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2008 2008 7: 309 originally published online 28 JulyHuman Resource Development Review

Lila Lenoria Carden and Toby Marshall EganHuman Resource Development and Project Management: Key Connections

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AUTHORS NOTE: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lila LenoriaCarden, Assistant Professor, Management, College of Business and Economics, Houston BaptistUniversity, 7502 Fondren Road, Houston, TX 77074-3298; e-mail: [email protected].

Human Resource Development Review Vol. 7, No. 3 September 2008 309-338DOI: 10.1177/1534484308320577 2008 SAGE Publications

Human Resource Developmentand Project Management: KeyConnectionsLILA LENORIA CARDEN

Houston Baptist University

TOBY MARSHALL EGANTexas A&M University

As human resource development (HRD) efforts increase in scope, complex-ity and link to increasing numbers of key stakeholders, so do demands for careful and systematic execution of HRD implementation. Use of project management strategies and tools is an emerging solution for HRD imple-mentation. Using a systematic literature search, intersections between pro-

ject management and HRD literature are outlined. Key findings are

presented for both articles that explore project management and HRD-related issues explicitly as well as emerging HRD literature that may haveimport for HRD-related concerns. A summative figure, conceptual frame-work, propositions for HRD project management, and implications for research, theory, and practice are discussed.

Keywords: project management; management; human resource development

For as long as humans have been undertaking complex tasks, project-oriented

approaches toward getting work done have been central to individual and col-lective success. Historical accounts regarding the origins of human resourcedevelopment (HRD) often involve recounting of apprenticeship relationships,craft guilds, and networks of franchises whereby skilled individuals couldmanage projects that coordinated the production of goods important for thebasic functioning of societies and (later on) industries (Werner & DeSimone,2006). Such project-related practices date back hundreds, if not thousands of years. These accounts, along with more narrow perspectives regarding the U.S.

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and European education for work efforts beginning in the mid-1800s, are asso-ciated with industrialization and modernization, which strongly influenced themanner in which work was completed. Other accounts have emphasizedthe U.S. Training Within Industry Project (Dooley, 1945) in which the nameof the massive undertaking to train the World War II era industrial workforceitself emphasized HRD-related efforts as projects. More recently, several HRDscholars highlighted the importance of project management for HRD.

Whether developing a system-wide strategic plan, enacting an organizationdevelopment (OD) intervention, producing a new training curriculum, or sup-porting individual on-the-job learning, HRD activities are most often orga-nized into projects. Project work has become an increasingly prevalent inorganizations worldwide and is an important consideration for organizationalsuccess (Packendorff, 1995). Project management has become an essentialorganizational competency (Fuller, 1997). As project management research,methodology, and theory development have increased so has organizationaland individual investment in project management knowledge and personnel(Kerzner, 2001).

Although HRD project management connections are implicit in HRD prac-tice and practice literature, and project management has been included in uni-versity HRD curricula, research and theory linking project management andHRD is limited. HRD approaches and processes have been examined in termsof implementation of necessary steps to achieve a HRD-related outcome, butthe management of the HRD process itself has been rarely explored. We havespent a lot of time talking about how to conceptualize and implement OD,training and career development (CD), but little time examining the manage-ment of implementation or the impact of efficient or inefficient execution of HRD interventions themselves on desired outcomes. Although project man-agement is a field with its own professional associations, journals, interna-tional certification programs, and increasing number of professionals, thedirect examination of the important intersection between HRD and projectmanagement has been uncommon. Contrary to the limited accessibility of related literature, anecdotal evidence from HRD practice and support fromHRD scholars (Fuller, 1997; Gilley, Eggland, & Gilley, 2002; Henderson,2005; Krempl & Pace, 2001; McLagan, 1989; McLean, 2006) suggest investi-gation of project management in HRD to be of importance for HRD imple-mentation, learning, and performance.

Problem Statement

This examination of HRD-project management connections emphasizes twocontextsliterature exploring HRD-related areas with explicit connections toproject management and an emerging nontraditional project management liter-ature that has implications for HRD-project management. While practiceadvanced well ahead of theory during the early to mid-1900s, the general project

310 Human Resource Development Review / September 2008



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management literature has also steadily progressed during the past few decades.As the importance of project management has emerged, key terms such as learn-ing, participation, renewal, and innovation have become associated with the pro-

ject management practices (Packendorff, 1995). Despite the importance of project management for HRD success having been frequently highlighted (Fuller,1997; Gilley et al., 2002; Henderson, 2005; Krempl & Pace, 2001; McLagan,1989; McLean, 2006), there have been few theoretical or empirical investigationsconducted, examining the impact of effective project management for HRD.Although project management has been proposed to support HRD practitionersand organizations, the absence of research and theory associated with projectmanagementHRD connections means that we have little understanding regard-ing project management practices in HRD contexts. This lack of research leavesopen questions as to how project management is and can be approached in HRDcontexts, the types of systematic approaches to project management that are actu-ally used in HRD implementation, and what approaches are effective or ineffec-tive.

Different from many other understudied HRD-related areas, there is anestablished project management literature outside of the scope of HRD that,similar to HRD literature overall, has been steadily growing and making con-tributions to theory, research, and practice. This literature has formed toimprove understanding regarding project management outcomes andprocesses (Jugdev & Mller, 2005). However, until recently, project manage-ment literature focused almost exclusively on traditional project managementcontexts (construction, engineering, manufacturing, utilities, and informationtechnology; Kloppenborg & Opfer, 2002). Although some theoretical perspec-tives may overlap, the specific nature of literature in these traditional areas of project management makes transfer to HRD contexts difficult in most cases.Within recent years, as it became clear that a variety of industries beyond theaforementioned traditional areas were benefiting from project managementapproaches, project management literature has begun to expand into a wideassortment of contexts, including HRD-related areas. Because of the newnessof this expansion, the literature in any one nontraditional area associated withHRD or other industries and contexts is relatively thin. However, understand-ing the foci and directions of these emerging studies, including those beyondspecific HRD emphases, will be beneficial to early efforts to frame theory andresearch with HRDproject management connections (Kloppenborg & Opfer,2002). Thus, despite established practical implications, little energy has beendedicated to HRDproject management connections by HRD scholars, and noefforts to frame future theory building have been published.

Purpose and Central Questions

Based upon the both practical and scholarly significance of project manage-ment and HRD intersections. We formulated two central purposes for our

Carden, Egan / HRD PROJECT MANAGEMENT 311



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investigation. First, we wanted to better understand the landscape of literaturethat overtly examined HRD-project management connections. Project manage-ment has been identified as important to HRD in textbooks, is featured particu-larly in OD and training and development, and is included in core or supportcoursework in several HRD graduate and undergraduate curricula, but projectmanagement HRD intersections are not frequently elaborated in the context of scholarly inquiry. Second, because the project management field has begun toexplore emerging areas and programs beyond the relatively narrow project man-agement literature that has, historically, focused on traditional areas such asengineering and construction (Kerzner, 2001), we were interested in how emerg-ing project management research and scholarship, beyond the limited literaturerelated to project managementHRD connections, had developed in recent yearsand the potential associations with HRD-related interests. Our specific questionswere: (a) what scholarly literature integrating project management and HRDexists currently? (b) what is contained in the current scholarly literature focusedon emerging (or nontraditional) project management topics? (c) what are thethemes that surface from the overall literature identified in #1 and #2 above? and(d) what are the implications of the current state of the identified literature forHRD and for future project managementHRD research?

MethodTo enact the purpose identified, we conducted two systematic reviews of

literature. The first search of literature involving connections between HRDand project management and a second search for emerging project manage-ment literature (defined in the following sections). Articles identified in thesearch of HRD-related journals were selected based on their connections toOD, training and development, CD, HRD, or related areas.

Search for Articles Focusing on ProjectManagement and HRD Connections

Based on our purpose and focus questions, we reviewed refereed journalarticles only. The literature identification process for selection of articles thatfocused on HRD and project management included a subject/keyword searchfor project management in 29 HRD-related journals in August 2006. The firstsearch involved only those works published by Dooley (2002) and Sleezer andSleezer (1998).

Search for Nontraditional Project Management Literature

The second literature identification process included a keyword search forproject management (a) in Emerald database during February 2005 returning




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304 articles, (b) International Journal of Project in EBSCO database on October2005 returning 277 articles, (c) Project Management Journal in EBSCO data-base returning 240 articles, (d) Project Management Journal in EBSCO inMarch 2006 returning 24 articles, (e) International Journal of Project

Management in March, 2006 returning 14 articles, and (f) Emerald database inMarch 2006 returning 21 articles. The 880 articles were distilled further basedon the following four criteria (a) date range from 1968 to 2004; (b) scholarlypublications defined as articles with seven or more pages, more than four schol-arly references, and blind reviewed; and (c) data related to nontraditional con-texts that (with support from Kloppenborg & Opfer, 2002) were defined asresearch in industries other than engineering, electrical, utility, manufacturing,and construction. The total number of journal articles identified from the 37 total

journals (listed in Table 1) from both searches outlined above was 103.In addition, following thematic analysis of article topics, the remaining arti-

cles were categorized (a) as theory if a theory was identified as a focus or sup-port in the framing of the article; (b) as a model if a model, cycle, or processwas emphasized in the article; (c) as tools if any word such as tool, technique,software, schedule, financial, technology, network , or resource , was high-lighted in the article; and (d) as research if data in the article were collectedfrom participants to the research/study. Summaries of literature identified inboth searches discussed above are below. Themes and summaries from thesearch identified above (project management and HRD) are followed by a dis-cussion of the emerging project management literature.

Project Management Overview

According to Packendorff (1995), a project can be defined as a given,plannable and unique task, limited in time, complex in its implementation andsubject to evaluation (p. 320). Project management was originally focused in con-struction and engineering industries and has expanded, over time, to other indus-tries and contexts (Betts & Lansley, 1995). The utilization of project managementhas grown into academic, industrial, service, and professional contexts. Based onanalysis of articles outlining historical perspectives of project management,we developed four key periods in the general history of project managementemergence, refinement, human resource, and performance. In addition, anoverview regarding HRDproject management connections is discussed.

During the emergence period of the early 1900s, project management wasestablished as an orderly work-related framework and was provided as a tacticaland strategic approach to chart and implement projects. In 1910, Henry L. Ganttestablished the Gantt chart and two decades later, Karol Adamiecki formed thenetwork-based harmonogram (Packendorff, 1995). According to Packendorff,project management moved to a stage of refinement in the mid-1900s. Duringthe 1950s, project management became more theoretically and mathematicallyoriented, adding refined algorithms and project-planning techniques. Program




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evaluation and review techniques (PERT) and critical path methods (CPM) andother techniques were presented, utilized broadly and, in some cases, the toolsor approaches themselves were closely researched or evaluated (Pinto, 1998).

During the 1960s, project management scholarship grew and transformed tohuman resource period . This period emphasized project management effective-ness at the individual, team, and organizational levels (Packendorff, 1995). The


TABLE 1: Journals Featuring Project Management Articles

Academy of Management Journal

Academy of Management Review BenchmarkingCollege and Univ. Personnel Assoc. Journal

European Journal of Operational ResearchGroup and Organization Studies

Human Relations Human Resource Development Quarterly Industrial Management & Data Systems International Journal of Project Management International Journal of Public Administration

International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management International Journal of Technology Management Journal of Applied Behavioral Science Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Enterprise Information Management Journal of European Industrial Training Journal of Industrial Teacher Education Journal of Knowledge Management Journal of Management Development Journal or Organizational Behavior

Journal for Vocational and Teacher Education Journal of Workplace Learning Logistics Information Management Management Decision Management Education and Development New Directions for Adult and Continuing EducationOrganization Development JournalPerformance Improvement QuarterlyPersonnel PsychologyPersonnel ReviewProject Management JournalPublic Administration QuarterlyPublic Personnel Management

R&D Management Team Performance Management The Learning Organization



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human resource period emphasized resources and managerial concerns in thecontext of organizational projects. The human resource aspects of project man-agement emphasized during this period included: (a) resource allocation(Archibald, 1976; Butler, 1973; Kerzner, 2001; Wilemon & Ciero, 1970); (b)project team issues (Butler, 1973; Hodgetts, 1968); (c) project manager compe-tencies (Casey, 1978; Gullett, 1972; Kerzner, 2001); and (d) project managementalignment of human resources, authority, and leadership (Baker, Murphy, &Fisher, 1983; Butler, 1973; Gullett, 1972; Hodgetts, 1968).

The performance period is an emphasis for project management today.During 1990s, project management success and failures were focused upon inthe literature. Key emphases were project quality, timeliness, and budgeting.Performance and resource-based publications identified include: (a) organiza-tional structures and project performance (PMI Global Standard, 2004;Shenhar, 2001), (b) alignment and synergy across business units and seniormanagement (Cash & Fox, 1992; Jiang, Klein, & Means, 2000), (c) project-related negotiation and communication (Archibald, 1992; Fabi & Pettersen,1992; Zimmer & Yasin, 1998); and (d) project leadership competencies.

More recent years of project management have involved a focus on theincreasingly dynamic contexts that are often technology driven and involvesophisticated support tools. More current literature also focuses on greateremphases on performance improvement, demands for immediate results, anda dramatic pace of change. Project management has evolved into complex,global, and mutually dependent contexts whereby calls for systematicapproaches to project management research have paralleled recent claimsregarding the influence of some research on project management outcomes(Kloppenborg & Opfer, 2002). The expanding appeal of project managementtoday is consistent with workplaces commonly focused on performance andwhich rely on ongoing growth whereby project management is utilized as anessential element for organizational success.

HRD and Project Management

Gilley et al. (2002) declared that, all too often, many HRD leaders do not rec-ognize this as an essential responsibility and thus fail to provide a practicalapproach and techniques to planning and managing projects (p. 231). HRD isdefined in a variety of ways including as the integrated use of training and devel-opment, career development, and organization development to improve individ-ual effectiveness (McLagan, 1989, p. 7). Findings from large-scale studies haveled to the identification of a number of HRD-related roles by McLagan (1996)including HRD strategic advisor, HR systems designer and developer, organiza-tion change consultant, organization design consultant, learning program special-ist, instructor/facilitator, individual development and career consultant,performance consultant, and researcher. Project management has been identifiedas an important element for success in each of these roles (Gilley et al., 2002).




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The need to better understand and execute project undertakings led to thedevelopment of the field of project management which, similar to HRD, oftenengages at the point of intersection between scholars and practitioners. TheProject Management Institute (PMI) defines project management as the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the lifeof the project by using modern management techniques to achieve predeter-mined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality, and participant satisfaction(PMI Standards Committee, 1987, p. 4-1). Many definitions of HRD (seeWeinberger, 1998; Woodall, 2001) and even more HRD texts and articlesframe HRD interventions as projects or emphasize processes and outcomes ina manner that aligns with project management (Swanson & Holton, 2001;Werner & DeSimone, 2006).

There are numerous HRD activities and interventions requiring project man-agers and appropriate project management approaches (Fuller, 1997). A projectmanagement system is a key element to HRD and OD interventions (McLean,2006). According to McLean (2006), establishing an effective approach to projectmanagement is essential in the early stages of action research and OD andthroughout implementation of HRD-related interventions. Although HRD andproject management practice and literature have greatly expanded over recentdecades, the intersection of these two areas has not been comprehensively exam-ined. Gilley et al. (2002) positioned project management as central for the suc-cess of HRD implementation. Understanding the scope of literature exploringproject management and HRD connections is important for HRD and organiza-tional success and project management itself is an essential frame through whichorganizational action can be examined.

Summary of Literature

Researchers suggest that projects fail to deliver quality products because of inadequate planning, lack of alignment with resources and deliverables, inad-equate change management, and insufficient feedback processes (Cicmil,2000). To that end, project management and HRD connections and emergingproject management are operationalized in organizational settings because of the need to ensure that project planning and execution are aligned with strategicgoals to support resource requirements and to assist in successful change manage-ment deliverables. The literature integrating project management and HRDprovides a means for planning, controlling, and executing project initiatives.A thematic review of the literature noting project management and HRD connectionsincluded articles divided into several sections, and particularly (a) failure statistics,(b) OD, (c) CD, (d) leadership, and (e) organization theory. These sectionssummarize each of the systematically selected articles for project managementand HRD literature connections.

A review of the emerging project management literature included researchthat was related to broad areas of industries including banking, pharmaceutical,




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consulting, advertising, legal, healthcare, safety, and emerging manufacturingand industrial sectors (Kerzner, 2001). Figure 1 includes the related articlesdivided into several sections including: (a) project management related models,(b) project managementrelated theories, (c) project management specificresearch and findings, and (d) a discussion of related project management tools.These sections summarize each of the systematically selected articles fromemerging project management literature.

HRD and Project Management

Five HRDproject management intersections were identified in thereviewfailure statistics, OD, CD, leadership, and organization theory. Of theaforementioned articles, those publications associated with intersectionsbetween project management and HRD are reported as follows.


Human ResourceManagement

Project Planningand Controlling

QualityManagement

ProjectOutcomes Organization

DevelopmentCareerDevelopment

Leadership

HumanResources

Communicationand Technology

Performance

Scheduling

Human ResourceManagement

Theories

T o ol s

Research

M o d e l s

Project

Managementand

HRDLiterature

ResourceBased

KnowledgeFlow

Queuing

Action

In Project

Neo-

Institutional

TemporaryOrganization

SignalingDetectionTheory

FIGURE 1: Project Management and HRD Literature: Key Themes



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Failure statistics . By analyzing project success data made available to the15th International Project Management Association (IPMA) World Congress,reasons for project failures and the results were assessed. In the early 1990s,77% of U.K. projects failed and 83% of U.S. projects failed. The reasons forproject failure identified include: inadequate definition; poor or no planning;wrong leader; scope not defined; inappropriate team; ineffective controls; poorcommunication; unrealistic timescale (IPMA, 2001, p. 866). In addition, 80%of the U.K. projects had no project management conceptual framework andU.S. experts cited poor project scope definition and loss of control during thedesign and implementation phases as the explanation for cost overruns (IPMA,2001). There was an identified need to more clearly identify critical successfactors (CSFs) in the early stages of projects so that project success and fail-ure could be better understood. Because the central reason for project failuresidentified points to the potential impact of project management learning anddevelopment on project management success, HRD-related efforts are identi-fied as clear solutions to project management improvement.

Organization development . Henderson (2005) reported the findings of a sur-vey of members within the OD and Change Division of the Academy of

Management . The survey findings reported that the top seven foundational skillswithin OD include: project management, communication, collaborative work,

problem solving, use of new technology, conceptualizing, presentation and edu-cation, and coaching skills. According to Henderson, project professionals aresignificantly trained to use logical and systematic methods to plan and controlprojects (p. 14); therefore, based on the findings from this study, co-creatingstrategic OD engagements with project managers who know its genesis can be aboon for OD consultants in affecting significant change (p. 17).

Project management provides a framework in which to define OD engage-ment requirements. More specifically, OD consultants work with project man-agers to develop activities including visioning, reflecting, and safeguarding to

alleviate time constraint pressures. Project management and OD activities aregeared toward a systematic execution of activities with the end goal of suc-cessful integration and participation from all work streams within an organi-zation (Henderson, 2005).

Career development . Gutteridge (1986) reported career development rep-resents the outcomes created by the integration of individual career-planningactivities with institutional career management processes (p. 54). The sub-processes of career planning include job choice, organization choice, jobassignment, and self-development. In addition, career planning includesthe identification and selection of individuals to align job skills with jobassignments.

CD in the identified literature focused both on CD for those in project man-agement roles and organizational decision making about individuals associ-ated with project management initiatives. The latter has clear implications for




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the CD of employees selected for organizational projects as involvement insuccessful project management initiatives are not only important individualCD experiences but also often lead to new career opportunities. There is oftennot a clear career path for moving from a management position to a temporaryproject management position. For instance, as an increasing number of orga-nizations expand their global operations, there is a need to identify and selectqualified managerial candidates for oversees projects. There is also a need toimplement a systematic method to organize identification and selection of expatriates (Harvey & Novicevic, 2001). The systematic method identifiedincludes (a) identification of expatriate candidates, (b) analysis of candidatecompetencies, (c) determining learning methods for candidates, and (d) iden-tifying thinking styles of candidates.

According to Tsai, Moskowitz, and Lee (2003), resource selection is impor-tant to project management because resources drive project completion, reduc-ing project costs, project duration, and project risks. The authors suggest the useof computational approaches applying their resource-based view of projectmanagement. More specifically, an integrated, efficient computational methodbased on design of experiments to solve the software resource selection prob-lem, in which a critical resource diagram (CRD) is recommended as an earlypart of the project design (Tsai et al., 2003, p. 167). The CRD provides aframework for selecting appropriate human resources; decisions which tiedirectly to the CD opportunities for managers and employees.

Leadership . Lee-Kelley (2002) reported on a survey of project managerleadership styles and management of changing project boundaries and relatedinterfaces. Findings from the study included the following conclusions:

Project managers are not overly affected by internal market mechanisms or con-straints on face-to-face interactions. However, certain project variables such asproject objectives, team size, frequency of team changes and project durationplay significant roles in the relationship between the project leaders and his/herperception of project difficulties (p. 461).

These research findings suggest that (a) there is no relationship betweenleadership styles and perceived influence on project time frames and delegated andselected number of projects; and (b) the longer the project time frame the largerthe team size, and the greater the perception that the manager selected the project.

According to Manley (1975), project leader efforts are integrated within theinformal organizational structure overriding formal communication requirements.The openness presented to managers of key projects allows them to access tostakeholders. During the enactment of the project plan, even where the pro-

ject group is small and members have to draw upon the resources of support-ing independent organizations, traditional chains of command tend to beignored (p. 180). The project manager directs the implementation of the ini-tiative and as such must have a high tolerance for ambiguity, a good working




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understanding of basic management principles, consummate people skills, ageneral understanding of the various technologies, and a strong desire to bewhere the action is (p. 182).

Organization theory . Temporary organization has emerged as a theoryreifying modern-day experiences of organizational life as a collection of pro-

jects and activities rather than a monolithic deployment of a whole systemstrategy (Packendorff, 1995). According to Manley (1975), projects are tem-porary initiatives and can be viewed structurally as a company within a com-pany. Projects can be conceptualized from a systematic perspective includinga system composed of multiple interdependent subsystems and its membersdevote much of their initial effort toward gaining an understanding of the

nature of the interdependence as well as the impact of the environment(Manley, 1975, p. 180). One of the most important impacts of a project man-agement structure is that it provides a framework for linking planning andimplementation functions (Manley, 1975).

Another key consideration associated with project management success isstructural support within the system or organization in which the project is beingundertaken. Because of the ways in which projects may span cross-functionally,project management is ideally unbounded by organizational hierarchies, struc-tures, processes, and line-of-authority. As a practice, project management is used

to accomplish non-recurring goals bound by time, place (or situation), resources,and particular scopes of work (Henderson, 2005, p. 11).

The balanced matrix approach to structuring an organization has beenchampioned as one of the organizational frameworks that produce more effi-cient project work. In the balanced matrix approach, functional and projectmanagers have equal authority and as such creates opportunities for conflict(de Laat, 1994). Therefore, there is a need for more empirical analysis todetermine which organizational structure is more conducive for the industryor organization type. Associated with organization structure, risk manage-

ment has been couched as one of the functions that should be planned andmanaged in software development initiatives to ensure project success.McGrew and Bilotta (2000) demonstrated that signal detection theory (SDT)can be used to gather data in which to minimize the impacts of interventionand response bias on risk management plan. More specifically, the unbiasedestimator enables comparisons across projects and facilitates the effective-ness of risk management plans.

Each of the sections above summarized project management articles fromHRD-related journals. Although each contributed to the framing of HRD and

project management connections, the number of articles was limited. To iden-tify additional areas that may inform these connections, articles identified tobe undertaking in emerging areas of project management were also examined.The summary of these articles and a figure encapsulating themes from all iden-tified articles is featured below.




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Emerging Project Management Literature

For the most part, project management scholarship has been focused on tra-

ditional areas such as construction and engineering, but it has been broaden-ing to cover a larger number of industries and contexts. For the purposes of thisstudy, emerging project management literature is defined as articles identifiedin a systematic search of literature (discussed earlier) that are situated in non-traditional project management contexts/industries. Four key themes from theliterature are reviewed (models, tools, theories, and research) are explored.

Models . Models have typically been used as a process to control, track,and implement a series of phases, steps, or patterns. For example, a modelprovides a framework with which organizations can conduct a formal assess-ment of their current project management capabilities and, thereby, determineaction plans (change initiatives) that need to be completed to improve projectperformance (Kendra & Taplin, 2004, p. 43). In addition, models are used byproject managers and project team members as frameworks to increase theefficiency of project activities and resources (Kerzner, 2001). More specifi-cally, models provide structure and organization for scheduling, performancetracking, communication, and management activities.

Based on thematic analysis, identified models were divided into project plan-ning and control models and human resource management models . Project plan-ning and control models focus on strategic goal execution using qualityimprovement for planning, coordinating, and executing project tasks. Morespecifically, project planning and control processes and cycles include schedul-ing, updating tasks, data management, and reporting capabilities (Kerzner, 2001).For example, project life cycle is a construct that has developed as a model fororganizational processes including decision priorities (Smith, Mitchell, &Summer, 1985) and productivity criteria (Cameron & Whetton, 1981). Humanresource project management includes the processes that organize and managethe project team (PMI Global Standard, 2004, p. 199) including processes thatare related to human resource planning, acquiring the project team, developingthe project team, and managing the project team. More specifically, humanresource management models are focused on developing teams as well as teammembers with an emphasis on enhancing and supporting performance. The arti-cles identified provided project management related models that examinedresource allocation, cost control, data management, project roles, reporting rela-tionships, training, team-building activities, personality characteristics, conflictmanagement, and learning or knowledge development. The next section exam-ines theoretical elements in identified literature.

Theories . Project management is considered an evolving field of study andas such does not have a fully established theoretical background (Jugdev, 2004).Project management often integrates theories from other well-established




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disciplines/fields including management, human behavior, psychology, andoperations. For example, some project management theories have been con-structed using basic topics including the use of a common terminology andframeworks, avoiding tautologies, and the merits of analogies (Jugdev, 2004,p. 15). Several approaches to theory development or clarification take the formof analogies, integrated relationships, facts, or systematic procedures.

As stated by Jugdev (2004), theories are important because they helpexplain and predict events, patterns, and trends (p. 16). Seven theoretical per-spectives associated with project management were gleaned from identifiedliterature including: neoinstitutional organization theory, action in projecttheory, queuing theory, knowledge flow, temporary organization, a resource-based view, and transformationaltransactional leadership.

Neoinstitutional organization theory defines projects as tasks to be accom-plished and is based on the premise that projects are institutions that are repro-duced based on actions implemented during previous experiences (Packendorff,1995). More specifically, rather than viewing organizations holistically as linearmechanistic systems, institutions are reduced to a set of projects that are consid-ered as tasks to be accomplished. The theory was famous during the 1980s andpurports that the conceptions related to tasks are not unique and can be associatedwith numerous entities.

Action in project theory focuses on the human interaction within the project organization leading to the outcome of the project (Packendorff, 1995,pp. 329-330). The premise of this theory is based on the enactment by indi-viduals and emphasis is placed on investigating the expectations that form theaction base, and the learning that occurs as a result of the action (p. 330). Thestudies, related to projects as action systems, target the actual individualbehavior rather than the expected behavior.

Levy and Shlomo (1997) suggested a queuing-theory approach to minimiz-ing frequent delays and cost overruns. The interest in queuing theory is moti-vated by the belief that the understanding of causes and interactions creatingcongestion and delay is important to the effective design of congestion-controlalgorithms. The authors introduce the queuing penalty to quantify the penaltyfor delays and frequent cost overruns of parallel executed projects. In addition,the authors reported that there is no practical way to totally avoid the penaltybut that the goal is to minimize the penalty. Approaches to reduce the queuingpenalty include minimizing cost by maintaining on schedule projects and tominimize the idleness of high-capacity cost groups (Levy & Shlomo, 1997).

Snider and Nissen (2003) introduced a knowledge-flow approach to projectmanagement. The theory is predicated on a dynamic perspective of knowledge asa solution, as experience, and as socially created (Snider & Nissen, 2003). Thetheory includes four dimensions that are focused on knowledge flow includingexplicitness, reach, life cycle, and flow time (Snider & Nissen, 2003, p. 7).Snider and Nissen further argued that knowledge-flow framework provides amore enhanced approach to project management research and theory develop-ment that provided by project management BOK [body of knowledge] (p. 11).




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Turner and Mller (2003) framed a discussion about the project viewedthrough the lens of organization theory. The authors contended that withinexisting organization theory a project can be defined as a temporary organi-zation to which resources are assigned to undertake a unique, novel and tran-sient endeavor managing the inherent uncertainty and need for integration inorder to deliver beneficial objectives of change (Turner & Mller, 2003, p. 7).In addition, the role of the project manager is flexible and includes identifyingand communicating project tasks, encouraging project team members to com-plete project tasks, and aligning project strategies and goals with internal andexternal objectives.

Jugdev (2004) created a resource-based theory of project managementbased on Arnoults (1972) classification of theories including metaphors,analogies, reductionist (simpler) concepts, and abstract (mathematical) rela-tionships. She compared the genomes of humans to an organizations tangibleresources entitled strategic asset genome (p. 22). Furthermore, Jugdev(2004) focused on project management as a strategic asset that must be main-tained and extended by using business processes, methodologies, and frame-works to implement strategic initiatives.

Barber and Warn (2005) discussed the leadership requirements for projectmanagers by reviewing the literature and developing a framework to link trans-action and transformation leadership styles. The findings report that proactiveleadership is more success driven than reactive decisions, including monitor-ing project plans and budgets. In addition, project managers need to pay moreattention to the progress of their project and forestall any problems rather than

just being reactive problem solvers (Barber & Warn, 2005, p. 1032).McGrew and Bilotta (2000) demonstrated that signal detection theory can

be used to gather data in which to minimize the impacts of intervention andresponse bias on risk management plans. Furthermore, signaling theory can beused effectively to describe success in software development initiatives. Morespecifically, the unbiased estimator (or true approximations for the projectbeing assessed) enables comparisons across project and facilitates the effec-tiveness of risk management plans. As outlined in Figure 1, these theories pro-vide interesting frameworks by which to examine project management andpoint to future opportunities for theory development and research. The sectionthat follows explores project management research as identified by the afore-mentioned search process.

Research . Research builds on the literature, models, and theories and thusis useful in identifying practices and applications that are useful for project ini-

tiatives. More specifically, project management uses generally acceptedknowledge and priorities to execute projects and as such there is interest in thepatterns, trends, and future directions in which to frame project planning andexecution. The literature further provides suggestions for researchers, as itrelates to advancing the maturity of the project management profession.




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Project management research has focused on (a) human resource issuesincluding competencies, leadership, responsibilities, and incompatibility andmisalignment of authority; (b) leadership; (c) CD; (d) OD; (e) project out-comes; and (f) quality management. These six areas have been included inFigure 1 as research categories. Packendorff (1995) posited that research needsto focus more on action in projects to study human resource issues. The basisof this idea is that the combination of action and knowledge can improve thequality of projects by focusing on integration, human resource management,and communication. More specifically, since 1992, research has focused moreon human resource issues, teamwork and relationships, leadership, and CD.Pinto (1998) posited that project management and politics are linked and thatthe project managers job is not only to handle technical issues but to alsomanage project team and stakeholder behaviors, including conflict resolution.

According to Kerzner (2001), The project manager is responsible for coor-dinating and integrating activities across multiple, functional lines. In order todo this, the project manager needs strong communication and interpersonalskills (p. 9) and leadership and technical skills in which to lead the projectteam and organization to implementation. The research that has focused onleadership and CD suggest that certain leadership styles and skills are neededto successfully drive projects to completion and that those skills can either belearned and developed through activities.

Project management research has primarily focused on the factors thatdetermine project outcomes including a projects success or failure. Theassessment of the project implementation has been evaluated from a variety of positions and based on multiple criteria including quadruple constraint (Pinto& Prescott, 1990). Pinto and Prescott (1990) have expanded the measures toinclude criteria related to quadruple constraints and include project mission,top management support, schedule/plans, client consultation, personnel, tech-nical tasks, client acceptance, monitoring and feedback, communication, andtrouble-shooting (p. 315). Pinto and Prescott conducted a field study includ-ing survey data from project managers from manufacturing and service indus-tries. The findings from the study revealed that project success should beregarded as a multiple-factor construct rather than a single construct. Pinto andPrescott reported that project planning was the thrust for project success andshould be monitored throughout the project. Additional findings revealed thattactics were important as CSFs only during the execution phase of the projectlife cycle (Pinto & Prescott, 1990).

Project management methodology is used to strategically frame the activitiesof the project manager and project team to reduce project failures and to ulti-mately achieve quality based on continuously improving processes. The phasesof a project include task and quality activities that sequentially guide the projectfrom initiation to close out. Furthermore, project managers utilize tools and tech-niques along with people to ensure quality deliverables are on time, within scope,and within budget. Therefore, there is a connection of knowledge and action thatcan be used to frame behaviors from a practical view based on a quality-control




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leader actively engaging in transactions to plan, organize, monitor, and reportfindings to maintain a dynamic balance with the organization, resources, tools,and the external environment.

Tools . Tools have been developed as some mechanisms to ensure that eventhe smallest activity moves towards the ultimate goal: successful project com-pletion (Lai, 1997, p. 174). Therefore, some proponents of project manage-ment methodology suggest that disciplined management processes(Kerzner, 2001, p. 741) based on past experiences and internal and externalfactors need to be considered as a part of the framework for project imple-mentation (Chatzoglou & Macaulay, 1997). Tools are used throughout variousphases of the project and include planning and monitoring, scheduling, per-

formance, and communication and technology.Planning and monitoring tools assist project teams in coping with complex

management and organizational decisions, managing masses of data, and meetingproject deliverables on time and within budget (Kerzner, 2001). Project-schedul-ing tools are used to manage the activities, performance, and time associated withproject completion. Project-scheduling tools include: (a) program evaluation andreview techniques, (b) critical path method, (c) GANTT chart, and (d) milestonechart (Lai, 1997). Each of the tools uses a different technique for tracing time con-trol. Performance tools are used to assist in increasing project performance. The

tools facilitate identification of stakeholders with an emphasis on their roles andinfluences. Performance tools entitled quality assurance have been developed tocontrol the outcomes based on limits including speed, costs, and quality.Communication and technology tools are used to communicate the processes andprocedures to human resources and to transfer knowledge. In addition, technologytools are used as a means to visualize, reduce, and manage project risks.

In terms of HRD-project management connections, our review points to anumber of opportunities to enhance the literature examining project manage-ment utilization in the context of HRD. Figure 1 encapsulates 4 major themes

and 19 subthemes from our systematic review of literature. The review con-firmed that, although limited, both HRD and project management connectionsare featured in HRD literature and that emerging literature in project manage-ment also has relevance for HRD. It is also clear that the literature reflects afew types of interaction between project management and HRD. There areclear examples in the literature highlighting not only the relevance of projectmanagement in specific HRD contexts but also a need for conceptual and the-oretical development regarding project management and project managementlifecycles in HRD.

Limitations and Implications for HRD

Several limitations regarding available studies were determined in the litera-ture reviewed along with some clear opportunities for future HRD-related




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research. In several cases, a common method to collect participant data in manystudies increased possibilities for overstated relationship between constructs. Inaddition, several studies used small, nonrandom, or unclearly described samplingtechniques. Many of the studies reported used cross-sectional designs exploringproject management from a fixed point in time. The results from this systematicsearch of the literature point to a clear need for longitudinal designs and moreadvanced statistics such as multivariate analysis, structural equation modelingpath analysis that compliment a more complex examination of the multiple fac-tors that may contribute to project management in HRD generally and projectsuccess at the leadership, team member, and environmental characteristics levelsalong with more specifically defined project management processes and out-comes. Although several related theories were identified, the theory-based stud-ies utilized needed to be repeated in many cases for utilizing the aforementionedsampling and methodological improvements. It should also be noted thatalthough important to this line of investigation, there was a void of qualitativeinquiry presented. Studies using other than quantitative approaches are warranted.

From the practice perspective, there is much more that can be done to con-tribute to the elaboration of project management in human resource contexts,available literature is simply falling short regarding project management in HRD.Despite the limited amount of this kind of literature, project management litera-ture, including a large amount of project management theories, research, modelsand tools, appears to be transferable to HRD contexts; however, it is importantthat these transferable concepts are elaborated in the context of HRD. In addition,there is much room for the development of project management overall and thereis an absence of conceptual or theoretical model that examines key elements asso-ciated with HRD project management success.

A Conceptual Framework for HRDProject Management

Although a handful of articles identified featured some elements of HRDproject management connections and the nontraditional project man-agement literature also provided some relevant insights, there is a need formore narrowly organized research and theory building associated with projectmanagement in HRD contexts. Joo (2005) and Wanberg, Welsh, and Hezlett(2003) undertook HRD-related literature reviews and, based on their analyses,proposed conceptual frameworks in support of future research in their respec-tive areas of investigation. Similarly, we have concluded that the developmentof a HRD project management conceptual framework would be beneficial.Our approach was influenced by the aforementioned authors.

As Torraco (2004) expounded, opportunities for theory building in HRD arenumerous. Accordingly, the three overarching aspects needing to be addressedin the development are: (a) the absence of a common framework and explicitassumptions in support of HRD theory building, (b) the lack of well-tested




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HRD theory-building approaches, and (c) a need for shared understandingregarding core concepts of HRD theory and theory building (Lynham, 2000).As examined above, although theories associated with project managementhave been identified, theoretical and conceptual development regarding projectmanagement in HRD has relevance for the field and is in need of explication.Although there is an ongoing possibility that project management knowledgefrom the general project management literature and practice can inform projectmanagement in HRD, the unique elements associated with HRD efforts and theinterdependence between HRD intervention success and related project man-agement are important considerationsparticularly as project managementknowledge relates to HRD outcomes.

Van de Ven (2007) advanced a systematic process for engaging theoreticallybased research studies: (a) analyze the situation or problem as it occurs naturalis-tically, (b) decide upon a research question and conceptual model to address thesituation or problem, (c) utilize an appropriate theory or theory-building approachand design a study to examine the research question, and (d) execute a researchstudy and analyze findings toward development of a solution. As with the afore-mentioned examples we address the first two steps in the Van de Ven process.

The conceptual framework (Figure 2) is organized for the purposes of focusing on key steps or issues associated with project management of HRD.For the purposes of focus, HRD is conceptualized in terms of an interventionwhich is consistent with HRD and related action research literature (McLean,2006; Swanson & Holton, 2001; Werner & DeSimone, 2006)HRD inter-vention development, HRD intervention deployment, HRD interventionimplementation, and HRD intervention evaluation. The overarching factorsexamined in the conceptual framework address these process steps throughconsideration of relevant antecedents, process issues, outcomes proximal tothe HRD intervention project, and distal outcomes associated with the scopeof the project at the individual, group, or organizational level. Based on theconceptual model, propositions and related rationale are presented in Table 2.

Overall, the conceptual framework and related propositions were an intro-ductory attempt to illustrate some of the key factors associated with HRDproject management. There is more work that can be done by considering thepotential impact of general project management literature for some of thevariables and propositions outlined; however, it was important to first considerkey elements in the conceptualization of project management in HRD.

Conclusion

We reported key findings related to exploring HRD-related areas with explicitconnections to project management and an emerging nontraditional project man-agement literature that has implications for HRDproject management connec-tions. HRDproject management explicit connections included findings relatedto failure statistics, OD, CD, leadership, and organization theory. In addition, the


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F I G U R E 2 : A C o n c e p t u a l

F r a m e w o r k

f o r S u c c e s s f u

l H R D P r o

j e c t

M a n a g e m e n

t

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T A B L E

2 :

P r o p o s i

t i o n s

f o r a

C o n c e p

t u a l

F r a m e w o r k

f o r

S u c c e s s

f u l H R D P r o

j e c t

M a n a g e m e n

t

M o d e l

C a t e g o r y

V a r i a b l e

P r o p o s i t

i o n s

R a t

i o n a

l e a n

d S u p p o r t

A n t e c e d e n

t s

P r o j e c

t m a n a g e r

c h a r a c

t e r i s

t i c s

P r o j e c

t t e a m c h a r a c t e r

i s t i c s

P 1 : T

h e g r e a

t e r a p r o j e c

t

m a n a g e r

' s k n o w

l e d g e ,

a b i l i t i e s s k

i l l s ,

p r o a c t

i v i t y

, r e s p o n s

i v e -

n e s s , a

n d e x p e r i e n c e ,

t h e m o r e p o s i t

i v e

i m p a c t

o n H R D p r o j e c t

o u t c o m e s .

P 2 : T

h e g r e a

t e r t h e

p r o j e c

t t e a m m e m

b e r s

k n o w

l e d g e , a b

i l i t i e s ,

s k i l l s , p r o a c t i v

i t y ,

r e s p o n s i v e n e s s , a n

d e x p e -

r i e n c e ,

t h e m o r e p o s i

t i v e

i m p a c t o n

H R D p r o j e c

t

o u t c o m e s .

P 1 : A

l t h o u g h

t h e r e

i s l i m i t e d r e s e a r c h , a

n d n o

H R D - r e l a t e d s t u d

i e s w e r e

i d e n

t i f i e d , W a n g ,

C h o u , a n

d J i a n g

( 2 0 0 5 ) f o u n

d t h a t p r o j e c t m

a n a g e r

e x p e r i e n c e s p o s

i t i v e

l y i m p a c t p r o j e c

t o u t c o m e s .

I n a d

d i t i o n , p r o

j e c t m a n a g e r q u a l

i f i c a

t i o n s a n

d

a t t i t u d e s

l i k e l y

i n f l u e n c e p r o j e c

t o u t c o m e s

( C a s e y ,

1 9 7 8 ; G u l

l e t t , 1 9 7 2 ; K e r z n e r , 2

0 0 1 )

. A n

i m p o r t a n t

e l e m e n

t n e e d i n g

f u r t h e r e x a m

i n a t

i o n

i s t h e e x

t e n t

t o

w h i c h s u c c e s s

f u l H R D i m p l e m e n

t a t i o n

i s a c t u a

l l y a

m i x t u r e o f

H R D p r a c

t i t i o n e r ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l

j u d g m e n

t a n d p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t - r e l a t e d s

k i l l s t h a t

e x t e n d

H R D - s p o n s o r e

d p r o g r a m s / e f

f o r t s

t o r e a l

i t y .

I t i s l i k e l y

t h a t b e t

t e r p r o

j e c t m a n a g e m e n

t m a k e s

f o r

b e t t e r H

R D p r o

f e s s

i o n a

l s , a

s p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t

a n d i m p l e m e n

t a t i o n a r e o f

t e n c l o s e l y r e

l a t e d .

P 2 : G

i v e n

t h e s c o p e a n

d c o m p l e x

i t y o f m a n y

H R D -

r e l a t e d p r o j e c

t s , i

n c l u d i n g

l a r g e - s c a l e

H R D - r e l a t e d

r e s e a r c h , i

t i s l o g i c a

l t h a t t e a m m a n a g e m e n

t i s a

c e n t r a

l e l e m e n t

f o r s u c c e s s . A

l t h o u g h


s t u d

i e s a s s o c i a t e d w

i t h t e a m

H R D p r o j e c t

m a n a g e m e n t ,

K e n

d r a a n

d T a p l

i n ( 2 0 0 4 ) r e p o r

t e d t h e

e x p e r i e n c e s a n d

k n o w

l e d g e o f p r o j e c

t t e a m

m e m

b e r s p o s i

t i v e l y

i m p a c t p r o j e c

t o u t c o m e s .

T h e r e

i s m u c

h r o o m

f o r e x p

l o r a

t i o n r e g a r d

i n g

t e a m s a n

d

H R D p r o j e c t s u c c e s s .

( c o n t i n u e

d )



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T A B L E

2 :

( c o n t

i n u e d

)

M o d e l

C a t e g o r y

V a r i a b l e

P r o p o s i t

i o n s

R a t

i o n a

l e a n

d S u p p o r t

O r g a n

i z a t

i o n s t a

k e h o l d e r

c h a r a c

t e r i s

t i c s

P 3 a :

T h e g r e a t e r t

h e

o r g a n i z a

t i o n a l

s t a k e -

h o l d e r r e a d

i n e s s ,

b u y -

i n , s

u p p o r

t ,

p r o a c t

i v i t y

,

r e s p o n s i v e n e s s , a n

d

e x p e r i e n c e ,

t h e m o r e

p o s i

t i v e

i m p a c

t o n

H R D

p r o j e c

t o u t c o m e s .

P 3 b : T h e m o r e a l

i g n e

d t h e

o r g a n i z a

t i o n s

t r u c t u r e

a n d e n v i r o n m e n t

i n

s u p p o r

t o f t h e H R D

p r o j e c

t , t h e b e

t t e r t

h e

o u t c o m e .

P 3 a :

A l t h o u g h

t h e


l i t e r a t u r e

h a s

s u g g e s

t e d t h a t r e a

d i n e s s

i s e s s e n t

i a l t o

H R D

i n t e r v e n

t i o n s

( M i l l e r , M

a d s e n ,

& J o h n

, 2 0 0 6 )

, m o s

t

r e a d

i n e s s - r e l a

t e d c o m m e n

t a r y

h a s

b e e n a n e c d o t a l ,

a n d r e a d

i n e s s

f r o m

t h e

H R D p r o j e c

t p e r s p e c t

i v e

h a s

y e t t o

b e t h o r o u g h

l y c o n s

i d e r e d . A

l t h o u g h n o t

d i r e c t

l y a s s o c

i a t e d w

i t h H R D p r o j e c

t s , P

i n t o a n

d

P r e s c o

t t ( 1 9 9 0 ) a n d

J u g d e v a n

d M l l e r (

2 0 0 5 )

r e p o r t e

d t h a t p r o j e c

t s u c c e s s

i s b a s e

d o n s t a

k e h o l d e r

i n v o

l v e m e n t i n c

l u d i n g s t a k e h o l

d e r s u p p o r t ,

s t a k e h o l

d e r c o n s u l

t a t i o n , a n

d s t a k e h o l

d e r

a c c e p t a n c e

d e m o n s t r a

t e d t h r o u g

h r e a d

i n e s s ,

p r o a c t

i v i t y

, a n d r e s p o n s i v e n e s s .

P 3 b : A c c o r

d i n g t o S e m

l e r (

1 9 9 7 ) , o r g a n i z a t i o n a

l

a l i g n m e n

t i s a k e y e l e m e n

t f o r

H R D s u c c e s s .

A l t h o u g h

t h e a l

i g n m e n

t p e r s p e c

t i v e m a y o f

t e n

b e

u s e d

t o d e s c r i

b e c o n c e p

t u a l

b u y -

i n , i

t i s a l s o

i m p o r t a n t

f o r s h a r e d p a r t i c i p a

t i o n

i n c o m p l e x

p r o j e c

t s i n v o l v i n g m u l

t i p l e s t a k e h o l

d e r s . A v

a i l a b l e

r e s e a r c h s u g g e s

t s t h a t a l

i g n m e n

t o f s t r u c t u r e a n

d

e n v i r o n m e n t ,

i n c l u d

i n g a u

t h o r

i t y , l

e a d e r s h i p , a

n d

r e s p o n s i

b i l i t y

, y i e l d s

b e t t e r p r o

j e c t o u

t c o m e s

( B a k e r

e t a l . ,

1 9 8 3 ; B u t

l e r ,

1 9 7 3 ; G u l

l e t t , 1 9 7 2 ; H o

d g e t

t s ,

1 9 6 8 ) . T h e r e

i s a n e e d

t o e x a m

i n e a l

i g n m e n

t w i t h

H R D p r o j e c t c o n t e x

t s .

( c o n t i n u e

d )



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T A B L E

2 :

( c o n t

i n u e d

)

M o d e l

C a t e g o r y

V a r i a b l e

P r o p o s i t

i o n s

R a t

i o n a

l e a n

d S u p p o r t

P r o c e s s

P r o j e c

t m a n a g e m

e n t

a p p r o a c h a n

d / o r P r a c t

i c e

m o d e l s u t

i l i z e d

P r o j e c

t m a n a g e m

e n t t o o

l s

L e a d e r s h

i p a n d p r o j e c

t

t e a m

d y n a m i c s

P 4 : U

t i l i z a t

i o n o f

s t r u c t u r e d p r o

j e c t

m a n a g e m e n

t a p p r o a c

h e s

o r p r a c

t i c e m o

d e l s a n

d

e a r l y

d e t e r m i n a t

i o n o f

c r i t i c a

l s u c c e s s

f a c t o r s

( C S F s ) w

i l l p o s i

t i v e l y

i n f l u e n c e

H R D

p r o j e c

t

o u t c o m e s .

P 5 : U

t i l i z a t

i o n o f r e l e v a n

t

p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t t o o

l s

w i l l p o s i

t i v e l y

i n f l u e n c e

H R D p r o j e c t s u c c e s s .

P 6 : P r o a c

t i v i t y a n

d l o w

a v o i

d a n c e

b e h a v

i o r s

a m o n g

t e a m

l e a d e r s h

i p

a n d m e m

b e r s w

i l l p o s i -

t i v e l y

i n f l u e n c e

H R D

p r o j e c

t o u t c o m e s .

P 4 : A

l t h o u g h n u m e r o u s m o d e l s

h a v e

b e e n u s e d

t o

e x p l

i c a t e

k e y H R D c o n c e p

t s a n

d p r a c

t i c e s (

M c L e a n ,

2 0 0 6 ; S w a n s o n

& H o l

t o n ,

2 0 0 1 ) u n d e r s t a n d

i n g

t h e

u t i l i z a

t i o n o f s p e c

i f i c m o d e l s

t o w a r

d e f

f e c t i v e

H R D

i m p l e m e n

t a t i o n

h a s

b e e n u n

d e r s

t u d i e d . U

t i l i z a t

i o n

o f p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t a p p r o a c

h e s ,

i n c l u d i n g

p r o c e s s e s u s e

d t o p l a n , c

o n t r o l , a n

d e x e c u t e c o n -

t r a c t s , p o s i t i v e l y


t o u t c o m e s

( J i a n g ,

K l e i n

, & M e a n s , 2

0 0 0 ; K e n

d r a

& T a p l

i n , 2 0

0 4 ) a n d

h a v e

l e d t o i n i t i a l u n

d e r s

t a n d

i n g r e g a r d

i n g a p p r o p r

i -

a t e a p p r o a c h e s

t o g e n e r a

l p r o


t .

C o m p a r i n g a n

d c o n t r a s t

i n g c u r r e n

t H R D p r a c

t i c e

m o d e l s a n

d t h e p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t c o m p o n e n t s

a s s o c i a t e d w i

t h t h e m , o

r d e v e l o p m e n

t a n d t e s

t i n g o f

i n t e g r a t e d

H R D p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t m o d e l s , w

i l l

c l e a r l y

b e n e f i

t t h e f i e l d

.

P 5 : A c c o r

d i n g

t o K e n

d r a a n

d T a p l

i n ( 2 0 0 4 ) t o o

l s ,

i n c l u d

i n g p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e m e n

t s y s

t e m s , p o s i -

t i v e l y


t s u c c e s s . T

h e e x

t e n t t o w

h i c h

p r o j e c

t m a n a g e m e n

t t o o

l s o u

t l i n e

d i n t h e r e v i e w o f

l i t e r a t u r e a s s i s t

i n t h e m a x

i m i z a t

i o n o f

H R D

p r o j e c

t

p e r f o r m a n c e a n d

H R D i m p l e m e n

t a t i o n

h a v e y e

t t o

b e s y s t e m a t i c a l

l y e x p l o r e d .

P 6 : A

l t h o u g h

t h e r e

i s s o m e e v

i d e n c e

t h a t

l e a d e r s h

i p

b e h a v i o r a n d p r o j e c

t t e a m

b e h a v i o r s p o s i t i v e l y


t o u t c o m e s

( J i a n g e t a l . ,

2 0 0 0 ;

Z i m m e r

& Y a s i n ,

1 9 9 8 ) , t h e r e

i s l i t t l e b e y o n

d a n e c -

d o t a l a n d p r e s c r

i p t i v e s u p p o r

t i n

t e r m s o f t h e r o

l e o f

l e a d e r s h

i p f o r H R D a n

d H R D - r e l a t e d p r o j e c t s .

( c o n t i n u e

d )



26/32

T A B L E

2 :

( c o n t

i n u e d

)

M o d e l

C a t e g o r y

V a r i a b l e

P r o p o s i t

i o n s

R a t

i o n a

l e a n

d S u p p o r t

P r o x

i m a l o u

t c o m

e s

P r o j e c

t t e a m r e s p o n s

i v e -

n e s s

t o e n v i r o n m e n

t a l

c h a n g e

P r o j e c

t t i m e l

i n e s s

P r o j e c

t a l i g n m e n

t w i t h

o b j e c t

i v e s

P 7 : O n g o i n g u s e o f

e n v i r o n m e n

t a l s c a n n i n g

a n d a d a p

t a t i o n t o c h a n g e s

i n t h e p r o j e c t

e n v i r o n m e n

t , i n c

l u d i n g

s t a k e h o l

d e r e x p e c t a t

i o n s

a n d o f c r

i t i c a l s u c c e s s

f a c t o r s , w

i l l p o s i

t i v e l y

i n f l u e n c e

H R D

p r o j e c

t

o u t c o m e s .

P 8 : O n -

t i m e e x e c u

t i o n

a n d / o r a p p r o p r i a

t e t i m e

a d j u s t m e n

t s f o r p r o

j e c t

e x e c u t

i o n w i l l p o s i

t i v e l y

i n f l u e n c e

H R D

p r o j e c

t

o u t c o m e s .

P 9 : A

l i g n m e n t b e t w e e n

H R D i n t e r v e n

t i o n o b

j e c -

t i v e s a n

d p r o j e c t m a n a g e -

m e n

t e x e c u

t i o n o v e r a l

l

w i l l i n f l u e n c e p e r c e p

t i o n s

o f H R D p r o j e c

t s u c c e s s .

P 7 : A v a

i l a b l e p r o


t l i t e r a

t u r e s u g g e s t s

p r o j e c

t t e c

h n i q u e s a n

d t o o l s a p p r o p r i a

t e l y a p p

l i e d t o

p r o j e c

t a c t

i v i t i e s r e

i n f o r c e o n g o

i n g e n v i r o n m e n

t a l

s c a n n i n g a n d a d a p

t a t i o n

t o p r o j e c

t e n v

i r o n m e n

t s t o

e n s u r e p r o j e c

t s u c c e s s

( K e n

d r a

& T a p l

i n , 2 0

0 4 ; P

M I

G l o b a l S t a n d a r d , 2

0 0 4 )

.

P 8 : T

h e r e

h a v e

b e e n

f e w r e s e a r c h e r s o r p r a c t

i t i o n e r s

w h o h a v e s y s

t e m a t

i c a l

l y e x p l o r e d

t h e r o

l e o f

t i m e l

i n e s s a n d

o n - t i m e

d e l i v e r y

f o r H

R D p r o j e c

t s .

I n r e

l a t e d p r o


t l i t e r a

t u r e , K

e n d r a

a n d T a p l

i n ( 2 0 0 4 ) s u g g e s t e d

t h a t p o s i

t i v e p r o j e c

t

o u t c o m e s a r e p r e d

i c a t e d o n o n - t i m e e x e c u t i o n o f

i n i t i a t

i v e s ; h o w e v e r , n

o i d e n

t i f i e d s t u d

i e s e x a m

i n e d

t h e e l e m e n

t s / b a r r i e r s c o n t r i b u

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