target species (particularly in salt marshes)Topographic complexity is important when restoring salt marshes

More Lessons LearnedConservation and rehabilitation of existing habitats is most cost-effective approach to ensure ecosystem functions are preservedEngineering for persistence has often neglected the needed biological aspects of a projectProjects should have historical justification but plan for the future as wellFew projects have established specific goals and measureable criteria for determining success and few are adequately monitoredPowers and Boyer (2013)

Developing metrics and criteria for judging the performance of oyster restoration projectsLesley P. Baggett1; Sean P. Powers1; Robert Brumbaugh2; Loren Coen3; Bryan DeAngelis2; Jennifer Greene2; Boze Hancock2; Summer Morlock4

1The University of South Alabama/Dauphin Island Sea Lab; 2The Nature Conservancy; 3 Florida Atlantic University; 4NOAA Restoration Center

Shellfish habitat a national restoration priority

Goals1) Build on 2004 guidance (www.oyster-restoration.org), as well as other efforts2) Develop monitoring guidance that would enable:

basic assessment of oyster restoration projectscomparison of projects within and across regions, tidal elevations, and construction typesestimation of ecosystem services / achievement of ecological goalsadaptive management and improvement in project design over time

First workshop convened in 2004 helped to sharpen the focus on setting goals (ecological, fishery enhancement, educational, etc.) and need for monitoring

The goal now is to ensure greater consistency in UNITS and (to some extent) methodologies (though we dont want to stifle innovation and development of new methods).

Presenters will higjhlight some of the units and some of the recommended methodologies

We will also highlight the benefits of establishing a priori performance criteria (even short term) that can be evaluated using Universal and ecological metrics in the manual. 12ComprehensiveGuidance

Credit: Natural History Museum- Rotterdam

Credit: L. Coen

Credit: L. Coen

Credit: DISL

Credit: DISL

Brian Kingzett, PSRF

Credit: Bo Lusk, TNC

Credit: Jeff DeQuattro, TNCProcessSteering committee of restoration scientists and restoration program managers Workshop with experts from the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts6+ week public review and comment period (over 300 downloads)

2011 Silver Spring, MD Workshop ParticipantsLesley Baggett, Sean Powers (USA/DISL)Rob Brumbaugh, Jenn Greene, Boze Hancock (TNC)Bryan De Angelis, Kay McGraw, Summer Morlock, Stephanie Westby (NOAA)Loren Coen (FAU)Brian Allen (Puget Sound Restoration Fund) Denise Breitburg (SERC)Dave Bushek (Rutgers University)Jon Grabowski (Northeastern University)Ray Grizzle (UNH)Ted Grosholz (UC Davis)Megan La Peyre (USGS)Mark Luckenbach (VIMS)Mike Piehler (UNC Chapel Hill)Philine zu Ermgassen (University of Cambridge)Metrics and VariablesUniversal metrics and environmental variablesMetrics and variables that should be sampled for every oyster restoration project Restoration goal-based metricsMetrics that are specific to ecosystem service-based restoration goals and should be sampled for projects citing that particular restoration goalAncillary metricsSecondary level of metrics that can provide supplemental or more detailed information concerning project performance. Are optional.

Defining RestorationThe process of establishing or reestablishing a habitat that in time can come to closely resemble a natural condition in terms of structure and function (modified from Turner and Streever 2002)Includes:Activities aimed at returning degraded oyster habitat (natural or constructed) to its prior conditionConstruction of new oyster habitats of various forms and foundation materials (natural and man-made)The Universal MetricsReef areal dimensionReef heightLive oyster densityLive oyster size-frequency distributionPerformance Criteria for Ecosystem Service-Based MetricsGoals and criteria should be developed with regard to data gained from pre-construction baseline data or data obtained from sampling at control or natural reference sitesGoals should be framed in a way that allows statistical analysisCriteria should consider how the project is anticipated to perform over both short- and long-term time frames

Reef Areal DimensionConsists of two component metrics:Project footprint the maximum areal extent of the footprint of the reefReef area the actual area (summed) of patches of living and non-living oyster shell (or reef substrate with and without live oysters) within the project footprintReef Areal Dimension

The edge of the reef is defined as a continuous line where the percent coverage of surficial living or non-living shell substrate is equal to or greater than 25% Reef Areal DimensionUnits: m2

Preferred Methodology: Differential GPS/GIS (side-scan sonar, multi-beam sonar, or depth-finder for sub-tidal)

Performance criteria: NoneGains in project footprint and reef area may be due to spreading of original cultch and not accretion of the reef

Reef HeightAverage height of a reef off the bottom substrateUnits: m (cm for low relief reefs)Preferred Methodology: geo-referenced laser-based elevation scanner, rod and transit/laser-level, RTK GPS (subtidal: sonar, depth finder)Performance criteria: Positive or neutral change in reef height from original structure

Credit: L. CoenCredit: DISLOyster DensityThe number of live oysters per m2; includes the number of live adult oysters and live spatFor C. virginica: Spat: Shell height < 25mmAdults: Shell height 25mmFor O. luridaSpat: Shell height < 18mmAdults: Shell height 18mm

Oyster DensityUnits: Mean density of live spat and live adult oysters (individuals m-2)Density performance criteria: Target densities(stated as individuals m-2) based on available density data for natural and restored reefs in similar settings as well as historical data.Recruitment performance criteria: Evidence of successful recruitment during at least two years of a five year period.

Oyster Density: Intertidal or Subtidal, Unconsolidated MaterialRandom quadrat samples along reefExcavate to depth necessary to obtain all live oystersStratified random sampling if neededIf comprised of multiple patch reefs, take samples at subset of patches of low, medium, and high densities

Oyster Density: Metal Structures or Bagged ShellEarly Development StageRandom samples along reefRemove bag of shell and count all live oysters (including spat) withinMeasure areal coverage of bag and convert density to m2Late Development StageRandom samples along reef near base, middle, and crest using quadrat

Credit: TNCCredit: DISLOne sample equals the volume of shell that covers a 0.25m2 quadrat to a depth of 10cm27Oyster Density: Cement StructuresSelect units at random points along the reefQuadrat samples at base, middle, and crest

Credit: DISLCollect oysters or take measurements while attached. 28Oyster Density: Seeded OystersUnit = seed oysters/m2

Determine initial average density post deploymentQuadrat samplingCalculating seed oysters over total area

Will lose ability to track surviving seed oysters of specific cohort over timeGenetic markersSize class segregation

Credit: J. Greene29Oyster Size-Frequency DistributionMeasure of the distribution of the population across various size classes.Units: Mean shell height of adult oysters (in mm); mean percentage of measured oysters per size class (%) an/or number of oysters per size classPerform in conjunction with oyster density samplingPerformance criteria: None

Universal Environmental VariablesShould be monitored for every oyster restoration project, regardless of the restoration goal of that project.Aid in the interpretation of data collected during pre- and post-construction monitoringWater temperature (C)Salinity (ppt or psu)Dissolved oxygen subtidal reefs only (mg L-1)

they are similar to the universal metrics; however, there are no success criteria for these environmental variables as they are meant to provide data to help explain the performance of restored reef. Disease is a relevant variable up and down the coast. Sampling for disease is important to be able to describe the disease environment you are working in. 31Ecosystem Service-Based GoalsBrood stock and oyster population enhancementHabitat enhancement for resident and transient speciesEnhancement of adjacent habitatsWater quality improvementPerformance Criteria for Ecosystem Service-Based MetricsExample: As monitoring progresses, there should be a trend of increasing density of the target species, with an ultimate goal of having statistically greater densities of target species than those present pre-construction or at the control site, or a density that is roughly equal to that of the natural reference site.

Brood Stock and Oyster Population EnhancementMetricsNearby reef oyster density and associated size-frequency distributionsNearby reef large oyster abundance

Habitat Enhancement for Resident and Transient SpeciesMetricDensity of selected target species or groupsEpifaunal sessile invertebratesInfaunal invertebratesNon-oyster filter feeders or encrusting speciesSmall resident mobile fish and invertebratesTransient crustaceans and juvenile fishTransient adult fishWaterbirds

Credit: DISL

Credit: L. CoenEnhancement of Adjacent HabitatsMetricsShoreline loss/gain (change in shoreline position)Shoreline profile/elevation changeDensity of marsh/mangrove plants (if applicable)Ancillary MetricsSubmerged aquatic vegetationWave energy and tidal water flows

Credit: L. CoenWater Quality ImprovementMetricsSeston and/or Chlorophyll a concentrationLight penetration measurements

Credit: R. BrumbaughAncillary Monitoring ConsiderationsPresence of Predatory, Pest and/or Competitive SpeciesDisease Prevalence and IntensityOyster Condition IndexGonad Development StatusShell Volume for Determination of Shell BudgetPercent Cover of Reef SubstrateMarine Protected AreasMarine Protected AreasMPA is a catch-all term with various definitions and levels of protectionIs basically placed-based ecosystem managementMPAs cover approximately 0.5% of the worlds seasNational Marine Protected Areas Center describes MPAs in U.S. based on 5 characteristicsConservation FocusLevel of ProtectionPermanence of ProtectionConstancy of ProtectionScale of Protection

40Classification: Conservation FocusNatural Heritage: MPAs or zones established and managed wholly or in part to sustain, conserve, restore, and understand the protected areas natural biodiversity, populations, communities, habitats, and ecosystems; the ecological and physical processes upon which they depend; and, the ecological services, human uses and values they provide to this and future generations.Cultural Heritage: MPAs or zones established and managed wholly or in part to protect and understand the legacy of physical evidence and intangible attributes of a group or society which is inherited and maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.Examples: Natural Heritage MPAs include most national marine sanctuaries, national parks, national wildlife refuges, and many state MPAs. Examples: Cultural Heritage MPAs include some national marine sanctuaries, national and state parks, and national historic monuments.

41Classification: Conservation FocusSustainable Production: MPAs or zones established and managed wholly or in part with the explicit purpose of supporting the continued extraction of renewable living resources (such as fish, shellfish, plants, birds, or mammals) that live within the MPA, or that are exploited elsewhere but depend upon the protected areas habitat for essential aspects of their ecology or life history (feeding, spawning, mating, or nursery grounds).Examples: Sustainable Production MPAs include some national wildlife refuges and many federal and state fisheries areas, including those established to recover over-fished stocks, protect by-catch species, or protect essential fish habitats.

42Classification: Level of ProtectionUniform Multiple-Use: MPAs or zones with a consistent level of protection, allowable activities or restrictions throughout the protected area. Extractive uses may be restricted for natural or cultural resources. Zoned Multiple-Use: MPAs that allow some extractive activities throughout the entire site, but that use marine zoning to allocate specific uses to compatible places or times in order to reduce user conflicts and adverse impacts. Zoned Multiple-Use With No-Take Area(s): Multiple-use MPAs that contain at least one legally established management zone in which all resource extraction is prohibited. Examples: Uniform multiple-use MPAs are among the most common types in the U.S., and include many sanctuaries, national and state parks, and cultural resource MPAs.Examples: Zoned multiple-use MPAs are increasingly common in U.S. waters, including some marine sanctuaries, national parks, national wildlife refuges, and state MPAs. Examples: Zoned no-take MPAs are emerging gradually in U.S. waters, primarily in some national marine sanctuaries and national parks.

43Classification: Level of ProtectionNo-Take: MPAs or zones that allow human access and even some potentially harmful uses, but that totally prohibit the extraction or significant destruction of natural and cultural resources. No Impact: MPAs or zones that allow human access, but that prohibit all activities that could harm the sites resources or disrupt the ecological and cultural services they provide. Examples of activities typically prohibited in no-impact MPAs include resource extraction of any kind (fishing, collecting, or mining); discharge of pollutants; disposal or installation of materials; and alteration or disturbance of submerged cultural resources, biological assemblages, ecological interactions, physiochemical environmental features, protected habitats, or the natural processes that support them. Examples: No-take MPAs are relatively rare in the U.S., occurring mainly in state MPAs, in some federal areas closed for either fisheries management or the protection of endangered species, or as small special use (research) zones within larger multiple-use MPAs. Also called marine reserves or ecological reserves. This includes Papahanuamokuakea Marine National Monument, which allows very limited subsistence fishing activities by Native Hawaiians by permit. Examples: No- impact MPAs are rare in U.S. waters, occurring mainly as small isolated MPAs or in small research-only zones within larger multiple-use MPAs. Other commonly used terms include fully protected marine (or ecological) reserves.

44Classification: Level of ProtectionNo Access: MPAs or zones that restrict all human access to the area in order to prevent potential ecological disturbance, unless specifically permitted for designated special uses such as research, monitoring or restoration. Examples: No-access MPAs are extremely rare in the U.S., occurring mainly as small research-only zones within larger multiple-use MPAs. Other commonly used terms for no access MPAs include wilderness areas or marine preserves.

45Classification: Permanence Of ProtectionPermanent: MPAs or zones whose legal authorities provide some level of protection to the site in perpetuity for future generations, unless reversed by unanticipated future legislation or regulatory actions.Conditional: MPAs or zones that have the potential, and often the expectation, to persist administratively over time, but whose legal authority has a finite duration and must be actively renewed or ratified based on periodic governmental reviews of performance.Temporary: MPAs that are designed to address relatively short-term conservation and/or management needs by protecting a specific habitat or species for a finite duration, with no expectation or specific mechanism for renewal.Examples: Permanent MPAs include most national marine sanctuaries and all national parks. Examples: Conditional MPAs include some national marine sanctuaries with sunset clauses applying to portions of the MPA in state watersExamples: Temporary MPAs include some fisheries closures focusing on rapidly recovering species (e.g. scallops).

46Classification: Constancy of ProtectionYear-Round: MPAs or zones that provide constant protection to the site throughout the year.Seasonal: MPAs or zones that protect specific habitats and resources, but only during fixed seasons or periods when human uses may disrupt ecologically sensitive seasonal processes such as spawning, breeding, or feeding aggregations.Rotating: MPAs that cycle serially and predictably among a set of fixed geographic areas in order to meet short-term conservation or management goals (such as local stock replenishment followed by renewed exploitation of recovered populations).Examples: Year-round MPAs include all marine sanctuaries, national parks, refuges, monuments, and some fisheries sites.Examples: Seasonal MPAs include some fisheries and endangered species closures around sensitive habitats.Examples: Rotating MPAs are still rare in the U.S. They include some dynamic fisheries closures created for the purpose of serially recovering a suite of localized population to harvestable levels.

47Classification: Scale of ProtectionEcosystem: MPAs or zones whose legal authorities and management measures are intended to protect all of the components and processes of the ecosystem within its boundaries.Focal Resource: MPAs or zones whose legal authorities and management measures specifically target a particular habitat, species complex, or single resource (either natural or cultural).Examples: Ecosystem-scale MPAs include most marine sanctuaries, national parks and national monuments.Examples: Focal-resource MPAs include many fisheries and cultural resource sites, including some national wildlife refuges and marine sanctuaries.

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In the United States, there are over 1,600 MPAs spanning a range of habitats, including the open ocean, coastal areas, inter-tidal zones, estuaries, and the Great Lakes. Nearly all of these areas allow multiple uses. About 41 percent of U.S. marine waters are protected in some way, with three percent in highly protected in no-take MPAs to protect sensitive species and habitats. Will call the no-take areas in which all fishing activities are prohibited marine reserves for this class49MPAs and Conservation of BiodiversityVery few existing MPAs protect against fishingDo they still provide a benefit? YES, if theyprevent further habitat destruction within their boundariesHelp restrict discharge of pollutants from coastal areas

Marine ReservesMPAs that restrict fishing (at some level)Are very effective if well enforcedBenefits are proportional to the level of protection from fishingHalpern (2003) reviewed 89 studies of reserves at least partially closed to fishing 90% of reserves increased the biomass of species present63% increased species abundance80% increases species average size59% increased species diversityOn average, abundance doubled, biomass increased 2.5x, size of animals increase by one third, and diversity increased by one third

Marine ReservesGell and Roberts (2003a, 2003b) looked at areas closed to some or all fishing for 5 or more yearsFound evidence for large and rapid increases in the biomass of exploited speciesBiomass typically increased 3-5x in five years and benefits continued to develop as the reserves agedAlso found that these reserves worked over a wide range of habitats , environmental variables, fishing pressure outside reserve, and socio-economics of country

Factors that Influence a Populations Speed of RecoveryWhether there is a source of recruitment to the reserveSize and distance of source population and how that relates to the dispersal distance of the speciesDensity of population (if it is a species whose reproduction is dependent on density rather than absolute abundance)Life history of the speciesState of habitat within the reserveThe Case for Ecosystem-Based Conservation vs. Reserves Targeting Single Species Its a better valueSingle-species closures are unlikely to work because the causes of decline for one species are tied to our efforts to catch other speciesReserves targeted at single-species miss out at species that are unaccounted for by conventional fisheries managementLack of knowledge about the biology of species and the ecological processes that will facilitate their recoveryWill All Species in a Reserve Benefit?No, some will increase in abundance and others will declineHope is that the natural trophic cascades will re-establishResults in a refuge for communities that is different than the communities present in exploited areasReserves promote diversity at regional scalesGuidelines for Designing Resilient MPAs (Commission for Environmental Cooperation)#1: Protect species and habitats with crucial ecosystem roles, or those of special conservation concern#2: Protect potential carbon sinks#3: Protect ecological linkages and connectivity pathways for a wide range of species#4: Protect the full range of biodiversity present in the target biogeographic area