Macroeconomic Effects of Fiscal Policies: Empirical Evidence from Bangladesh, People's Republic of China, Indonesia, and Philippines

8/22/2019 Macroeconomic Effects of Fiscal Policies: Empirical Evidence from Bangladesh, People's Republic of China, Indones

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November 2006

ERDECONOMICS AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT

Working PaperSERIESNo.

85

Geoffrey Ducanes, Marie AnneCagas, Duo Qin, Pilipinas Quising,and Mohammad Abdur Razzaque

Macroeconomic Effectsof Fiscal Policies:Empirical Evidence from Bangladesh,Peoples Republic of China, Indonesia,and Philippines

Macroeconomic Effectsof Fiscal Policies:Empirical Evidence from Bangladesh,Peoples Republic of China, Indonesia,and Philippines


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ERD Working Paper No. 85

MACROECONOMIC EFFECTSOF FISCAL POLICIES:EMPIRICAL EVIDENCEFROM BANGLADESH,

PEOPLES REPUBLICOF CHINA, INDONESIA,AND PHILIPPINES

GEOFFREY DUCANES, MARIE ANNE CAGAS, DUO QIN,

PILIPINAS QUISING, AND MOHAMMAD ABDUR RAZZAQUE

NOVEMBER 2006

Geoffrey Ducanes is project coordinator for the 6th Philippine Human Development Report; Marie Anne Cagas is aconsultant at the Asian Development Bank (ADB); Duo Qin is a senior lecturer at Queen Mary and Westfield College,

University of London; Pilipinas Quising is an economics officer at ADB; and Mohommad Razaqque is a senior lecturer

in Economics at the University of Dhaka.


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Asian Development Bank6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City

1550 Metro Manila, Philippineswww.adb.org/economics

2006 by Asian Development BankNovember 2006

ISSN 1655-5252

The views expressed in this paperare those of the author(s) and do notnecessarily reflect the views or policies

of the Asian Development Bank.


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FOREWORD

The ERD Working Paper Series is a forum for ongoing and recently completedresearch and policy studies undertaken in the Asian Development Bank or on

its behalf. The Series is a quick-disseminating, informal publication meant tostimulate discussion and elicit feedback. Papers published under this Seriescould subsequently be revised for publication as articles in professional journals

or chapters in books.


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CONTENTS

Abstract vii

I. Intrduction 1

II. Review of Literature and Methodology 1A. Discretionary Policy Simulations 3B. Automatic Stabilizer Simulations 3

III. Macroeconomic Context 4

IV. Empirical Results 6A. Discretionary Fiscal Policy 6B. Automatic stabilizers 16

V. Conclusion 17

References 18


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ABSTRACT

This paper studies macroeconomic effects of fiscal policies in four AsiancountriesBangladesh, Peoples Republic of China, Indonesia, and Philippinesby

means of structural macroeconometric model simulations. It is found that short-term fiscal multipliers from an untargeted increase in government expenditureare positive but much less than those from an increased expenditure targeted

to capital spending. The multiplier effects from fiscal expansion via a tax ratereduction are found to be typically much less than through higher spending.The effectiveness of automatic stabilizers in general, and more specifically, theeffectiveness of expenditure versus tax-side stabilizers, differs across countries.


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I. INTRODUCTION

With the emergence of the European Monetary Union (EMU) and the growing interest in thepossibility of the same for Asia, there is a resurgent interest in the role of fiscal policy as bothan expansionary and stabilization tool for government. The 1997 Asian financial crisis, which left

some economies in tatters and revived discussions on pump-priming; as well as Japans protractedexperience of near-zero interest rate in a slumping economy (what has been called a liquiditytrap) have also highlighted the role that fiscal policy can play. Under a monetary union, stabilizingmonetary policy is unavailable to individual countries as a tool to address asymmetric or country-

specific shocks. Monetary policy is also pointless in a liquidity trap.

As a result of this resurgent interest, the empirical literature on the topic is growing, employingsuch tools as structural macroeconometric models and (structural) vector auto regression models

(VAR). At present, however, the bulk of this literature is still concentrated on countries of the EMUand Organisation for Economic Co-operation (OECD), a likely offshoot of the relative abundanceof available models for these groups of countries. In contrast, there is little empirical literature

on fiscal policy effectiveness for the developing countries of Asia, even as these countries areinteresting for the variety of their growth experiences and the differences in the relative size oftheir governments.

This paper is an attempt to fill in some of the gaps. This paper studies the macroeconomiceffects of fiscal policy and automatic stabilizers in four developing Asian countriesBangladesh,Peoples Republic of China (PRC), Indonesia, and Philippinesby means of structural macroeconometric

model simulations. The main questions posed are: How do fiscal policy shocks affect these economieson a macro scale; specifically, how do changes in the fiscal position affect economic growth? Whatare the transmission channels of the shocks and what are the size and dynamic path of the effectsnot only on gross domestic product (GDP) growth but also on its components? Which kinds of fiscalshocks have the desired property of stabilizing the macroeconomy? Once found, how effective would

these automatic stabilizers be in smoothing out large cyclical downturns in these countries?

The paper is organized as follows: Section II gives a short review of the relevant literature, anddescribes the method of investigation. Section III contains a short summary of the macroeconomic

context, including the fiscal picture, in each of the four countries considered here. Section IVdiscusses the simulation results. The last section concludes.

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND METHODOLOGY

Discussions on the effectiveness of fiscal policy may be divided into two strands: the firststrand on discretionary policyand the second on automatic stabilizers.1 Discussions on discretionaryfiscal policy typically focus on fiscal multipliers, which may be defined as the percent change in1 Formally defined, discretionary policy is the deliberate manipulation of government purchases, transfers, and taxation

in the pursuit of macroeconomic goals such as growth and full employment. Automatic stabilizers are cyclically induced

changes of government spending and taxes, which tend to stabilize aggregate output.


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GDP associated with a 1 percent increase in the budget deficit (also known as a fiscal expansion).Discussions on automatic stabilizers typically center on their ability to dampen business cycles.

Empirical studies on fiscal multipliers can be classified into two: those employing the VAR

methodology and those utilizing structural macroeconometric models. Examples of recent VAR-based

studies include Blanchard and Perroti (1999), Fatas and Mihov (2001), and Mountford and Uhlig(2002). For recent studies that employ structural models, see Roeger and Int Veld (2002), Barrelland te Vede (2002), Barrell et al. (2004), and Hunt and Laxton (2003).

Most of these studies find that the fiscal multipliers are positive but small in the short runand diminish to zero in the long run due to crowding out effects. Estimates presented in Capet

(2004) for the short-term multipliers range from 0.6 to 1.3 across countries in Europe. Barrell etal. (2004) find that these multipliers are typically not dependent upon whether consumers exhibitforward-looking behavior. Al-Eyd et al. (2004) find that the greater the proportion of liquidity-constrained households there are in an economy, the larger the fiscal multipliers. They also find that

if classified by source of expansion, the spending multiplier is usually larger than the tax multiplier.The opposite is, however, found by Mountford and Uhlig (2002) using the VAR methodology. They

obtain a multiplier of 2 for a (surprise) deficit-financed tax cut as compared to a deficit spendingmultiplier of only 0.5.

Discretionary fiscal policy is often criticized for the very long lag normally involved inimplementing such policy, especially in comparison to the implementation of monetary policy.Significant changes in government spending have to undergo protracted bureaucratic processes

such as legislative approval in most circumstances. Under this reasoning, the only feasible kindof fiscal policies are automatic stabilizers, which are cyclically induced, and the only criterion onwhich such policies are to be judged is their ability to dampen business cycles (e.g., see Zagler

and Drnecker 2003). The effectiveness of such policies, however, are found to depend also on thefiscal multiplier, with the higher the multiplier the better the smoothing power of the automaticstabilizers (Scharnagl and Tdter 2004). Al-Eyd et al. (2004) find fiscal stabilizers to be generally

weak, as a result of typically small multipliers. Auerbach and Feenberg (2000) estimate the effectof automatic tax stabilizers to be as much as 8% of any initial shock to GDP.

In this paper, structural macroeconometric model simulations are made for Bangladesh, PRC,Indonesia, and Philippines to measure fiscal policy effectiveness. These are done for (i) discretionarypolicy, where effectiveness is measured by the size of the multipliers; and (ii) automatic stabilizers,where effectiveness is measured by the magnitude of an exogenous shock that fiscal policy cansmooth out. The four macroeconometric models were developed at the Asian Development Bank (ADB)

using quarterly time-series data. The models vary in size from 60 to 90 equations. Each model isdivided into eight blocks: income and consumption, labor and employment, investment, government,foreign trade, the three sectors of GDP, price and wage, and monetary blocks (see Qin et al. 2006and Cagas et al. 2006) for detailed description of the PRC and Philippines models, respectively.

In brief, the four models share the following properties: The behavioral equations areeconometrically estimated following the so-called London School of Economics dynamic-specificationapproach (see, for example, Hendry 1995 and 2002), with certain long-run parameters imposed for

theoretical consistency. Constancy of all parameter estimates is checked via recursive estimations,and use of dummy variables is kept at a minimum. The models exhibit good within-sample andout-of-sample forecasting ability gauged, respectively, by small root mean square percentage error

and relatively narrow band of forecasts based on stochastic simulations.

2 NOVEMBER 2006

MACROECONOMICEFFECTSOF FISCAL POLICIES: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCEFROM BANGLADESH, PEOPLESREPUBLICOF CHINA, INDONESIA, AND PHILIPPINES

GEOFFREY DUCANES, MARIEANNE CAGAS, DUO QIN, PILIPINAS QUISING, AND MOHAMMAD ABDUR RAZZAQUE


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The designs of the policy simulations are described below.

A. Discretionary Policy Simulations

For each country, two types of shock simulationsimpulse shock and step shockare carriedout for three variations of fiscal expansion. An impulse shock refers to a 1-year shock (2006),

whereas a step shock refers to a shock up to the end of the simulation period (20062010).

The first two variations, henceforth referred to as Expenditure 1 (EXP 1) and Expenditure 2(EXP 2), involve fiscal expansion through an increase in government spending equivalent to 1

percent of GDP.2 The difference in the two is in the allocation of the spending between currentand capital expenditures. In EXP 1, the additional spending is assumed to follow the allocationin the most recently observed period. In EXP 2, all the additional spending is assumed to go tocapital expenditures.3 In the last variation, henceforth called Tax, the fiscal expansion is through

a reduction in the tax rate equivalent to about 1% of GDP while keeping spending fixed at thebaseline level for the shock period.

In the case of impulse shocks, both the short-term and medium-term effects are measured,where short-term effect refers to the average effect for the 2-year period covering the year of theshock and the year immediately after (20062007), and medium-term effect refers to the averageeffect for the period 20082010. In the case of step shocks, only the medium-term impacts are

calculated as the short-term effect would not differ much from that of the first case. The impactson concerned variables are shown in terms of percent changes in the levels of those variables.

B. Automatic Stabilizer Simulations

In order to measure the effectiveness of automatic stabilizers, we use the tool of alternative

equations for the relevant government variables.4 Two stabilizers are simulated: one on the governmentexpenditure and another on the tax revenues. For the expenditure stabilizer, the expenditure equation

is respecified for the simulation period to indicate an automatic increase (reduction) in totalgovernment expenditure as a result of a decline (increase) in GDP growth. For the tax stabilizer,

on the other hand, the tax equation is respecified so that the tax rate automatically falls (rises)when GDP growth falls. In both cases, the magnitude of the change in the relevant fiscal tool isassumed proportional to the decline in GDP. Next, three exogenous demand shock scenarios on GDPare simulated separately, each representing a negative shock measuring 5% of GDP for 1 year (2006):

(i) via consumption, (ii) via investment, and (iii) via exports. The effectiveness of expenditure andtax stabilizers is measured by comparing the benchmark scenario in which the alternatively specifiedequations of the automatic stabilizers are deactivated to where they are activated.

Following Scharnagl and Tdter (2004), let ybe the difference in GDP without demand shockand GDP with shock and with the stabilizer deactivated; let ysbe the difference in GDP without

shockand GDP with shock but with stabilizer activated. The effectiveness of a stabilizer can thenbe defined as:

2 Operationally, it is 1 percent of GDP of the previous quarter.3 This is to allow for endogenous growth model type effects, where a distinction is drawn between productive and

nonproductive expenditures (see, for example, Barro 1990, Zagler and Drnecker 2003).4 The models are simulated using WinSolve (see Pierse 2001). The software allows for alternative formulations of the

same structural equation, which can be deactivated in default forecasting.

ERD WORKINGPAPER SERIESNO. 85 3

SECTION II

REVIEWOF LITERATUREAND METHODOLOGY


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staby y

yy

s=

(1)

A value of unity indicates complete smoothing ys = 0, whereas a value of zero indicates

no smoothing at ally=

ys ; a negative figure indicates a deterioration instead of a smoothingeffect y< ys.

An alternative measure of the effectiveness is through a comparison of the shock-induced

output variances between the cases ofactivated versus deactivated automatic stabilizers. Specifically,let be the standard deviation ofGDP with shock and with the stabilizer deactivatedand let sbethe difference in GDP with shock and with stabilizer activated. We then have:

stab s

=

(2)

As in (1), a value of unity indicates complete smoothing s = 0, whereas a value of zero

indicates no smoothing at all = s; a negative value indicates an increase in output variability

< s.

In the context of the experiments, assuming a relatively large negative demand shock on

output, equation (1) appears to be the more relevant than equation (2) as the definition ofsmoothing out. The stabilizer, as much as possible, should push GDP back up to its previous levelbefore the shock, which implies a value for equation (1) close to unity. In contrast, a positive

value for equation (2) is consistent with GDP at much lower levels than before the shock, as it isonly concerned with variability.

III. MACROECONOMIC CONTEXT

The four countries considered here vary in terms of macroeconomic experiences as well as in

terms of the size and activity of the government. Indonesia and the Philippines have been heavily

affected by the Asian crisis, whereas Bangladesh and the PRC were hardly affected. Bangladeshhas been growing at a consistent pace of around 5% since the 1990s (Table 1). The PRC has beengrowing at around 10% annually for the last one-and-a-half decades. Indonesia suffered a massive

double-digit decline in output at the height of the crisis but has since recovered and has beengrowing at a rate 45% since then. The growth of the Philippines has been boom and bust, enduringnear-zero growth during the Asian crisis and averaging a low growth of 2.8% annually for the 1990sas a whole, and again suffering a huge decline in output growth in 2001 as a result of a political

crisis. Recently, its economic growth has been hovering between 46% per annum.

TABLE 1GDP GROWTH RATE: BANGLADESH, PRC, INDONESIA, AND PHILIPPINES,

19902005 (PERCENT)

COUNTRY19901999(AVERAGE)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Bangladesh 4.8 5.9 5.3 4.4 5.3 6.3 5.4

PRC 10.0 8.4 8.3 9.1 10.0 10.1 9.9

Indonesia 4.3 4.9 3.8 4.4 4.9 5.1 5.6

Philippines 2.8 4.4 1.8 4.4 4.5 6.0 5.1

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In terms of the size of government consumption, the PRC is the largest and Bangladesh thesmallest of the four countries (see Figure 1). The share of government consumption to GDP is around11% in the PRC, 8% in Indonesia and the Philippines, and only 4% in Bangladesh. One may wishto add government investment in this consideration, which is around 3% of GDP in the PRC, 3%

in Indonesia (but was about 79% pre-crisis), and 67% in Bangladesh.5

FIGURE 1

PERCENTSHARE OF GOVERNMENTCONSUMPTION IN GDP14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Bangladesh PRC Indonesia Philippines

The four countries have had histories of incurring fiscal deficits, as shown in Figure 2. Fiscal deficitas a percentage of GDP has been largest in the Philippines, where in the last six years it hasaveraged more than 4%, followed by Bangladesh, where the deficit ratio has averaged more than

3% in the same period. In the PRC and Indonesia, the fiscal deficit ratio has been around 2% inthis decade.

Bangladesh PRC Indonesia Philippines

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

FIGURE 2

FISCAL BALANCE AS A PERCENT OF GDP, 1990-20053

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

In both Bangladesh and the Philippines, contributing to the deficit and high debt levels are thelow household saving rates, as well as the losses incurred by state-owned enterprises. The PRC has

a very active fiscal policy, resulting partly from its fixed exchange rate that constrains its use of

5 In the Philippines national income accounts data, investment data is not disaggregated between the contributions ofthe private sector and government.


SECTION III

MACROECONOMICCONTEXT


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monetary policy. In recent years, it has tried to scale back fiscal stimulus by curbing infrastructureprograms and limiting the deficit to about 2% of GDP. Most of Indonesias fiscal problems stem fromthe Asian crisis, which left the Indonesian government saddled with a huge amount of debt, primarilydue to the recapitalization of the failed banking system. As is true also for the Philippines, the

depreciation of its currency during the crisis raised substantially the burden of servicing its externaldebt. In recent years, as its economy recovers, Indonesias fiscal position has also been improving.The Philippines has recently instituted tax reforms that seek to improve its fiscal position. 6

IV. EMPIRICAL RESULTS

A. Discretionary Fiscal Policy

Tables 2 and 3 report the results of a one-year (impulse) fiscal expansion shock for the shortand medium terms, respectively.7 Table 4 presents the results over the medium term of a permanent(step) fiscal expansion shock.

In the case of an untargeted impulse fiscal spending shock (Exp 1), the short-term GDPmultipliers for the four countries range from 0.22 to 0.40, with the highest observed in Bangladesh.There is some evidence that Bangladesh has a much higher level of liquidity constraint relativeto the other three countries (see Godquin and Sharma 2005), and this may account for its higher

short-term multiplier (see Al-Eyd et al. 2004). A fiscal expansion targeted to capital formation(Exp 2) has significantly higher multipliers of 0.74 for the Philippines, 0.76 for Indonesia, 0.79for Bangladesh, and 1.57 for the PRC. The very large value for the PRC is consistent with recent

finding in Qin, Cagas, He, and Quising (2006) that government budgetary investment plays a keyrole in encouraging investment fever in the PRC. The short-term multipliers of a fiscal expansionthrough tax reduction (Tax) vary more widely, from a low 0.03 for the Philippines to a high of 0.44for the PRC.

In general, the results are consistent with the postulate that the spending multiplier is higherif targeted to productive expenditures such as investment (e.g., see Barro 1990, and Zagler andDrnecker 2003). They also conform to the findings for other countries that the spending multiplier

is typically larger than the tax multiplier (e.g., see Capet 2004).

Over the medium term (Table 3), for untargeted spending, there is complete or near-completecrowding out for Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Philippines, whereas in the PRC the multiplier is

actually higher than in the short term. For targeted spending, the multiplier is the highest for thePRC, followed by the Philippines, and then Indonesia and Bangladesh, with the last case beingnegative but almost insignificant. The case for the PRC is within expectation. In the case of the

Philippines, the country has been starved of investment and the economy as a whole is seen to benefitsignificantly from a greater level of capital expenditure by the government (Paderanga 2001).8 In6 For more description of the fiscal position of the Philippines, see the recent study by Qin, Cagas, Ducanes, Magtibay-

Ramos, and Quising (2006).7 The shocks are applied in each of the four quarters of 2006. Because many variables adjust only after some lag, the

short term was defined to cover not only the year of the shock but also the year immediately after, or 20062007.

In other words, the short-term effect is the average effect over the 2-year period. The medium term was defined to

cover the period 20082010, and the medium-term effect is the average effect over the 3-year period.8 The share of capital expenditures in total expenditures has declined precipitously over the past two decades for the

Philippines, from about a quarter of the total in the 1980s to single-digit levels in recent years. This is taken toindicate a serious underspending in physical infrastructure (Paderanga 2001).

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TABLE 2SHORT-TERM FISCAL MULTIPLIERS: IMPACTON GDP OFAN INCREASE (DECREASE) IN

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1% OF GDP FOR 1 YEAR

COUNTRY EXP 1 EXP 2 TAXBangladesh 0.40 0.79 0.13

PRC 0.29 1.57 0.44

Indonesia 0.22 0.76 0.16

Philippines 0.27 0.74 0.03

Note: Short-term is defined as year contemporaneous with the shock and the year after, i.e., 20062007.

TABLE 3MEDIUM-TERM FISCAL MULTIPLIERS: IMPACTON GDP OFAN INCREASE (DECREASE) IN

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1% OF GDP FOR 1 YEAR

COUNTRY EXP 1 EXP 2 TAX

Bangladesh 0.05 0.02 0.05

PRC 0.59 3.83 0.06

Indonesia 0.02 0.19 0.03


Note: Medium-term is defined as the period from 20082010.

TABLE 4MEDIUM-TERM FISCAL MULTIPLIERS: IMPACTON GDP OFAPERMANENT INCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1% OF GDP

COUNTRY EXP 1 EXP 2 TAX

Bangladesh 0.74 2.07 0.16

PRC 1.91 12.87 1.03

Indonesia 0.59 2.13 0.61


Note: Medium-term is defined as the period from 20082010.

the case of Bangladesh, there is a serious concern about the quality of public capital expenditure.A large proportion of what is reported as capital expenditures is actually recurrent expenditure,

and hence should not be considered as investment. Furthermore, it has been argued that weakgovernance significantly reduces the efficacy of capital expenditures in the country (World Bank

and ADB 2003, CPD 1997). In the medium term, the multiplier of a tax reduction declines to verylow levels for Bangladesh, PRC, and Indonesia, and rises, but only slightly, for the Philippines.


SECTION IV

EMPIRICAL RESULTS


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Figures 3 to 6 show the impact of the fiscal expansion on the major components of GDPas well as on inflation for each of the four countries over the duration of the simulation period.The figures show that in general, the short-run positive impact of higher fiscal spending, whethertargeted or not, occurs mainly through investment on the demand side and the second sector

FIGURE 3BANGLADESH: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF AN INCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDP FOR 1YEAR

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00

-5.00

-10.00

-15.00200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00

-0.01

-0.02

0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000

-0.005

-0.010

-0.015

-0.020

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00

-0.01

-0.02

-0.03

-0.04

0.10

0.05

0.00

-0.05

-0.10

-0.15

-0.20

-0.25

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

-0.05

-0.10

-0.15

-0.20

Investment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax

Note: Figures are in percent changes in own variables.

8 NOVEMBER 2006




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output on the supply side. On the other hand, a tax reduction affects output primarily throughprivate consumption and the tertiary sector output. It is worth noting from Figure 4 that whiletargeted fiscal expansion raises the PRCs output markedly, it also raises inflation significantlybyabout 4% at the end of the simulation period. This reflects from another angle the earlier point

FIGURE 4PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF AN INCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDP FOR 1YEAR

Investment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

0.4

0.3

0.02

0.1

0.0

-0.1-0.2

-0.3

-0.4

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

18.0

16.0

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.02.0

0.0

-2.0

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5


SECTION IV

EMPIRICAL RESULTS


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that increasing government investment encourages overinvestment in the PRC. Such a significantinflationary impact is not observed in the other countries, indicating that government-led investmentis still far from saturated in these countries.

FIGURE 5INDONESIA: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF AN INCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDP FOR 1YEARInvestment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0-1.0

-2.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

-0.05

-0.10

-0.15

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

-0.2

10 NOVEMBER 2006




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In the case ofstep shocks, Table 4 shows that, other than in the PRC, the untargeted spendingmultiplier and the tax multiplier are less than unity. On the other hand, the targeted spendingmultiplier is very high particularly for the PRC and the Philippines. Figures 7 to 10 show the dynamic

FIGURE 6PHILIPPINES: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF AN INCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDP FOR 1YEARInvestment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


Tax 2

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

-2.0

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

-0.05

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0.000

-0.002

-0.004

-0.006

-0.008

-0.010

-0.012


SECTION IV

EMPIRICAL RESULTS


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effect on the major components of GDP and on inflation as well for each of the four countries.Again, it is worth noting that in the case of the PRC, the additional growth puts a lot of strain oninflation, to the tune of an additional 11% by the end of the simulation period, and rising.

Investment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

FIGURE 7BANGLADESH: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF A PERMANENTINCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDP

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00

-10.00

-20.00

-30.00

0.10

0.00

-0.10

-0.20

-0.30

-0.40

-0.50

-0.60

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.0

-0.20

-0.40

0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000

-0.005

-0.010

-0.015

-0.020

0.45

0.40

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.050.0

-0.05

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08

-0.10

12 NOVEMBER 2006




19/37

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


Investment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

FIGURE 8PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF A PERMANENTINCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDP

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0

-10.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

-1.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0

-2.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.50.0

-0.5

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0


SECTION IV

EMPIRICAL RESULTS


20/37

FIGURE 9INDONESIA: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF A PERMANENTINCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDPInvestment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

-1.0

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00

-0.02

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

14 NOVEMBER 2006




21/37

FIGURE 10PHILIPPINES: IMPACT ON GDP COMPONENTS AND INFLATION OF A PERMANENTINCREASE

(DECREASE) IN GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURE (TAX) BY 1 PERCENT OF GDPInvestment

Private Consumption

Inflation

Agriculture

Industry

Services

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

Exp 1 Exp 2 Tax


200601 200701 2008

01 2009

01 201001

200601 200701 200801 200901 201001 200601 200701 200801 200901 201001

200601 200701 2008

01 2009

01 201001

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0

-5.0

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

0.020

0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000

-0.005

-0.010

-0.015

-0.020

-0.025

-0.030

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

-0.1

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

-1.0

-2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2

-0.4


SECTION IV

EMPIRICAL RESULTS


22/37

B. Automatic Stabilizers

Tables 5 and 6 report the smoothing power of automatic stabilizers at the spending and taxationsides, respectively. Since it is assumed in Section II that the shock originates from a demand-side

decline in output, the stabilizers in the simulations respond (at least initially) through either anincrease in government spending or a tax reduction.

The smoothing power of expenditure-side automatic stabilizer appears weak and ineffectual

in Bangladesh and Indonesia. In the case of Bangladesh, using equation (1), only 1% of theconsumption shock is smoothed out, while the investment and export shocks are not smoothed outat all. For Indonesia, no smoothing out occurs for any of the shocks. In contrast, the expenditure-side stabilizer appears highly effective in the PRC, where it smoothes out about 78% of all three

types of demand shocks, which is comparable to the estimates of Auerbach and Feenberg (2000) forthe US. In the case of the Philippines, this stabilizer is effective for consumption and investmentshockseven as measured by equation (2)but not for the export shock.

In the case of the tax-side automatic stabilizer, Table 4.5 indicates that it is potentially only

effective for Indonesia, where it is able to smooth out consumption and export shocks, also evenunder equation (2). It has a marginal impact for Bangladesh across shock categories, and does not

smooth out at all for the PRC and the Philippines.

In summary, the expenditure-side automatic stabilizer appears to be relatively effective forthe PRC and the Philippines but ineffective for Bangladesh and Indonesia. On the other hand, a

tax-side automatic stabilizer is effective for Indonesia. Unfortunately, neither side of the automaticstabilizers appears to be effective for Bangladesh.

A caveat must be noted here: the designed automatic stabilizers are highly aggregate since

the models we have do not contain disaggregate equations explaining different tax categories orspecific spending categories. Al-Eyd et al. (2004) and Brunila et al. (2002), for instance, show thatthe effect of automatic stabilizers depends on the disaggregate structure of taxes.

TABLE 5EFFECTIVENESSOF AUTOMATIC STABILIZERS: EXPENDITURE ADJUSTMENT

SHOCK TO BANGLADESH PRC INDONESIA PHILIPPINES

Consumption 0.01 0.07 0.05 0.04

0.01 0.06 0.24 0.09

Investment 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.05

0.02 0.06 0.25 0.05

Exports 0.04 0.08 0.05 0.03

0.02 0.06 0.23 0.03Note:(i) The upper figures correspond to smoothing as defined in equation (1) in Section II. The italicized lower

figures correspond to smoothing as defined in equation (2).(ii) Smoothing power is measured for the period of the shock and the year immediat ely after

(20062007).

16 NOVEMBER 2006




23/37

V. CONCLUSION

This paper examines empirically the effectiveness of fiscal policy in four Asian countriesBangladesh, PRC, Indonesia, and Philippinesusing structural macroeconometric model simulations.Fiscal policy is divided into two: discretionary policy and automatic stabilizers. For discretionarypolicy, the effectiveness is evaluated on the basis of the sizes of the short-term and medium-term

multipliers under three scenarios: (i) untargeted government spending increase, (ii) investment-targeted government spending increase, and (iii) and tax reduction.

In the case of an impulse shock of untargeted spending, the short-term multipliers are found

to be positive but way below unity for each of the four countries. The multipliers are much higher

in the case of targeted increases, especially for the PRC. The multipliers from a tax reduction aregenerally lower than the spending multipliers except in the case of the PRC against untargeted

spending. Over the medium term, the multiplier impact of a fiscal impulse shock dies out, exceptin the targeted spending scenario for the PRC and the Philippines.

Automatic stabilizers are classified into two types: one that works on the expenditure side, and

the other through the tax side. The paper finds that, at least for PRC, Indonesia, and Philippines,automatic stabilizers are effective in smoothing out some of the effects of a large demand shock.The results also indicate that an expenditure-side automatic stabilizer is more effective for the PRCand the Philippines, while a tax-side stabilizer is more effective for Indonesia.

Finally, putting the results together, increased fiscal spending is found to be an effectiveexpansionary and stabilizing tool for the PRC and the Philippines, with the qualification that, forthe former, it is also inflationary. On the other hand, increased fiscal spending is only expansionary

but not stabilizing in Indonesia and Bangladesh. Meanwhile, tax reduction is found to be generallya less effective expansionary tool and is stabilizing only in the case of Indonesia.

TABLE 6EFFECTIVENESSOF AUTOMATIC STABILIZERS: TAX ADJUSTMENT

SHOCK TO BANGLADESH PRC INDONESIA PHILIPPINES

Consumption 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.040.00 0.01 0.15 0.01

Investment 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03

0.00 0.01 0.16 0.02

Exports 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08

0.00 0.01 0.14 0.03

Note:(i) The upper figures correspond to smoothing as defined in equation (1) in Section II. The italicized lower

figures correspond to smoothing as defined in equation (2).(ii) Smoothing power is measured for the period of the shock and the year immediately after

(20062007).


SECTION V

CONCLUSION


24/37

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Important?

Ernesto M. Pernia, May 2003No. 18 PublicPrivate Partnership for Competitiveness

Jesus Felipe, June 2003No. 19 Reviving Asian Economic Growth Requires Further

Reforms

Ifzal Ali, June 2003No. 20 The Millennium Development Goals and Poverty:

Are We Counting the Worlds Poor Right?

M. G. Quibria, July 2003No. 21 Trade and Poverty: What are the Connections?

Douglas H. Brooks, July 2003No. 22 Adapting Education to the Global Economy

Olivier Dupriez, September 2003No. 23 Avian Flu: An Economic Assessment for Selected

Developing Countries in AsiaJean-Pierre Verbiest and Charissa Castillo,March 2004

No. 25 Purchasing Power Parities and the InternationalComparison Program in a Globalized World

Bishnu Pant, March 2004No. 26 A Note on Dual/Multiple Exchange Rates

Emma Xiaoqin Fan, May 2004No. 27 Inclusive Growth for Sustainable Poverty Reduction

in Developing Asia: The Enabling Role ofInfrastructure DevelopmentIfzal Ali and Xianbin Yao, May 2004


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No. 11 Shadow Exchange Rates for Project EconomicAnalysis: Toward Improving Practice at the AsianDevelopment Bank

Anneli Lagman-Martin, February 2004No. 12 Improving the Relevance and Feasibility of

Agriculture and Rural Development OperationalDesigns: How Economic Analyses Can Help

Richard Bolt, September 2005No. 13 Assessing the Use of Project Distribution and

Poverty Impact Analyses at the Asian Development

BankFranklin D. De Guzman, October 2005

No. 14 Assessing Aid for a Sector Development Plan:

Economic Analysis of a Sector Loan

David Dole, November 2005No. 15 Debt Management Analysis of Nepals Public Debt

Sungsup Ra, Changyong Rhee, and Joon-HoHahm, December 2005

No. 16 Evaluating Microfinance Program Innovation with

Randomized Control Trials: An Example fromGroup Versus Individual Lending

Xavier Gin, Tomoko Harigaya,Dean Karlan, and

Binh T. Nguyen, March 2006No. 17 Setting User Charges for Urban Water Supply: A

Case Study of the Metropolitan Cebu Water

District in the Philippines

David Dole and Edna Balucan, June 2006No. 18 Forecasting Inflation and GDP Growth: Automatic

Leading Indicator (ALI) Method versus MacroEconometric Structural Models (MESMs)

Marie Anne Cagas, Geoffrey Ducanes, NedelynMagtibay-Ramos, Duo Qin and Pilipinas Quising,July 2006

ERD TECHNICAL NOTE SERIES (TNS)

(Published in-house; Available through ADB Office of External Relations; Free of Charge)

No. 1 Contingency Calculations for EnvironmentalImpacts with Unknown Monetary ValuesDavid Dole, February 2002

No. 2 Integrating Risk into ADBs Economic Analysis

of Projects

Nigel Rayner, Anneli Lagman-Martin,and Keith Ward, June 2002

No. 3 Measuring Willingness to Pay for Electricity

Peter Choynowski, July 2002No. 4 Economic Issues in the Design and Analysis of a

Wastewater Treatment Project

David Dole, July 2002No. 5 An Analysis and Case Study of the Role of

Environmental Economics at the AsianDevelopment Bank

David Dole and Piya Abeygunawardena,September 2002

No. 6 Economic Analysis of Health Projects: A Case Studyin Cambodia

Erik Bloom and Peter Choynowski, May 2003No. 7 Strengthening the Economic Analysis of Natural

Resource Management Projects

Keith Ward, September 2003No. 8 Testing Savings Product Innovations Using an

Experimental Methodology

Nava Ashraf, Dean S. Karlan, and Wesley Yin,November 2003

No. 9 Setting User Charges for Public Services: Policies

and Practice at the Asian Development Bank

David Dole, December 2003No. 10 Beyond Cost Recovery: Setting User Charges for

Financial, Economic, and Social Goals

David Dole and Ian Bartlett, January 2004

No. 28 Higher Oil Prices: Asian Perspectives and

Implications for 2004-2005

Cyn-Young Park, June 2004No. 29 Accelerating Agriculture and Rural Development for

Inclusive Growth: Policy Implications forDeveloping Asia

Richard Bolt, July 2004No. 30 Living with Higher Interest Rates: Is Asia Ready?

Cyn-Young Park, August 2004No. 31 Reserve Accumulation, Sterilization, and Policy

Dilemma

Akiko Terada-Hagiwara, October 2004No. 32 The Primacy of Reforms in the Emergence ofPeoples Republic of China and IndiaIfzal Ali and Emma Xiaoqin Fan, November2004

No. 33 Population Health and Foreign Direct Investment:Does Poor Health Signal Poor GovernmentEffectiveness?

Ajay Tandon, January 2005No. 34 Financing Infrastructure Development: Asian

Developing Countries Need to Tap Bond Markets

More RigorouslyYun-Hwan Kim, February 2005

No. 35 Attaining Millennium Development Goals in

Health: Isnt Economic Growth Enough?

Ajay Tandon, March 2005No. 36 Instilling Credit Culture in State-owned Banks

Experience from Lao PDRRobert Boumphrey, Paul Dickie, and SamiuelaTukuafu, April 2005

No. 37 Coping with Global Imbalances and Asian

Currencies

Cyn-Young Park, May 2005No. 38 Asias Long-term Growth and Integration:

Reaching beyond Trade Policy Barriers

Douglas H. Brooks, David Roland-Holst, and FanZhai, September 2005

No. 39 Competition Policy and Development

Douglas H. Brooks, October 2005No. 40 Highlighting Poverty as Vulnerability: The 2005

Earthquake in Pakistan

Rana Hasan and Ajay Tandon, October 2005No. 41 Conceptualizing and Measuring Poverty asVulnerability: Does It Make a Difference?

Ajay Tandon and Rana Hasan, October 2005No. 42 Potential Economic Impact of an Avian Flu

Pandemic on Asia

Erik Bloom, Vincent de Wit, and Mary JaneCarangal-San Jose, November 2005

No. 43 Creating Better and More Jobs in Indonesia: ABlueprint for Policy Action

Guntur Sugiyarto, December 2005No. 44 The Challenge of Job Creation in Asia

Jesus Felipe and Rana Hasan, April 2006No. 45 International Payments Imbalances

Jesus Felipe, Frank Harrigan, and AashishMehta, April 2006

No. 46 Improving Primary Enrollment Rates among the

PoorAjay Tandon, August 2006


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OLD MONOGRAPH SERIES(Available through ADB Office of External Relations; Free of charge)

EDRC REPORT SERIES (ER)

No. 1 ASEAN and the Asian Development BankSeiji Naya, April 1982

No. 2 Development Issues for the Developing East

and Southeast Asian Countriesand International CooperationSeiji Naya and Graham Abbott, April 1982

No. 3 Aid, Savings, and Growth in the Asian RegionJ. Malcolm Dowling and Ulrich Hiemenz,

April 1982

No. 4 Development-oriented Foreign Investmentand the Role of ADBKiyoshi Kojima, April 1982

No. 5 The Multilateral Development Banksand the International Economys MissingPublic SectorJohn Lewis, June 1982

No. 6 Notes on External Debt of DMCsEvelyn Go, July 1982

No. 7 Grant Element in Bank Loans

Dal Hyun Kim, July 1982No. 8 Shadow Exchange Rates and Standard

Conversion Factors in Project Evaluation

Peter Warr, September 1982No. 9 Small and Medium-Scale Manufacturing

Establishments in ASEAN Countries:

Perspectives and Policy IssuesMathias Bruch and Ulrich Hiemenz, January1983

No. 10 A Note on the Third Ministerial Meeting of GATTJungsoo Lee, January 1983

No. 11 Macroeconomic Forecasts for the Republic

of China, Hong Kong, and Republic of KoreaJ.M. Dowling, January 1983

No. 12 ASEAN: Economic Situation and Prospects

Seiji Naya, March 1983No. 13 The Future Prospects for the Developing

Countries of AsiaSeiji Naya, March 1983

No. 14 Energy and Structural Change in the Asia-Pacific Region, Summary of the ThirteenthPacific Trade and Development Conference

Seiji Naya, March 1983No. 15 A Survey of Empirical Studies on Demand

for Electricity with Special Emphasis on Price

1. Improving Domestic Resource Mobilization ThroughFinancial Development: Overview September 1985

2. Improving Domestic Resource Mobilization ThroughFinancial Development: Bangladesh July 1986

3. Improving Domestic Resource Mobilization Through

Financial Development: Sri Lanka April 19874. Improving Domestic Resource Mobilization Through

Financial Development: India December 19875. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: Overview January 19886. Study of Selected Industries: A Brief Report

April 19887. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: Bangladesh June 19888. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: India June 19889. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: Indonesia June 198810. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: Nepal June 198811. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: Pakistan June 198812. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditure

in Selected Countries: Philippines June 1988

13. Financing Public Sector Development Expenditurein Selected Countries: Thailand June 1988

14. Towards Regional Cooperation in South Asia:

ADB/EWC Symposium on Regional Cooperationin South Asia February 1988

15. Evaluating Rice Market Intervention Policies:

Some Asian Examples April 198816. Improving Domestic Resource Mobilization Through

Financial Development: Nepal November 198817. Foreign Trade Barriers and Export Growth September

198818. The Role of Small and Medium-Scale Industries in the

Industrial Development of the Philippines April 1989

19. The Role of Small and Medium-Scale ManufacturingIndustries in Industrial Development: The Experience ofSelected Asian Countries January 1990

20. National Accounts of Vanuatu, 1983-1987 January1990

21. National Accounts of Western Samoa, 1984-1986

February 199022. Human Resource Policy and Economic Development:

Selected Country Studies July 1990

23. Export Finance: Some Asian Examples September 199024. National Accounts of the Cook Islands, 1982-1986

September 199025. Framework for the Economic and Financial Appraisal of

Urban Development Sector Projects January 199426. Framework and Criteria for the Appraisal and

Socioeconomic Justification of Education Projects

January 199427. Investing in Asia 1997 (Co-published with OECD)28. The Future of Asia in the World Economy 1998 (Co-

published with OECD)29. Financial Liberalisation in Asia: Analysis and Prospects

1999 (Co-published with OECD)30. Sustainable Recovery in Asia: Mobilizing Resources for

Development2000 (Co-published with OECD)31. Technology and Poverty Reduction in Asia and the Pacific

2001 (Co-published with OECD)

32. Asia and Europe2002 (Co-published with OECD)33. Economic Analysis: Retrospective200334. Economic Analysis: Retrospective: 2003 Update200435. Development Indicators Reference Manual: Concepts and

Definitions200435. Investment Climate and Productivity Studies

Philippines: Moving Toward a Better Investment Climate

2005The Road to Recovery: Improving the Investment Climatein Indonesia 2005Sri Lanka: Improving the Rural and Urban Investment

Climate 2005

SPECIAL STUDIES, COMPLIMENTARY

(Available through ADB Office of External Relations)


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Elasticity of Demand

Wisarn Pupphavesa, June 1983No. 16 Determinants of Paddy Production in Indonesia:

1972-1981A Simultaneous Equation Model

ApproachT.K. Jayaraman, June 1983

No. 17 The Philippine Economy: Economic

Forecasts for 1983 and 1984J.M. Dowling, E. Go, and C.N. Castillo, June1983

No. 18 Economic Forecast for Indonesia

J.M. Dowling, H.Y. Kim, Y.K. Wang,and C.N. Castillo, June 1983No. 19 Relative External Debt Situation of Asian

Developing Countries: An Applicationof Ranking Method

Jungsoo Lee, June 1983No. 20 New Evidence on Yields, Fertilizer Application,

and Prices in Asian Rice Production

William James and Teresita Ramirez, July 1983No. 21 Inflationary Effects of Exchange Rate

Changes in Nine Asian LDCs

Pradumna B. Rana and J. Malcolm Dowling, Jr.,December 1983

No. 22 Effects of External Shocks on the Balance

of Payments, Policy Responses, and DebtProblems of Asian Developing CountriesSeiji Naya, December 1983

No. 23 Changing Trade Patterns and Policy Issues:The Prospects for East and Southeast AsianDeveloping Countries

Seiji Naya and Ulrich Hiemenz, February 1984No. 24 Small-Scale Industries in Asian Economic

Development: Problems and ProspectsSeiji Naya, February 1984

No. 25 A Study on the External Debt IndicatorsApplying Logit AnalysisJungsoo Lee and Clarita Barretto, February 1984

No. 26 Alternatives to Institutional Credit Programsin the Agricultural Sector of Low-IncomeCountries

Jennifer Sour, March 1984No. 27 Economic Scene in Asia and Its Special Features

Kedar N. Kohli, November 1984No. 28 The Effect of Terms of Trade Changes on the

Balance of Payments and Real NationalIncome of Asian Developing Countries

Jungsoo Lee and Lutgarda Labios, January 1985No. 29 Cause and Effect in the World Sugar Market:

Some Empirical Findings 1951-1982

Yoshihiro Iwasaki, February 1985No. 30 Sources of Balance of Payments Problem

in the 1970s: The Asian Experience

Pradumna Rana, February 1985No. 31 Indias Manufactured Exports: An Analysis

of Supply Sectors

Ifzal Ali, February 1985No. 32 Meeting Basic Human Needs in Asian


Jungsoo Lee and Emma Banaria, March 1985No. 33 The Impact of Foreign Capital Inflow

on Investment and Economic Growth

in Developing AsiaEvelyn Go, May 1985

No. 34 The Climate for Energy Development

in the Pacific and Asian Region:Priorities and PerspectivesV.V. Desai, April 1986

No. 35 Impact of Appreciation of the Yen on

Developing Member Countries of the BankJungsoo Lee, Pradumna Rana, and Ifzal Ali,May 1986

No. 36 Smuggling and Domestic Economic Policiesin Developing Countries

A.H.M.N. Chowdhury, October 1986No. 37 Public Investment Criteria: Economic Internal

Rate of Return and Equalizing Discount RateIfzal Ali, November 1986

No. 38 Review of the Theory of Neoclassical PoliticalEconomy: An Application to Trade PoliciesM.G. Quibria, December 1986

No. 39 Factors Influencing the Choice of Location:Local and Foreign Firms in the PhilippinesE.M. Pernia and A.N. Herrin, February 1987

No. 40 A Demographic Perspective on Developing

Asia and Its Relevance to the BankE.M. Pernia, May 1987No. 41 Emerging Issues in Asia and Social Cost

Benefit AnalysisI. Ali, September 1988

No. 42 Shifting Revealed Comparative Advantage:Experiences of Asian and Pacific DevelopingCountries

P.B. Rana, November 1988No. 43 Agricultural Price Policy in Asia:

Issues and Areas of Reforms

I. Ali, November 1988No. 44 Service Trade and Asian Developing Economies

M.G. Quibria, October 1989No. 45 A Review of the Economic Analysis of Power

Projects in Asia and Identification of Areasof Improvement

I. Ali, November 1989No. 46 Growth Perspective and Challenges for Asia:Areas for Policy Review and Research

I. Ali, November 1989No. 47 An Approach to Estimating the Poverty

Alleviation Impact of an Agricultural ProjectI. Ali, January 1990

No. 48 Economic Growth Performance of Indonesia,the Philippines, and Thailand:The Human Resource Dimension

E.M. Pernia, January 1990No. 49 Foreign Exchange and Fiscal Impact of a Project:

A Methodological Framework for Estimation

I. Ali, February 1990No. 50 Public Investment Criteria: Financial

and Economic Internal Rates of Return

I. Ali, April 1990

No. 51 Evaluation of Water Supply Projects:An Economic Framework

Arlene M. Tadle, June 1990No. 52 Interrelationship Between Shadow Prices, Project

Investment, and Policy Reforms:

An Analytical FrameworkI. Ali, November 1990

No. 53 Issues in Assessing the Impact of Project

and Sector Adjustment LendingI. Ali, December 1990

No. 54 Some Aspects of Urbanization

and the Environment in Southeast AsiaErnesto M. Pernia, January 1991

No. 55 Financial Sector and Economic

Development: A SurveyJungsoo Lee, September 1991

No. 56 A Framework for Justifying Bank-Assisted

Education Projects in Asia: A Reviewof the Socioeconomic Analysisand Identification of Areas of Improvement

Etienne Van De Walle, February 1992No. 57 Medium-term Growth-Stabilization

Relationship in Asian Developing Countriesand Some Policy Considerations

Yun-Hwan Kim, February 1993No. 58 Urbanization, Population Distribution,

and Economic Development in Asia

Ernesto M. Pernia, February 1993No. 59 The Need for Fiscal Consolidation in Nepal:


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No. 1 International Reserves:Factors Determining Needs and Adequacy

Evelyn Go, May 1981No. 2 Domestic Savings in Selected Developing

Asian Countries

Basil Moore, assisted by A.H.M. NuruddinChowdhury, September 1981

No. 3 Changes in Consumption, Imports and Exports

of Oil Since 1973: A Preliminary Survey ofthe Developing Member Countriesof the Asian Development Bank

Dal Hyun Kim and Graham Abbott, September1981

No. 4 By-Passed Areas, Regional Inequalities,

and Development Policies in SelectedSoutheast Asian CountriesWilliam James, October 1981

No. 5 Asian Agriculture and Economic DevelopmentWilliam James, March 1982

No. 6 Inflation in Developing Member Countries:

An Analysis of Recent TrendsA.H.M. Nuruddin ChowdhuryandJ. MalcolmDowling,March 1982

No. 7 Industrial Growth and Employment inDeveloping Asian Countries: Issues andPerspectives for the Coming Decade

Ulrich Hiemenz, March 1982No. 8 Petrodollar Recycling 1973-1980.

Part 1: Regional Adjustments andthe World Economy

Burnham Campbell, April 1982No. 9 Developing Asia: The Importance

of Domestic Policies

Economics Office Staff under the direction of SeijiNaya, May 1982

No. 10 Financial Development and Household

Savings: Issues in Domestic ResourceMobilization in Asian Developing CountriesWan-Soon Kim, July 1982

No. 11 Industrial Development: Role of SpecializedFinancial InstitutionsKedar N. Kohli, August 1982

No. 12 Petrodollar Recycling 1973-1980.Part II: Debt Problems and an Evaluationof Suggested Remedies

Burnham Campbell, September 1982No. 13 Credit Rationing, Rural Savings, and Financial

Policy in Developing Countries

William James, September 1982No. 14 Small and Medium-Scale Manufacturing

Establishments in ASEAN Countries:

Perspectives and Policy IssuesMathias Bruch and Ulrich Hiemenz, March 1983

No. 15 Income Distribution and Economic

ECONOMIC STAFF PAPERS (ES)

The Results of a Simulation

Filippo di Mauro and Ronald Antonio Butiong,July 1993

No. 60 A Computable General Equilibrium Model

of NepalTimothy Buehrer and Filippo di Mauro, October1993

No. 61 The Role of Government in Export Expansionin the Republic of Korea: A RevisitYun-Hwan Kim, February 1994

No. 62 Rural Reforms, Structural Change,

and Agricultural Growth inthe Peoples Republic of China

Bo Lin, August 1994

Growth in Developing Asian CountriesJ. Malcolm Dowling and David Soo, March 1983

No. 16 Long-Run Debt-Servicing Capacity ofAsian Developing Countries: An Applicationof Critical Interest Rate Approach

Jungsoo Lee, June 1983No. 17 External Shocks, Energy Policy,

and Macroeconomic Performance of Asian

Developing Countries: A Policy AnalysisWilliam James, July 1983

No. 18 The Impact of the Current Exchange Rate

System on Trade and Inflation of SelectedDeveloping Member CountriesPradumna Rana, September 1983

No. 19 Asian Agriculture in Transition: Key Policy IssuesWilliam James, September 1983

No. 20 The Transition to an Industrial Economy

in Monsoon AsiaHarry T. Oshima, October 1983

No. 21 The Significance of Off-Farm Employment

and Incomes in Post-War East Asian GrowthHarry T. Oshima, January 1984

No. 22 Income Distribution and Poverty in Selected

Asian CountriesJohn Malcolm Dowling, Jr., November 1984

No. 23 ASEAN Economies and ASEAN Economic

CooperationNarongchai Akrasanee, November 1984

No. 24 Economic Analysis of Power ProjectsNitin Desai, January 1985

No. 25 Exports and Economic Growth in the Asian RegionPradumna Rana, February 1985

No. 26 Patterns of External Financing of DMCs

E. Go, May 1985No. 27 Industrial Technology Development

the Republic of Korea

S.Y. Lo, July 1985No. 28 Risk Analysis and Project Selection:

A Review of Practical Issues

J.K. Johnson, August 1985No. 29 Rice in Indonesia: Price Policy and Comparative

Advantage

I. Ali, January 1986No. 30 Effects of Foreign Capital Inflows

on Developing Countries of Asia

Jungsoo Lee, Pradumna B. Rana, and YoshihiroIwasaki, April 1986

No. 31 Economic Analysis of the Environmental

Impacts of Development ProjectsJohn A. Dixon et al., EAPI, East-West Center,August 1986

No. 32 Science and Technology for Development:Role of the BankKedar N. Kohli and Ifzal Ali, November 1986

No. 63 Incentives and Regulation for Pollution Abatement

with an Application to Waste Water TreatmentSudipto Mundle, U. Shankar, and ShekharMehta, October 1995

No. 64 Saving Transitions in Southeast AsiaFrank Harrigan, February 1996

No. 65 Total Factor Productivity Growth in East Asia:

A Critical Survey

Jesus Felipe, September 1997No. 66 Foreign Direct Investment in Pakistan:

Policy Issues and Operational Implications

Ashfaque H. Khan and Yun-Hwan Kim, July1999No. 67 Fiscal Policy, Income Distribution and Gr

Documents

Macroeconomic Effects of Fiscal Policies: Empirical Evidence from Bangladesh, People's Republic of China, Indonesia, and Philippines