Mediterranean Sea

“Mediterranean” redirects here. For the oceanographicalterm, see Mediterranean sea (oceanography). For otheruses, see Mediterranean (disambiguation).“Mediterranea” redirects here. For the 2015 film, seeMediterranea (film).

The Mediterranean Sea (pronounced /ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniənˈsiː/)[lower-alpha 1] is a sea connected to the Atlantic Oceansurrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost com-pletely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europeand Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on theeast by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered apart of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identi-fied as a separate body of water.The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latinmediterraneus, meaning “inland” or “in the middle of theland” (frommedius, “middle” and terra, “land”). It coversan approximate area of 2.5 million km2 (965,000 sq mi),but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibral-tar) is only 14 km (8.7 mi) wide. The Strait of Gibral-tar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean tothe Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spainin Europe from Morocco in Africa. In oceanography, itis sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea orthe European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it frommediterranean seas elsewhere.[3][4]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m(17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The seais bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia, andin the south by Africa, is located between latitudes 30°and 46° N and longitudes 5°50′ W and 36° E. Its west-east length,from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Isk-enderun, on the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approxi-mately 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The sea’s average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, isapproximately 800 km (500 miles). The MediterraneanSea, including the Sea of Marmara, has a surface areaof approximately 2,510,000 square km (970,000 squaremiles).[5]

The sea was an important route for merchants and trav-ellers of ancient times that allowed for trade and culturalexchange between emergent peoples of the region. Thehistory of the Mediterranean region is crucial to under-standing the origins and development of many modernsocieties.The countries with coastlines on the MediterraneanSea are Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia,

Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon,Libya, Malta, Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, NorthernCyprus (recognized only by Turkey), Palestine, Slovenia,Spain, Syria, Turkey, and Tunisia. In addition, Gibraltarand Akrotiri and Dhekelia are British Overseas Territo-ries with coastlines on the sea.

1 Name

With its highly indented coastline and large number of islands,Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline.

The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin wordmediterraneus, meaning “in the middle of earth” or “be-tween lands” (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a “middle, be-tween” + terra f., “land, earth”): as it is between thecontinents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Greek nameMesogeios (Μεσόγειος), is similarly from μέσο, “middle”+ γη, “land, earth”).[6]

The Mediterranean Sea has historically had severalnames. For example, the Carthaginians called it the “Syr-ian Sea” and latter Romans commonly called itMare Nos-trum (Latin, “Our Sea”), and occasionally Mare Internum(Sallust, Jug. 17).In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the He-brew Bible, it was primarily known as the “Great Sea”ַהָּגדֹול) ,ַהָּים HaYam HaGadol, Numbers 34:6,7; Joshua1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20), or simply “TheSea” (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11);

1

2 2 HISTORY

however, it has also been called the “Hinder Sea” ַהָּים),(ָהַאֲחרֹון due to its location on the west coast of GreaterSyria or the Holy Land, and therefore behind a personfacing the east, sometimes translated as “Western Sea”,(Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the “Seaof the Philistines" ְּפִלְׁשִּתים) ,ָים Exod. 23:31), from thepeople inhabiting a large portion of its shores near theIsraelites. The sea is also called the “Great Sea” (MiddleEnglish: Grete See) in the General Prologue by GeoffreyChaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been calledBahr-i Sefid, meaning the “Pure White Sea”.In Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhonַהִּתיכֹון) ,(ַהָּים “the Middle Sea”, reflecting the Sea’s namein ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin (Mare internum),German (Mittelmeer), and modern languages in both Eu-rope and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.).Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr[al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ المتوسط) [الأبيض] ,(البحر “the[White] Middle Sea”, while in Islamic and older Arabicliterature, it was referenced as Baḥr al-Rūm الروم) ,(بحر or“the Romaic/Byzantine Sea.”In Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz,[7] “the White Sea”since among Turks the white color (ak) represents thewest.

2 History

Main article: History of the Mediterranean region

Greek and Phoenician colonies in antiquity - Circa the 6th cen-tury BCE: In ancient times theMediterranean provided sources offood and local commerce and direct routes for trade and commu-nications, colonisation, and war. Numerous cities and colonieswere situated at its shores or within the basin: Greek (red) andPhoenician (yellow) colonies in antiquity; and other cities (grey),including the provincial “Rom”.

2.1 Ancient civilisations

Several ancient civilisations were located around theMediterranean shores, and were greatly influenced bytheir proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade,

The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended in victory for the EuropeanHoly League against the Ottoman Turks.

The Bombardment of Algiers by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to supportthe ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816

colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing andthe gathering of other seafood) for numerous communi-ties throughout the ages.[8]

Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea,cultures centred around the Mediterranean tended to havesome extent of intertwined culture and history.Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations inclassical antiquity were the Greek city states and thePhoenicians, both of which extensively colonised thecoastlines of the Mediterranean. Later, when Augustusfounded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to theMediterranean as Mare Nostrum (“Our Sea”).Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built acanal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius’scanal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each otherwith oars extended, and required four days to traverse.[9]

2.2 Middle Ages and empires

The western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476.Temporarily the east was again dominant as the ByzantineEmpire formed from the eastern half of the Roman em-pire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with itthe religion of Islam, which soon swept across from theeast; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting foot-

3

print on its eastern and southern shores.Europe was reviving, however, as more organised andcentralised states began to form in the later Middle Agesafter the Renaissance of the 12th century.Ottoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, theByzantine Empire was extinguished with the Conquestof Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much ofthe sea in the 16th century and maintained naval basesin southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, thefamous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this dominationwith the victory of the Battle of Preveza. The Battle ofDjerba marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination inthe Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the Europeanpowers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion inthe region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the powerof the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to befought primarily between galleys.The Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Chris-tian shipping in the Western Mediterranean Sea.[10] Ac-cording to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries,pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans asslaves.[11]

The development of oceanic shipping began to affect theentire Mediterranean. Once, all trade from the east hadpassed through the region, but now the circumnavigationof Africa allowed spices and other goods to be importedthrough the Atlantic ports of western Europe.[12][13][14]

2.3 21st century and migrations

In 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediter-ranean sea as a “cemetery” due to the large amounts ofmigrants who drown there after their boats capsize.[15]

European Parliament president Martin Schulz said thatEurope’s migration policy has “turned the Mediterraneaninto a graveyard", referring to the number of drownedrefugees in the region as a direct result of the policies.[16]

An Azerbaijani official described the sea as “a burialground ... where people die”.[17]

Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, theItalian government decided to strengthen the national sys-tem for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by au-thorising "Mare Nostrum", a military and humanitarianmission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traf-fickers of immigrants.[18]

3 Geography

A satellite image showing the Mediterranean Sea.The Strait of Gibraltar can be seen in the bottom left(north-west) quarter of the image; to its left is the IberianPeninsula in Europe, and to its right, the Maghreb inAfrica.

The Dardanelles strait in Turkey. The north side isEurope with the Gelibolu Peninsula in the Thrace region;the south side is Anatolia in Asia.

The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the AtlanticOcean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writ-ings as the "Pillars of Hercules") in the west and to theSea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanellesand the Bosporus respectively, in the east. The Sea ofMarmara is often considered a part of the MediterraneanSea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163km (101 mi) long man-made Suez Canal in the southeastconnects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.Large islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus,Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu,Limnos, Samos, Naxos and Andros in the EasternMediterranean; Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Cres, Krk,Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the centralMediterranean; and Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (theBalearic Islands) in the Western Mediterranean.The typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, anddry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the regioninclude olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.

4 3 GEOGRAPHY

3.1 Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization defines thelimits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:[19]

Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to theentrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in theeast, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts ofEurope, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deepbasins:

• Western Basin:

• On the west: A line joining the extremitiesof Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel(Africa).

• On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. Inthe Strait of Messina a line joining the northextreme of Cape Paci (15°42'E) with CapePeloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily.The north coast of Sicily.

• On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo thewestern point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E /37.783°N 12.367°E), through the AdventureBank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).

• Eastern Basin:

• On the west: The northeastern and eastern lim-its of the Western Basin.

• On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale(26°11'E) and Cape Helles, the western en-trance to the Dardanelles.

• On the southeast: The entrance to the SuezCanal.

• On the east: The coasts of Syria and Palestine.

(It should be noted that the coast referred to as belong-ing to Palestine in this document dating to 1953 has beenwithin the internationally recognised borders of the coun-try known as Israel since 1948. Of the territories admin-istered by the Palestinian Authority, only the Gaza Striphas a sea coast.)

3.2 Oceanography

Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in theMediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limitedas a result of the narrow connection with the AtlanticOcean. The Mediterranean is characterised and imme-diately recognised by its deep blue colour.Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoffin the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the watercirculation within the basin.[20] Evaporation is especiallyhigh in its eastern half, causing the water level to decreaseand salinity to increase eastward.[21] The salinity at 5 mdepth is 3.8%.[22]

Predominant surface currents for June

The pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinitywater from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms andbecomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the regionof the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over theStrait of Gibraltar.[23] Thus, seawater flow is eastward inthe Strait’s surface waters, and westward below; once inthe Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Inter-mediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres awayfrom its source.[24]

3.3 Coastal countries

Map of the Mediterranean Sea

The following countries have a coastline on the Mediter-ranean Sea:

• Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France,Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herze-govina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.

• Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey, Syria,Lebanon, Israel, Palestine.

• Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco,Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.

• Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.

Several other territories also border the MediterraneanSea (from west to east): The British overseas territoryof Gibraltar, the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta andMelilla and nearby islands, and the Sovereign Base Areason Cyprus

3.4 Subdivisions 5

Barcelona, the largest metropolitan area on the MediterraneanSea and also the headquarters of the Union for the Mediter-ranean.

The Acropolis of Athens with the Mediterranean Sea in the back-ground.

The ancient port of Jaffa in Israel: according to the Bible,where the character Jonah set sail before being swallowed bya whale.[25]

Major cities (municipalities) with populations larger than200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:

3.4 Subdivisions

According to the International Hydrographic Organiza-tion (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into anumber of smaller waterbodies, each with their own des-ignation (from west to east):[19]

The harbour of Alexandria, one of the largest cities on theMediterranean

Catania, Sicily, with Mount Etna in the background.

İzmir, the third metropolis of Turkey after Istanbul and Ankara.

• the Strait of Gibraltar;

• the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;

• the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and itsBalearic Islands;

• the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria(Italy);

• the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italianpeninsula and Sicily;

6 3 GEOGRAPHY

Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe (right), as seen from Gibral-tar.

• the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;

• the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia,Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania;

• the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.

3.4.1 Other seas

Amalfi viewed from the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Although not recognised by the IHO treaties, there aresome other seas whose names have been in common usefrom the ancient times, or in the present:

• the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and BalearicIslands, as a part of the Balearic Sea

• the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,

• the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,

• In the Aegean Sea,

• the Thracian Sea in its north,• the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the

Peloponnese,• the Sea of Crete north of Crete,

• the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios

• the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus

• the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediter-ranean

3.4.2 Other features

View of the Saint George Bay, and snow-capped Mount Sanninefrom the Corniche, Beirut

The Port of Marseille seen from L'Estaque

Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folk-lore and derive their names from these associations. Inaddition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are alsorecognised:

• the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon

• the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria

• the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.

• the Minet el-Beida (“White Harbour”) bay near an-cient Ugarit, Syria

• the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Oceanto the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain fromMorocco

3.5 10 largest islands by area 7

• the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of theIberian Peninsula

• the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between theIonian Sea and the Corinth Canal

• the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south ofthe Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelionpeninsula

• the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between theCorinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea

• the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, locatedin the northern Greek region of Macedonia

• the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia

• the Gulf of Lion, south of France

• the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain

• the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe ofItaly

• the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy

• the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy

• the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy

• the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy

The Adriatic Sea contains over 1200 islands and islets.

• the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy

• the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy

• the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy

• the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania

• the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel

• the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (westernLibya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)

• the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia

• the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy

• the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia andCorsica

• the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun andAdana (Turkey)

• the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shoresof Antalya (Turkey)

• the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro andsouth-eastern Croatia

• the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta

• the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo

3.5 10 largest islands by area

The two biggest islands of theMediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia(Italy)

Main article: List of islands in the Mediterranean

3.6 Climate

8 4 GEOLOGY

The climate map of the areas surrounding the Mediter-ranean Sea, according to Köppen climate classification.

3.6.1 Sea temperature

4 Geology

See also: Geology and paleoclimatology of the Mediter-ranean BasinThe geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is com-

A submarine karst spring, called vrulja, near Omiš; observedthrough several ripplings of an otherwise calm sea surface.

plex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was oncethought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient TethysOcean; it is now known to be a structurally youngerbasin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed bythe convergence of the African and Eurasian plates dur-ing the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it isa near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry cli-mate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evapora-tion and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messiniansalinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya)when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then es-sentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulatedon the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubickilometres—in some places more than three kilometresthick.[40][41]

Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3million years ago (mya) in less than two years by theZanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Oceanthrough a newly breached gateway now called the Straitof Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders ofmagnitude (one thousand times) larger than the currentdaily flow of the Amazon River.[42]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m(17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. Thecoastline extends for 46,000 km (29,000 mi). A shal-low submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the is-

land of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea intwo main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, withan area of about 850 thousand km2 (330 thousand mi2);and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 millionkm2 (640 thousand mi2). A characteristic of the coastalMediterranean are submarine karst springs or vruljas,which discharge pressurized groundwater into the coastalseawater from below the surface; the discharge water isusually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.[43][44]

4.1 Tectonics and paleoenvironmentalanalysis

Messinian salinity crisis before the Zanclean flood

Animation: Messinian salinity crisis

The Mediterranean basin and sea system was establishedby the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding withthe Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted north-ward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which hadearlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia andGondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassicperiod a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys,was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed atits western (Arabian) end. The broad line of colli-sions pushed up a very long system of mountains fromthe Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iranin an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as

4.1 Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis 9

the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger dur-ing the episodes of collisions (and associated foldingsand subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene andMiocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediter-ranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic platesin subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern partof the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subductionharbor and form the deepest and most majestic oceanicridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean.The Central Indian Ridge runs East of the MediterraneanSea South-East across the in-between of Africa and theArabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean. Neverthless,while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have gov-erned the coastlines of many various Mediterranean na-tions throughout the courses of ancient, modern, presentand foreseeable history, the Plate tectonic status of na-tions bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharingthe same geological concerns and fate.

4.1.1 Messinian salinity crisis

During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwestcorner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and north-west Africa. There the development of the intramon-tane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean andthe Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifiancorridors, they progressively closed during middle andlate Miocene times; perhaps several times.[45] During lateMiocene times the closure of the Betic Corridor triggeredthe so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" (MSC), when theMediterranean almost entirely dried out. The time of be-ginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomi-cally at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 yearsuntil about 5.3 mya;[46] seeAnimation: Messinian salinitycrisis, at right.After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there fol-lowed more episodes—the total number is debated—ofsea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of theMSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-floodedthe basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing theZanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya).Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, whichcould explain several events of large amounts of saltdeposition.[47][48] Recent studies, however, show that re-peated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from ageodynamic point of view. [49][50]

4.1.2 Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna

The present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Straitof Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via theZanclean Flood. As mentioned, two other gatewayspreceded Gibraltar: the Betic Corridor across southern

Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco.The former gateway closed about six (6) mya, causingthe Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the latter or pos-sibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortoniantimes, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6to 7.2 mya), which occurred well before the MSC andlasted much longer. Both “crises” resulted in broadconnections of the mainlands of Africa and Europe,which thereby normalized migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—betweenthe two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typi-cal extinction and replacement of mammal species in Eu-rope during Tortonian times following climatic upheavaland overland migrations of new species;[51] see Anima-tion: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations),at right.The near-completely enclosed configuration of theMediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gatewaysto dominate seawater circulation and the environmentalevolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns arealso affected by several other factors—including climate,bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation ofevaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlierin the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the MiddleMiocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during theLate Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin(during the MSC and the Messinian age). Diatomites areregularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, sug-gesting a connection between their geneses.Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is morethan the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitationand coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity ofthe Mediterranean to be much higher than that of theAtlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean wa-ters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic,causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: thatis, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediter-ranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface cur-rent of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic.Herman Sörgel’s Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920sproposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Straitof Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a largeamount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energygrid was as well intended to support a political union be-tween Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa(compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec fora later project with some parallels in the planned grid).[52]

4.1.3 Shift to a “Mediterranean climate”

The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the cli-mate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence fromthat period reveals that the larger basin had a humid sub-tropical climate with rainfall in the summer supportinglaurel forests. The shift to a “Mediterranean climate”occurred largely within the last three million years (the

10 7 ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY

late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. Thesubtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they per-sisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coastof Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterraneanvegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees andsclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxyleaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers.Much of these forests and shrublands have been alteredbeyond recognition by thousands of years of human habi-tation. There are now very few relatively intact naturalareas in what was once a heavily wooded region.

5 Paleoclimate

Because of its latitudinal position and its land-lockedconfiguration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitiveto astronomically induced climatic variations, which arewell documented in its sedimentary record. Since theMediterranean is involved in the deposition of eoliandust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas river-ine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediter-ranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have beenemployed in reconstructing astronomically calibratedtime scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth’s history, help-ing to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals.[53]

Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleocli-matic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth’sorbital variations in the past.

6 Ecology and biota

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messiniansalinity crisis,[54] the marine biota of the Mediterraneanare derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. TheNorth Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of theMediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditionsin the five million years since the basin was reflooded.The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the twoseas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlanticspecies. The Alboran Sea has the largest populationof bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean,is home to the last population of harbour porpoises inthe Mediterranean, and is the most important feedinggrounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alb-oran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, in-cluding sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monkseals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the WorldWildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread driftnet fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles,and other marine animals.See also: Specially Protected Areas of MediterraneanImportance

7 Environmental history

Parts of this section have been copied from AlfredThomas Grove#Career and work.

For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed mostparts of Mediterranean Europe, and the “humanisationof the landscape” overlapped with the appearance of thepresent Mediterranean climate.[55] The image of a sim-plistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediter-ranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was de-stroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the18th century and was for centuries fashionable in ar-chaeological and historical circles. Based on a broadvariety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysisof trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ringand further archaeometric analyses and population stud-ies, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham's work on“The Nature of Mediterranean Europe” challenges thiscommon wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a “LostEden”, a formerly fertile and forested region, that hadbeen progressively degraded and desertified by humanmismanagement.[55] The belief stems more from the fail-ure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imagi-nary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets andscientists of the early modern Enlightenment.[55]

The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and land-scape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to thepresent is much more complex and underwent variouschanges. For example, some of the deforestation had al-ready taken place before the Roman age. While in theRoman age large enterprises as the Latifundiums took ef-fective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depop-ulation effects came with the end of the empire. Someassume that the major deforestation took place in mod-ern times — the later usage patterns were also quite dif-ferent e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the cli-mate has usually been unstable and showing various an-cient and modern "Little Ice Ages",[56] and plant coveraccommodated to various extremes and became resilientwith regard to various patterns of human activity.[55]

Humanisation was therefore not the cause of climatechange but followed it.[55] The wide ecological diversitytypical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly basedon human behaviour, as it is and has been closely re-lated human usage patterns.[55] The diversity range wasenhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction ofthe longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, in-tense transport and trade relations, and the interactionwith settlements, pasture and other land use. The great-est human-induced changes, however, came after WorldWar II, respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome'[57]

as rural populations throughout the region abandoned tra-

7.2 Biodiversity 11

ditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham sug-gest that the locals left the traditional agricultural pat-terns towards taking a role as scenery-setting agents forthe then much more important (tourism) travellers. Thisresulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations.[55]

Among further current important threats to Mediter-ranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas,abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the lossof variety via the reduction of traditional agriculturaloccupations.[55]

7.1 Natural hazards

The region has a variety of geological hazards whichhave closely interacted with human activity and land usepatterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean,the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th centuryBC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothe-sise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby is-land of Crete, further leading some to believe that thismay have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantislegend.[58] Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano onthe European mainland, while others as Mount Etna andStromboli are to be found on neighbouring islands. Theregion around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean FieldsCaldera west of Naples are quite active[59] and constitutethe most densely populated volcanic region in the worldand eruptive event may occur within decades.[60]

Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to atendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.[61] It isbest known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the bury-ing and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii andHerculaneum.The large experience of member states and regional au-thorities has led to exchange on the international levelwith cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and munic-ipality authorities and private persons.[62] The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive exam-ple of natural hazards leading to improved relations oftraditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmirand Athens 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund(EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disas-ters and express European solidarity to disaster-strickenregions within all of Europe.[63] The largest amount offund requests in the EU is being directed to forest fires,followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are,whether man made or natural, an often recurring anddangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.[62] Also,tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the re-gion. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake andtsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Cal-abria and is among the most deadly natural disasters inmodern Europe.

7.2 Biodiversity

See also: List of fish of the Mediterranean Sea and Listof fish of the Black Sea

Unlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents inopen Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones;biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stableone due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currentswhich affects favourably, even the smallest macroscopictype of Volcanic Life Form. The stable Marine ecosys-tem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature pro-vides a nourishing environment for life in the deep seato flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystemexcluded from any external deep oceanic factors.

7.2.1 Invasive species

The reticulate whipray is one of the species that colonised theEastern Mediterranean through the Suez Canal as part of the on-going Lessepsian migration.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the firstsalt-water passage between the Mediterranean and RedSea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediter-ranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that poursRed Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes,which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of thecanal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into theMediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity ofthe lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea,the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and ani-mals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the EasternMediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and morenutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea specieshave advantages over Atlantic species in the salty andnutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, RedSea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not viceversa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian mi-gration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer)or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the AswanHigh Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced theinflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile

12 7 ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY

into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions thereeven more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact ofthe invasive species.Invasive species have become a major component of theMediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts onthe Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local andendemic Mediterranean species. A first look at somegroups of exotic species show that more than 70% of thenon-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exoticfishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacificorigin,[64] introduced into the Mediterranean through theSuez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway ofarrival of "alien" species into the Mediterranean. The im-pacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be con-siderable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediter-ranean, where they are replacing native species and be-coming a “familiar sight”.According to the International Union for Conservationof Nature definition, as well as Convention on Biologi-cal Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminolo-gies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are out-side their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establish-ing populations in the Mediterranean sea, compete withand begin to replace native species they are “Alien Inva-sive Species”, as they are an agent of change and a threatto the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, “in-troduction” refers to the movement by human agency, in-direct or direct, of an alien species outside of its naturalrange (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an arti-ficial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsianmigrants are therefore “introduced” species (indirect, andunintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they repre-sent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, be-cause they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years,the Egyptian government’s announcement of its inten-tions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concernsfrom marine biologists, fearing that such an act will onlyworsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediter-ranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet addi-tional species.[65]

7.2.2 Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species fromthe tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature.Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area ofthese species that now enter the Mediterranean throughthe Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of thewater caused by global warming; or an extension of themaritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intensescientific investigation, is still an open question. Whilenot as intense as the “lessepsian” movement, the processmay be scientific interest and may therefore warrant in-creased levels of monitoring.

7.3 Sea-level rise

By 2100, the overall level of the Mediterranean could risebetween 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in) as a result of theeffects of climate change.[66] This could have adverse ef-fects on populations across the Mediterranean:

• Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Ris-ing sea levels will also mean rising salt water levelsin Malta’s groundwater supply and reduce the avail-ability of drinking water.[67]

• A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile Delta, dis-placing over 500,000 Egyptians.[68]

Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sealevel rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic,the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas haveonly small and primarily east-west movement corridors,which may restrict northward displacement of organismsin these areas.[69] Sea level rise for the next century (2100)could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) andtemperature shifts of a mere 0.05-0.1 °C in the deepsea are sufficient to induce significant changes in speciesrichness and functional diversity.[70]

7.4 Pollution

Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recentyears. The United Nations Environment Programme hasestimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons)of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000 short tons) of mineraloil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t(4,200 short tons) of lead and 36,000 t (40,000 short tons)of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean eachyear.[71] The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pol-lution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improvethe marine environment in the area, thereby contributingto its sustainable development.'[72] Many marine specieshave been almost wiped out because of the sea’s pollu-tion. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal whichis considered to be among the world’s most endangeredmarine mammals.[73]

The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around thecoasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularlyhigh mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, ofwhich 94% was plastic bags.[74]

7.5 Shipping

Some of the world’s busiest shipping routes are in theMediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross

7.7 Overfishing 13

the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of theworld’s total merchant shipping. These ships often carryhazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe dam-age to the marine environment.The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastesalso represent a significant source of marine pollution.The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the globalwater surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oilpollution. It is estimated that every year between 100,000t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000 t (150,000 long tons) ofcrude oil are deliberately released into the sea from ship-ping activities.Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons)of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea(more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300oil tankers crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spillshappen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year.A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part ofthe Mediterranean.[70]

7.6 Tourism on the Azure

Antalya on the Turkish Riviera (Turquoise Coast) received morethan 11 million international tourist arrivals in 2014.

The Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the most safestand culturally diverse block basin sea region in the world,renowned formostly for the Majestic Azure color. With aunique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coast-line, rich history and various cultures the Mediterraneanregion is the most popular tourist destination in theworld—attracting approximately one third of the world’sinternational tourists.Tourism is one of the most important sources of incomefor many Mediterranean countries regardless of the man-made geopolitical conflicts that harbor coastal nations. Inthat regard, authorities around the Mediterranean havemade it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaoticzones that would affect the econnomies, societies inneighbouring coastal countries, let alone shipping routes.Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Seaare considered one of the very best due to the quick in-

tercooperation of various Naval Fleets within proximityof each other. Unlike the vast open Oceans, the closednature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much moreadaptable naval intiative amongst the coastal countries toprovide effective naval and rescue missions, consideredthe safest and regardless of any man-made or natural dis-aster.Tourism also supports small communities in coastal areasand islands by providing alternative sources of income farfrom urban centres. However, tourism has also playedmajor role in the degradation of the coastal and marineenvironment. Rapid development has been encouragedby Mediterranean governments to support the large num-bers of tourists visiting the region each year. But thishas caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such aserosion and pollution in many places along the Mediter-ranean coasts.Tourism often concentrates in areas of high naturalwealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endan-gered Mediterranean species such as sea turtles and monkseals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentivesfor tourists to visit.[70]

7.7 Overfishing

Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarminglylow. The European Environment Agency says that over65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biolog-ical limits and the United Nations Food and AgricultureOrganisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish,red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.There are clear indications that catch size and quality havedeclined, often dramatically, and in many areas larger andlonger-lived species have disappeared entirely from com-mercial catches.Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fish-eries resource for thousands of years but the stocks arenow dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published areport revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in theMediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previ-ous 20 years and government scientists warn that withoutimmediate action the stock will collapse.

7.8 Aquaculture

Aquaculture is expanding rapidly—often without properenvironmental assessment—and currently accounts for30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The in-dustry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure onwild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are car-nivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wildfish.Mediterranean coastal areas are already over exposedto human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever

14 11 REFERENCES

Aquaculture in western Greece

scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, re-quiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. Theinstallation of fish farms close to vulnerable and impor-tant habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly con-cerning.

8 Gallery• Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia

• The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères,France

• Sardinia's south coast, Italy

• Pretty Bay, Malta

• Panoramic view of Piran, Slovenia

• Panoramic view of Cavtat, Croatia

• View of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina

• A view of Sveti Stefan, Montenegro

• Ksamil beaches, Albania

• Navagio, Greece

• Marmaris, Turquoise Coast, Turkey

• Paphos, Cyprus

• Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, Syria

• A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon

• View from the city of Haifa, Israel

• Beach on the Gaza Strip, State of Palestine

• Coast of Alexandria, view From BibliothecaAlexandrina, Egypt

• Old city of Ibiza Town, Spain

• Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, Algeria

• El Jebha, a port town in Morocco

• Europa Point, Gibraltar

• Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco

9 See also

10 Notes[1] In the local languages:

• Albanian: Deti Mesdhe [ˈdɛti ˈmɛsðɛ]• Arabic: المتوسط الابيض , البحر tr. āl-Baḥr āl-ābyaḍāl-Mutawassiṭ [aːlˈbaħr aːlˈaːbjadˤ aːlmutawaˈsitˤ]

• Catalan: Mar Mediterràni(a) [ˈmaɾ məðitəˈrani(ə)]• French: Mer Méditerranée [mɛʁ me.di.te.ʁa.ne]• Modern Greek: Μεσόγειος Θάλασσα, tr.Mesógeios Thálassa [meˈsoʝos ˈθalasa]

• Hebrew: התיכון , הים tr. Hayám Hatikhón [haˈjamhatiˈkon]

• Italian: Mar Mediterraneo [ˈmar mediterˈraːneo]• Latin: Mare Nostrum, [ˈmarɛ ˈnostrũː]• Maltese: Baħar Mediterran [ˈbɐːħɐr mɛdɪˈtɛrːɐn]• Serbo-Croatian: Sredozemno more, Средоземно

море [srêdozeːmno môːre]• Slovene: Sredozemsko morje [srɛdɔˈzéːmskɔ

ˈmóːrjɛ]• Spanish: Mar Mediterráneo [ˈmar meðiteˈraneo]• Tunisian Arabic: Bħar il-wosṭani [ˈbħær ɪlˈ-

wostˤæni]• Turkish: Akdeniz [ˈakdeniz]

11 References[1] UNECE.indb

[2] Pinet, Paul R. (2008). Invitation to Oceanography. Jones& Barlett Learning. p. 220. ISBN 0-7637-5993-7.

[3] “Microsoft Word —ext_abstr_East_sea_workshop_TLM.doc” (PDF).Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[4] “Researchers predict Mediterranean Sea level rise —Headlines — Research – European Commission”. Eu-ropa. 19 March 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[5] “Mediterranean Sea”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Re-trieved 2015-10-23.

[6] entry μεσόγαιος at Liddell & Scott

[7] Özhan Öztürk claims that in Old Turkish ak also means“west” and that Akdeniz hence means “West Sea”, whileKaradeniz (Black Sea) means “North Sea”. ÖzhanÖztürk. Pontus: Antik Çağ’dan Günümüze Karadeniz’inEtnik ve Siyasi Tarihi Genesis Yayınları. Ankara. 2011.pp. 5–9.

15

[8] David Abulafia (2011). The Great Sea: A Human Historyof the Mediterranean. Oxford University Press.

[9] Rappoport, S. (Doctor of Philosophy, Basel). History ofEgypt (undated, early 20th century), Volume 12, Part B,Chapter V: “The Waterways of Egypt”, pages 248-257.London: The Grolier Society.

[10] Robert Davis (5 December 2003). Christian Slaves, Mus-lim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Bar-bary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN 9780333719664. Retrieved 17 January 2013.

[11] “British Slaves on the Barbary Coast”. Bbc.co.uk. Re-trieved 17 January 2013.

[12] C.I. Gable - Constantinople Falls to the Ottoman Turks- Boglewood Timeline - 1998 - Retrieved 3 September2011.

[13] “History of the Ottoman Empire, an Islamic Nation whereJews Lived” - Sephardic Studies and Culture - Retrieved 3September 2011.

[14] Robert Guisepi - The Ottomans: From Frontier WarriorsTo Empire Builders - 1992 - History World International- Retrieved 3 September 2011.

[15] “Migrant deaths prompt calls for EU action”. Al Jazeera— English. October 13, 2013. Retrieved 12 December2014.

[16] “Schulz: EU migrant policy 'turned Mediterranean intograveyard'". EUobserver. October 24, 2013. Retrieved12 December 2014.

[17] http://topnews.az/en/news/148766/Novruz-Mammadov-The-Mediterranean-become-a-burial-ground.html

[18] http://www.eurasia-rivista.org/loperazione-mare-nostrum/20335/

[19] “Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition” (PDF). Inter-national Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 20April 2016.

[20] Pinet, Paul R. (1996), Invitation to Oceanography (3rded.), St Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co., p. 202,ISBN 0-314-06339-0

[21] Pinet 1996, p. 206.

[22] “Temperature and salinity variations of MediterraneanSea surface waters over the last 16,000 years from recordsof planktonic stable oxygen isotopes and alkenone un-saturation ratios”. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology 158: 259–280. 2000. doi:10.1016/s0031-0182(00)00053-5.

[23] Pinet 1996, pp. 206–207.

[24] Pinet 1996, p. 207.

[25] Israel, By Sue Bryant, (New Holland Publishers, 2008),page 72

[26] Marseille Climate and Weather Averages, France

[27] Gibraltar Climate and Weather Averages

[28] Malaga Climate and Weather Averages, Costa del Sol

[29] Athens Climate and Weather Averages, Greece

[30] Barcelona Climate and Weather Averages, Spain

[31] Iraklion Climate and Weather Averages, Crete

[32] Venice Climate and Weather Averages, Venetian Riviera

[33] Valencia Climate and Weather Averages, Spain

[34] Valletta Climate and Weather Averages, Malta

[35] Alexandria Climate and Weather Averages, Egypt

[36] Naples Climate and Weather Averages, Neapolitan Riv-iera

[37] Larnaca Climate and Weather Averages, Cyprus

[38] Limassol Climate and Weather Averages, Cyprus

[39] Tel Aviv Climate and Weather Averages, Israel

[40] William Ryan (2008). “Decoding the Mediterraneansalinity crisis”. Sedimentology 56 (1): 95–136.doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01031.x.

[41] William Ryan (2008). “Modeling the magnitude and tim-ing of evaporative drawdown during the Messinian salinitycrisis” (PDF). Sedimentology 5 (3-4): 229.

[42] Garcia-Castellanos, D., Estrada, F., Jiménez-Munt, I.,Gorini, C., Fernàndez, M., Vergés, J., De Vicente, R. (10December 2009) Catastrophic flood of the Mediterraneanafter the Messinian salinity crisis, Nature 462, pp. 778–781, doi:10.1038/nature08555

[43] Elmer LaMoreaux, Philip (2001). “Geo-logic/Hydrogeologic Setting and Classification ofSprings”. Springs and Bottled Waters of the World:Ancient History, Source, Occurrence, Quality and Use.Springer. p. 57. ISBN 978-3-540-61841-6.

[44] Žumer, Jože (2004). “Odkritje podmorskih termalnihizvirov” [Discovery of submarine thermal springs] (PDF).Geografski obzornik (in Slovenian) (Association of theGeographical Societies of Slovenia) 51 (2): 11–17. ISSN0016-7274. (Slovene)

[45] de la Vara, Alba; Topper, Robin P.M.; Meijer, Paul Th.;Kouwenhoven, Tanja J. (2015). “Water exchange throughthe Betic and Rifian corridors prior to the Messinian Salin-ity Crisis: A model study”. Paleoceanography 30: 548–557. doi:10.1002/2014PA002719.

[46] W. Krijgsman, A. R. Fortuinb, F. J. Hilgenc and F.J. Sierrod (2001). "Astrochronology for the MessinianSorbas basin (SE Spain) and orbital (precessional) forcingfor evaporite cyclicity”. Sedimentary Geology 140: 43–60. Bibcode:2001SedG..140...43K. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(00)00171-8.

[47] Gargani J., Rigollet C. (2007). “MediterraneanSea level variations during the Messinian Salin-ity Crisis.”. Geophysical Research Letters 34(L10405): L10405. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410405G.doi:10.1029/2007GL029885.

16 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[48] Gargani J., Moretti I., Letouzey J. (2008). “Evaporiteaccumulation during the Messinian Salinity Crisis :The Suez Rift Case.”. Geophysical Research Let-ters 35 (2): L02401. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..35.2401G.doi:10.1029/2007gl032494.

[49] Govers, R. (2009). Choking the Mediterranean to dehy-dration: The Messinian salinity crisis Geology, 37 (2),167-170 doi:10.1130/G25141A.1 Link

[50] Garcia-Castellanos, D., A. Villaseñor, 2011. Messiniansalinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and ero-sion at the Gibraltar Arc. Nature, 2011-12-15 pdf hereLink

[51] Agusti, J; Moya-Sola, S (1990). “Mammal extinctions inthe Vallesian (Upper Miocene)". Lecture Notes in EarthSciences 30: 425–432. doi:10.1007/BFb0011163. ISSN1613-2580. (Abstract)

[52] Politische Geographien Europas: Annäherungen an einumstrittenes Konstrukt, Anke Strüver, LIT Verlag Mün-ster, 2005, p.43

[53] FJ, Hilgen. Astronomical calibration of Gauss toMatuyama sapropels in the Mediterranean and implica-tion for the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale, 104 (1991)226-244 Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1991.

[54] Hsu K.J., “When the Mediterranean Dried Up” ScientificAmerican, Vol. 227, December 1972, p32

[55] The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological His-tory, by Alfred Thomas Grove, Oliver Rackham, YaleUniversity Press, 2003, review at Yale university pressNature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History(review) Brian M. Fagan, Journal of Interdisciplinary His-tory, Volume 32, Number 3, Winter 2002, pp. 454-455|

[56] Little Ice Ages: Ancient and Modern, Jean M. Grove,Taylor & Francis, 2004

[57] Christian Pfister (Hrsg.), Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Wegin die Konsumgesellschaft, Bern 1995

[58] The wave that destroyed Atlantis Harvey Lilley, BBCNews Online, 2007-04-20. Retrieved 2007-04-21.

[59] Antonio Denti, “Super volcano”, global danger, lurks nearPompeii, Reuters, August 3, 2012.

[60] Isaia, Roberto; Paola Marianelli; Alessandro Sbrana(2009). “Caldera unrest prior to intense volcan-ism in Campi Flegrei (Italy) at 4.0 ka B.P.: Im-plications for caldera dynamics and future erup-tive scenarios”. Geophysical Research Letters 36(L21303): L21303. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3621303I.doi:10.1029/2009GL040513.

[61] McGuire, Bill (October 16, 2003). “In the shadow ofthe volcano”. guardian.co.uk (Guardian News and MediaLimited). Retrieved May 8, 2010.

[62] Eric van der Horst presentation from 2011 about variousEU EUROPEAN CIVIL PROTECTION efforts 2011

[63] EU Solidarity Fund Website 2003 proposal of EUR 47.6million for Italian regions hit by natural disasters

[64] “IUCN Guidelines for the Prevention of Biodiversity LossCaused by Alien Invasive Species” (PDF). InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature. 2000. Archived fromthe original (PDF) on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 11 Au-gust 2009.

[65] Galil, B.S. and Zenetos, A. (2002). A sea change: exoticsin the eastern Mediterranean Sea, in: Leppäkoski, E. et al.(2002). Invasive aquatic species of Europe: distribution,impacts and management. pp. 325-336.

[66] “Mediterranean Sea Level Could Rise By Over Two Feet,Global Models Predict”. Science Daily. 3 March 2009.

[67] “Briny future for vulnerable Malta”. BBC News. 4 April2007.

[68] “Egypt fertile Nile Delta falls prey to climate change”. 28January 2010.

[69] Nicholls, R.J.; Klein,R.J.T. (2005). Climate change andcoastal management on Europe’s coast, in: Vermaat, J.E.et al. (Ed.) (2005). Managing European coasts: past,present and future. pp. 199-226.

[70] “Other threats in the Mediterranean | Greenpeace Inter-national”. Greenpeace. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[71] “Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. Environmental is-sues”. Explorecrete.com. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[72] “EUROPA”. Europa. Retrieved 23 April 2010.

[73] “Mediterranean Monk Seal Fact Files: Overview”.Monachus-guardian.org. 5 May 1978. Retrieved 23 April2010.

[74] publications/docs/anl_oview.pdf “Marine Litter: An ana-lytical overview” Check |url= value (help) (PDF). UnitedNations Environment Programme. 2005. Retrieved 1 Au-gust 2008.

12 External links• Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images

of Foraminifera

17

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Mediterranean Sea Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea?oldid=718161870 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, Bryan

Derksen, Tarquin, Jeronimo, Css, Eob, Rizniz, Youssefsan, Christian List, Enchanter, Karen Johnson, William Avery, SimonP, Peter-lin~enwiki, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Panairjdde~enwiki, Perique des Palottes, Camembert, Olivier, Stevertigo, Nealmcb, Patrick, Ezra Wax,Liftarn, Menchi, Ixfd64, IZAK, Delirium, Dori, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Pjamescowie, Docu, Theresa knott, Aarchiba, Александър,Bogdangiusca, Michael Shields, Andres, Raven in Orbit, Hike395, Uriber, Crusadeonilliteracy, EL Willy, Zenzee, Vancouverguy, Pere-grine981, Tpbradbury, Thue, Shizhao, Joy, Dcsohl, Wetman, Adam Carr, Pollinator, Cncs wikipedia, Jeffq, Carlossuarez46, Donar-reiskoffer, Robbot, Jredmond, Donreed, Fifelfoo, Naddy, Mirv, Babbage, Postdlf, Auric, Bkell, Hadal, Saforrest, Dmn, Enochlau, An-cheta Wis, DocWatson42, Wolfkeeper, MathKnight, Tom Radulovich, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Mboverload, Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Gol-bez, Neilc, Fishal, Gadfium, Gdr, Knutux, Slowking Man, ClockworkLunch, OwenBlacker, Maximaximax, Al-Andalus, RetiredUser2,Cornischong, Parakalo~enwiki, Neutrality, Okapi~enwiki, Joyous!, AmRadioHed, Demiurge, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Thorwald,N-k, Mike Rosoft, D6, Duja, Heryu~enwiki, DanielCD, ZeroFuzion, EugeneZelenko, A-giau, Moverton, Discospinster, Vsmith, Jpk, Flo-rian Blaschke, HeikoEvermann, Xezbeth, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, JoeSmack, CanisRufus, JustPhil, El C, Mul-der1982, Bletch, Hayabusa future, Aude, Deanos, Etz Haim, Markussep, Drhex, Adambro, RTucker, Peter Greenwell, Bobo192, Chtito,Smalljim, SpeedyGonsales, Yuje, Man vyi, Nk, Rje, Pperos, Polylerus, QuantumEleven, Supersexyspacemonkey, Jumbuck, Storm Rider,Stephen G. Brown, Grutness, Alansohn, Gary, Varana, Anthony Appleyard, Eric Kvaalen, Bathrobe, Ronline, TintininLisbon, Kurieeto,Mysdaao, Malo, Snowolf, BanyanTree, Garzo, LFaraone, Reaverdrop, Itsmine, Redvers, Dan East, Oleg Alexandrov, TShilo12, Stemoni-tis, Bobrayner, Roylee, Planders, Thryduulf, Angr, Woohookitty, Grylliade, Percy Snoodle, Ratzer, Tbc2, NormanEinstein, Bluemoose,MarcoTolo, Karam.Anthony.K, Dysepsion, AlgebraicSpore, Graham87, TAKASUGI Shinji, BD2412, Csnewton, Kane5187, Ketiltrout,Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Brighat, BlueMoonlet, Suirotra, Gramaic, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, Ber06122, Brighterorange,Yuber, FayssalF, Eskinat~enwiki, FlaBot, RexNL, Gurch, Xollob, BradBeattie, Vneiomazza, Idaltu, Chobot, DVdm, Gwernol, YurikBot,Wavelength, Ashleyisachild, Hairy Dude, Gavrilis, Kordas, RussBot, Anonymous editor, Ivirivi00, Pigman, Eupator, SpuriousQ, Chaser,Jcmolly, Yamara, Pepijn Koster, Bill52270, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar, Macukali, Absolutadam802, Odysses, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki,Snek01, GenestealerUK, Phil Bastian, Dijxtra, Rjensen, CPColin, Moe Epsilon, Lockesdonkey, Bota47, Black Falcon, Knolls, Wknight94,Kmusser, FF2010, Zzuuzz, Sotakeit, NYArtsnWords, CWenger, Fram, Daniel575, Fourohfour, Che829, Kungfuadam, Mmcannis, Grin-Bot~enwiki, That Guy, From That Show!, Marquez~enwiki, robot, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Veinor, Amalthea, SmackBot, Silvestre,Astavrou, David Kernow, Mr Smiley, Wkolbe~enwiki, Pfly, M dorothy, FloNight, Hydrogen Iodide, C.Fred, Momirt, KocjoBot~enwiki,Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Pennywisdom2099, Eskimbot, Cla68, Frymaster, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Alsandro, Francisco Valverde, Ist-vanWolf, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Angelbo, IanDavies, Orges, Valley2city, Teemu Ruskeepää, Christhe speller, Jamie C, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, MK8, MalafayaBot, Deli nk, Akanemoto, Bazonka, DHN-bot~enwiki, Juka~enwiki,Colonies Chris, Mediterano, Xeryus, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Metallurgist, Cplakidas, Nixeagle, Snowmanradio, MJCdetroit, High-Priest15, Mimmo46, Ww2censor, Backspace, Addshore, Francisx, Pax85, SundarBot, Khoikhoi, Djzare, Wapp~enwiki, Decltype, Nakon,Valenciano, Dreadstar, Paul H., KRBN, Wuzzy, DMacks, Politis, Mooo, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Fireswordfight, Etams, KongminRegent,Drmaik, Kurvanas, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Ekm02001, Robomaeyhem, J 1982, Kizildere~enwiki, Scottmilligan, Costa1143, Mgigan-teus1, Lawrenceyuen, Jb88gogg, Ckatz, Absar, Cserlajos, Slakr, Tasc, British TV, Dbo789, Optakeover, Waggers, Geologyguy, Dr.K.,Jvlm.123, Andrwsc, Jose77, NeroN BG, Hectorian, Pere Serafi, Autonova, Themadgolfer, General Eisenhower, Shoeofdeath, Haus, Igold-ste, Blehfu, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, RaviC, JForget, Causantin, Lavateraguy, Van helsing, Umedard, MiShogun, Dgw, Nebi, Delaraha,WHATaintNOcountryIeverHEARDofDOtheySPEAKenglishINwhat, WeggeBot, ONUnicorn, Miguel303xm~enwiki, Shanoman, Kupir-ijo, Ketamino, Ubiq, Future Perfect at Sunrise, George Al-Shami, Kilhan, JFreeman, Corpx, Jayen466, Jntg4, Pascal.Tesson, Eu.stefan,DumbBOT, FDV, BhaiSaab, Dleisawitz, Eboracum, Robin Hood 1212, Dyanega, Nol888, Crum375, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Lord Hawk,Cocoma, Kablammo, N5iln, Sting, Marek69, Missvain, Picus viridis, RaNdOm26, Silver Edge, RoboServien, Escarbot, Mentifisto, An-tiVandalBot, Gioto, Luna Santin, Docpi, Hahahihihoho, Mountolive, Kristoferb, Jack69, RedCoat10, B7582, A.L., Amarkov, Ingolfson,Res2216firestar, Kcowolf, Sluzzelin, DOSGuy, Mikenorton, JAnDbot, Mazito, MER-C, Avaya1, Mcorazao, Arch dude, Cjkporter, Billthe Duck, .anacondabot, Acroterion, Valery Kulaga, Magioladitis, Ramirez72, WolfmanSF, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, Deanb,Dekimasu, Fusionmix, Fordsfords, Egemens, CTF83!, SovietCanuck, Virinikimiki, The Anomebot2, Animum, DerHexer, GregU, Lenti-cel, Textorus, Kayau, NatureA16, Gjd001, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Linaduliban, Jatterb, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Anaxial, Gidip, JayLitman, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Lilac Soul, EdBever, J.delanoy, Taki223, Trusilver, DandyDan2007, Sideshow Bob,Hans Dunkelberg, Cyanolinguophile, Doughmuffins, Yonidebot, Athaenara, Dave Dial, SU Linguist, Darth Mike, GeoWriter, Acalamari,Maurice27, DuncanPed, Katalaveno, Yosraebeidy, DarkFalls, McSly, Nemo bis, Psychlopaedist, AntiSpamBot, Colchicum, NewEng-landYankee, SJP, Beivushtang, Brian Pearson, 2help, KylieTastic, Jamesontai, SchwarzKatze, Useight, Gibmetal77, Idioma-bot, Pietru,Funandtrvl, Sam Blacketer, VolkovBot, Macedonian, Indubitably, Brando130, JoeDeRose, AlnoktaBOT, MEDIO, Bovineboy2008, PhilipTrueman, TXiKiBoT, Mitsver, Jalwikip, Maximillion Pegasus, Malinaccier, By ram~enwiki, Technopat, Nomenphile, Qxz, Someguy1221,Lradrama, Rennyhart, Corvus cornix, JhsBot, Bentley4, Diimplezz, Waycool27, Saturn star, Gilisa, Deanjens, Imbris, Doug, Andy Dingley,Dirkbb, Wikigregor~enwiki, Synthebot, Cnilep, Purplefire, The Devil’s Advocate, Mente et malleo, HiDrNick, Symane, RavenRasputin,Ha4iu5hj, EmxBot, IrishAbroad, HybridBoy, Shelblake, SieBot, Nubiatech, Sahilm, Scarian, Romanzer, Somethingvacant, Dawn Bard,Flavius Belisarius, Lucasbfrbot, Mothmolevna, Grundle2600, Til Eulenspiegel, Edmundbaird, Keilana, Akdenizg~enwiki, Oxymoron83,Lightmouse, Techman224, BenoniBot~enwiki, Kudret abi, Anicic, Vice regent, Jacob.jose, Sean.hoyland, Paulinho28, Piazzi, Dotdotlar,Denisarona, Amazonien, ImageRemovalBot, Athenean, WikipedianMarlith, Martarius, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, Snigbrook,The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, EoGuy, Eposse, Eomermirimon, Arakunem, Abemartin87, Potes, CounterVandalismBot,Niceguyedc, Babelmed, ChandlerMapBot, Micaburn, Fastabbas, DragonBot, Takeaway, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Ibizastorm, Artreve,Eeekster, Sun Creator, Jotterbot, LOLOLOLguy, SchreiberBike, Trud the Borg, BOTarate, Stepheng3, Thingg, Ungunga, Crnorizec, JD-PhD, Versus22, Lambtron, Yozer1, HeeferFan, Alnitak1971, Historikos, Fastily, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Pichpich, BodhisattvaBot,Mhese, Bobcats 23, Blackfoxrunning, Marcbel, Saintmesmin, Jbeans, WikiDao, ZooFari, PAM - PI, Djhguhuguiofighr, Harjk, Santasa99,Passportguy, Luwilt, Mortense, Shephia, Some jerk on the Internet, Zozo2kx, Causteau, JJ606, Aussieturk79, Magus732, Enea95, Art-sandcraftsaremyfriends, Elmondo21st, Njaelkies Lea, Nivek590, Kman543210, Vishnava, NjardarBot, Cst17, Indaco1, MrOllie, Prox-ima Centauri, LaaknorBot, Glane23, BinAl-Turki, Favonian, Selma Kaufmann, Kyle1278, West.andrew.g, Sweetxpea101, Numbo3-bot,Ehrenkater, DubaiTerminator, LarryJeff, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Anxietycello, ,ماني Teles, Zorrobot, MuZemike, Jarble, HerculeBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Berkay0652, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Nbuddoff, MCintern, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Hung pluto2003,Tadlouni, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, Sagaci, Killiondude, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, BobKilcoyne, Kingpin13, NickK,Stroganoff, Bosonic dressing, Bluerasberry, Haya1993, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Sal73x, RobertEves92, Melih Yavuz, Theb2b,

18 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

MauritsBot, Xqbot, Zad68, TinucherianBot II, Neswtuop, Thijhgf, Necirsad, Timir2, Gwaz, Vicloic, Gensanders, Jmundo, Anna Frode-siak, Mserena88, Ani medjool, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Nayvik, BaboonOfTheYard, Luanda e benfica, RibotBOT, Chris.urs-o, Gtg827x,Mttll, Nedim Ardoğa, BigBossBlues, Brutaldeluxe, Shadowjams, Plot Spoiler, Captain-n00dle, FrescoBot, Originalwana, Tobby72, Bu-goslav, Ascended Wraith, Martinezste, BiHVolim, Grandiose, Galmicmi, Dpbf, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, TU-nor, HRoestBot,Getoar TX, Supreme Deliciousness, AmphBot, OscarKosy, Ongar the World-Weary, 2ko, Philly boy92, Acsteitz, Camoka4, PourquoiCherie, FoxBot, TobeBot, Beaukarpo, Fama Clamosa, BilboBaggans, Ollios, Mishae, Tushar858, Merlinsorca, Diannaa, Suffusion ofYellow, Tbhotch, Nuvolet, Minimac, Hazerbey, HermaniscusVII, Onel5969, TjBot, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, Ptolion, Jimtaip, Avatar-ion, Assaf050, J36miles, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Rspits, الأصيل ,المصري Earrings2max, Racerx11, Sp33dyphil,Klbrain, Rabbabodrool, Alexyflemming, Dcirovic, K6ka, ZéroBot, Baetulonense, Ekarfi13, Subtropical-man, Kiwi128, H3llBot, Brand-meister, KazekageTR, Sprinter77, Tot12, ChuispastonBot, Divanino, NTox, TYelliot, Jerycrimes, ClueBot NG, Ykvach, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Atgn148, Teomatra, Mllturro, Siswick, Twest2665, Satellizer, ProudJewNo1, Seven97, Jbhunley, Matt908, Kickom, SilentResident,Frietjes, Cntras, Braincricket, Hurunui99, Bobbyhank1, Mr. Triceratops, Ashleybird56, AshleyBird11, Anupmehra, Carter5600, NorthAtlanticist Usonian, Mightymights, Helpful Pixie Bot, Richdesign, Gob Lofa, Tot-futbol, BG19bot, Hashem sfarim, Northamerica1000, Al-Zoro, PhnomPencil, Kevkevinjb, MusikAnimal, WikiDusk5771, AvocatoBot, Dan653, A.K.Khalifeh, Kevinalbania, Blog...Blog, Jeancey,Nita101, Aggarank, Msuave123, Bigtuurd12345789qwerty, Friends147, Maurice Flesier, Caypartisbot, Thomas Westermann, Lockey007,Ashleyx123, BattyBot, Scully4946, Courthistorian, Lucaluca1, Cyberbot II, Ssscienccce, E4024, SantoshBot, Moro 2088, Webclient101,CuriousMind01, Frosty, Evanbango03, Codex1985, Latristelagrima, Rakinghabitslenders, Editedite, Hulutvs, Suryalegend089, I am One ofMany, Howicus, Live2fix, ,איתן Lfdder, Christian Ferrer, EvergreenFir, Sir II. Unknown, Polentarion, Shalibobo, Ugog Nizdast, Aleks-ger,Hwasus, Eli948, Hansmuller, Brickbreaker64, Poligres, Kind Tennis Fan, XdoomdragonX, Sprayitchyo, Thecheeseman696969, Barjimoa,Romrom3, OJOM, Mr. Smart LION, ScienceAuthority, Monkbot, Guyc1999, Bolter21, Walid128, Peter238, 3primetime3, David AdamKess, Asum991, ArordineriiiUkhtt, Danielll87, Lupinnoble90, Shankarsivarajan, Denizyilmaz, Gr00000ve, Denizyildirim, Kirinne, MatieuSokolovic, SamWilson989, Chutito, Julia carrillo, Rickyjoeybu, BlueFenixReborn, EChastain, Sarr Cat, O H 237, Bisotun, Tounsimen-tounes, KasparBot, Abduallah shaweeir, Hhplactube, Charles090yeah5, Joujou1999, IvanScrooge98, CheshireCat95, Filpro, Kleinebeesjes,Melekimos, Mamayuco, UnidentifiedHuman721, Farooq123abc and Anonymous: 1129

13.2 Images• File:Alexandria_harbour_(February_2007).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Alexandria_harbour_

%28February_2007%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/cheesy42/464147246/ Original artist:cheesy42

• File:Amalfi2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Amalfi2.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:Transferred from lb.wikipedia Original artist: Ernmuhl at lb.wikipedia

• File:AntikeGriechen1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/AntikeGriechen1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Aquaculture_Western_Greece_2004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Aquaculture_Western_Greece_2004.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AlMare

• File:Attica_06-13_Athens_36_View_from_Lycabettus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Attica_06-13_Athens_36_View_from_Lycabettus.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: A.Savin (WikimediaCommons ·WikiPhotoSpace)

• File:Barcelona_skyline.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Barcelona_skyline.jpg License: CC BY-SA2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Phot.Barcelona.Sky.Line.Torre.Agbar.101020.7690 Original artist: frank müller

• File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Maritime Museum (BHC0261) Original artist: Unknown<ahref='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Beirut-Sannine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Beirut-Sannine.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: Own work by the original uploader Original artist: BlingBling10 at English Wikipedia

• File:Bucht_&_Straße_von_Gibraltar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Bucht_%26_Stra%C3%9Fe_von_Gibraltar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Andreas Meck

• File:Catania-etna.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Catania-etna.JPG License: GFDL Contributors:Own work Original artist: Dror Feitelson

• File:Coast_of_Tel_Aviv-Yaffo.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Coast_of_Tel_Aviv-Yaffo.JPGLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Miriam Sommer Original artist: Miriam Sommer

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Crisis_salina_del_Messiniense.ogv License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Federica Brigida

• File:De_Engels-Nederlandse_vloot_in_de_Baai_van_Algiers_ter_ondersteuning_van_het_ultimatum_tot_vrijlating_van_blanke_slaven,_26_augustus_1816._Rijksmuseum_SK-A-1377.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/De_Engels-Nederlandse_vloot_in_de_Baai_van_Algiers_ter_ondersteuning_van_het_ultimatum_tot_vrijlating_van_blanke_slaven%2C_26_augustus_1816._Rijksmuseum_SK-A-1377.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/collectie/SK-A-1377 Original artist: Nicolaas Baur

• File:EFS_highres_STS034_STS034-86-96.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/EFS_highres_STS034_STS034-86-96.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA (deep-link ?) Original artist: NASA/exploitcorporations

13.2 Images 19

• File:Etapa3muda.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Etapa3muda.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib-utors: Own work Original artist: Paubahi

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Gallipoli_peninsula_from_space.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Gallipoli_peninsula_from_space.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Gallipoli peninsula from space.png Original artist: NASA

• File:Himantura_uarnak_egypt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Himantura_uarnak_egypt.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Coachwhip ray - closer look Original artist: Aurimas Mikalauskas from Paliūniškis, Lithuania

• File:Koppen_World_Map_(Mediterranean_Sea_area_only).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Koppen_World_Map_%28Mediterranean_Sea_area_only%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: File:Koppen World Map.pngOriginal artist: user:Br-Sc-94, user:MPF, user:Maphobbyist

• File:LocationAfrica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/LocationAfrica.png License: Public domainContributors: map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: see above

• File:LocationAsia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/LocationAsia.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Image:LocationAsia.png Original artist: Kudo-kun

• File:LocationEurope.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/LocationEurope.png License: Public domainContributors: own work - map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: user:Cumhur

• File:LocationNorthAmerica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/LocationNorthAmerica.png License:Public domain Contributors: own work - map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: Dado

• File:LocationOceania.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/LocationOceania.png License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:LocationOceans.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/LocationOceans.png License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:LocationPolarRegions.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/LocationPolarRegions.png License:Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:LocationSouthAmerica.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/LocationSouthAmerica.png License:Public domain Contributors: map adapted from PDF world map at CIA World Fact Book Original artist: Central Intelligence Agency,Maximaximax, Ghalas, Huhsunqu, E Pluribus Anthony, Cogito ergo sumo, and Snoopen82 (via Image:LocationSouthAmerica2.png per thisrequest)

• File:MEDCURR.GIF Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/MEDCURR.GIF License: CC BY 2.5 Contribu-tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Transfer was stated to be made by User:Mushii. Original artist: Valery Kulaga at EnglishWikipedia

• File:Mediterranean_Relief.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Mediterranean_Relief.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Panorama_Lumbarde_i_Škoja1150954.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Panorama_Lumbarde_i_%C5%A0koja1150954.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Quahadi' title='User:Quahadi'>Quahadi</a> <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Quahadi'title='User talk:Quahadi'>Añtó</a> 08:04, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

• File:Port_Autonome_de_Marseille.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Port_Autonome_de_Marseille.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Vincent

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:STS059-238-074_Strait_of_Gibraltar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/STS059-238-074_Strait_of_Gibraltar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/luceneweb/caption_direct.jsp?photoId=STS059-238-074https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/9364207155/ Original artist: NASA

• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil

• File:Symbol_template_class.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5c/Symbol_template_class.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Tunisia_-_Sicily_-_South_Italy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Tunisia_-_Sicily_-_South_Italy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA website Original artist: NASA, cropped by DrFO.Jr.Tn

• File:Turkey-2459_(2216286345).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Turkey-2459_%282216286345%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Turkey-2459 Original artist: Dennis Jarvis from Halifax, Canada

• File:View_of_Konaj_Square.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/View_of_Konaj_Square.jpg License:Attribution Contributors: Originally uploaded to www.wowturkey.com. Self-work of a wowturkey user Original artist: Faik Sarıkaya

• File:Vrulja_kod_Omiša.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Vrulja_kod_Omi%C5%A1a.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ante Perkovic

• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

20 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded bySimon.

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

• File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky

• File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw

• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs),based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

13.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0