Running head: Middle Adulthood 1

Abstract

Middle adulthood is a time of change. During middle adulthood, the period from 40 to 65, there

are slow declines in health and members in this group are more prone to diseases. Middle adults

of higher socioeconomic status have less incidents of disease, and middle adults of lower

socioeconomic have more incidents of disease. Changes in sexuality occur however, these

changes are not considered as significant as once thought. Despite declines in some areas of

intellectual activity, middle adults maintain a high degree of cognitive competence. The

normative-crises and life events models provide insights into how middle adults live their lives.

However, the belief that many middle adults will experience a midlife crisis filled with fear,

turmoil, and stagnation is not support by research. This paper presents data which suggests that

for many middle adulthood is a time of mellowing and enjoying life.

Middle Adulthood 2

Middle adulthood is a time of transition; however, there is more than one viewpoint

concerning personality development during middle adulthood (Bode et al., 2007, p. 42): these

viewpoints are currently known, according to Feldman, as the normative-crises versus life events

models. The traditional view of development, the normative-crisis model, focuses on a set of

stages associated with “…age-related crises” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511), in contrast, the life events

model view indicates that events in middle adulthood influences personality development

(Feldman, 2011, p.511). Middle adults can develop proactive reactions to events (Bode et al.,

2007, p.42).

During middle adulthood, the time period from 40 to 65, there are slow declines in health;

members in this group are, according to Feldman, more prone to diseases (2011). Feldman tells

us:

“(m)iddle adulthood is generally a healthy period, but people become more

susceptible to … arthritis, diabetes, and hypertension, and they have a higher

death rate than before. However, the death rate among people in middle adulthood

in the United States has been steadily declining” (2011, p. 506).

Middle adults of higher socioeconomic status have fewer incidents of disease and middle

adults of lower socioeconomic have more incidents of disease (Feldman 2011). People gain

weight, decline in height and strength, and the lens of the eyes change causing diminished night

vision; middle adults, also, experience declines in near vision and awareness of three dimensions

(Feldman 2011). Also, cases of glaucoma, one of the diseases that causes blindness, increases

during middle adulthood; hearing ability also declines, this involves being unable to pick some

high-frequency sounds and some loss of “sound localization” (Feldman, 2011, p.505). Middle

adults often have increased reaction times and slower reactions “…are largely offset in complex

Middle Adulthood 3

tasks by increased skill due to years of task rehearsal” (Feldman, 2011, p. 505). Changes in

sexuality occur , among middle adults, according Feldman, however, these changes are not

considered as significant as once thought (Feldman 2011).

According to Feldman, despite declines in some areas of intellectual activity, middle adults

maintain a high degree of cognitive competence (Feldman, 2011, p. 506). Moreover, “(t)hose

who divide intelligence into two main types-fluid and crystallized-generally find that fluid

intelligence slowly declines through middle adulthood while crystallized intelligence holds

steady or even improves” (Feldman, 2011, p. 506). Aging does not appear to lead to declines in

short term or long term memory; middle adults may have problems with how they map, access ,

store, and retrieve information middle adults:

“…interpret, store, and recall information in the form of memory schemas,

which organize related bit of information, set up expectation, and add meaning to

phenomena. Schemas are based on prior experiences and facilitate interpretation of new

situations and recall of information that fits the schema” (Feldman, 2011, p. 506).

Mnemonic aids can help middle adults enhance their memories: “by forcing them to pay

attention to information as they store it (the keyword technique), to use cues to enable retrieval

(the encoding specificity phenomenon), or to practice information retrieval (rehearsal)”

(Feldman, 2011, p. 506).

Moreover, according to Allemand, after testing 445 middle aged adults, 42-46, and 420

older adults, 60-64, results indicated that during middle adulthood average changes in personality

occur, and each person changes differently (Allemand, Zimprich, et al., 2007). In context of

the normative-crisis model, Erik Erikson, who studied with the father of psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud, views middle adulthood as a stage of psychosocial development which

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occurs, according Martin, as the result of the blending of two energies: “…each stage of

development presented a unique challenge or crisis brought about by the combining forces of

both physiological change and psychosocial need” (Martin, 2008, p. 123).

Erikson’s theory views personality in context of fixed stages which are considered

universal and one must successfully complete one stage at a time; Michelle Martin, a well-

known author and human service professional tells us that “(t)he successful navigation of each

stage is dependent the preceding stages” (2008, p. 124). Therefore, for example, people who

failed to develop an understanding of stage one’s basic trust would have a very limited

understanding of stage two’s personnel autonomy; their limited understanding causes them to

fail to evolve beyond stage one to stage two successfully (Martin 2011). Erikson seeks to

predict a series of stages which are connected to crises which occur from birth to death: “(t)hese

stages are related to specific crises in which an individual goes through an intense period of

questioning and even psychological turmoil” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511). Research indicates that

those who are successful in going through the stages may have a greater sense of life having

more meaning (Hill, Brandenberger, et al., 2010). Research also suggests that crises during

middle adulthood enhance problem solving skills (Chang, D’Zurilla, et al., 2009).

According to Erikson, middle adulthood is the generativity-versus-stagnation stage; during

this time, people focus on “…making a personal contribution to family, work, and society as a

whole, or in stagnation…focusing on the triviality of their own activity, people may come to feel

that they have made limited contributions to the world, that their presence has counted for little”

(Feldman, 2011, p. 511). Critics believe that the normative-crisis models are no longer helpful

because they are outdated: “(t)hey arose at a time when society had fairly rigid and uniform roles

for people. Traditionally, men were expected to work to support a family; women were expected

Middle Adulthood 5

to stay at home, be housewives, and take of the children” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511). Moreover,

according to some theorists, people today do not age through fixed patterns: some people marry

late, some people never marry, others live together without marrying, and some people marry

and decide not to have children (Feldman, 2011). At 21, a woman may have her first child and

experience the same psychological changes as a woman of 39 having her first child; “(t)he result

is two women, despite their very different ages, share certain commonalities of personality

development” (Feldman, 2011, p. 511).

In context of the life events model, Daniel Levinson, an adult developmental theorist, wrote

two well-known books: The Seasons of a Man’s Life and The Seasons of a Woman’s Life.

Levinson indicates that “adults do not continue to grow and develop on an age-related

timetable…Levinson also believed that individuals progress through periods of stability that are

followed by shorter stages of transition” (Martin, 2011, p. 124). Levinson, also, indicates that

middle adults may experience a midlife crisis, and this crisis is experienced as a state of

uncertainty and indecision caused by people realizing that their life is not forever:

“(l)ooking toward the past, they may seek to define what went wrong and

look for ways to correct their past mistakes. The midlife crisis, then, is a

painful and tumultuous period of questioning” (Feldman, 2011, p. 512).

Levinson believes many middle adults will experience a midlife crisis (Feldman 2011).

Robert Feldman, the author of Development Across the Life Span, a popular graduate level

textbook, believes Levinson’s view, that most middle adults will have a midlife crisis, is based

on research that is limited;

“…his initial theorizing was based on a group of only 40 men, and his

work with women was carried out years later and once again on only a

Middle Adulthood 6

small sample. Furthermore, Levinson overstated the consistency and generality

of the patterns he found in the samples he used to derive his theory” (Feldman, 2011,

p. 513).

According to Feldman, there is little evidence supporting a large number of middle adults

having a midlife crisis (Feldman 2011). Most middle adults report that they are not experiencing

a midlife crisis and research indicates that, for many middle adults, this may be a peaceful time;

“(m)any middle-aged people find that their careers have blossomed…and far

from being in a crisis, they may feel quite content with their lot in life. Rather

than looking toward the future, they focus on the present, seeking to maximize

their ongoing involvement with, family, friends, and other social groups”

(Feldman, 2011, p. 513).

Feldman tells us research indicates that middle adults, who feel negative about how they

managed their past, will work hard to make positive changes to improve their lives and “… end

up better off psychologically” (Feldman, 2011, p. 513).

Feldman points out that research indicate that middle adults feel younger than their age: “…

most people feel younger than they actually are” (2011, p. 513). Research also shows that what

people believe about the midlife crisis is not supported by evidence:

“ (i)n short, the evidence for a midlife crisis experienced by most people is no more

compelling than the evidence for a stormy adolescence… Yet, like that notion, the idea that

the midlife crisis is nearly universal seems unusually well entrenched in “common

wisdom” (Feldman, 2011, p. 513).

Those who do experience turmoil during middle age draw a lot of attention to themselves

and are more remembered by observers. For example, Feldman tells us:

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a 40-year-old man who divorces his wife, replaces his sedate Volvo station

wagon with a red Saab convertible, and marries a much younger woman is likely

to be more conspicuous than a happily married man who remains with his wife (and

Taurus) throughout middle adulthood. As a consequence, we are more likely to notice

and recall marital difficulties than the lack of them” ( 2011, p.513).

During our life time, both Erikson and Levinson suggest that our personality experiences many

changes and these changes occur in patterns; “Erikson’s stages and Levinson’s seasons describe

set patterns of change” (Feldman, 2011, p. 515). However, research indicates that

“..at least in terms of individual traits, personality is quite stable and

continuous over the life span. Developmental psychologists Paul Costa

and Robert McCrae find remarkable stability in particular traits. Even-tempered

20-year-olds are even-tempered at age 75; affectionate 25-year-olds become

affectionate 50-year-olds; and disorganized 26-year-olds are still disorganized at age 60”

(Feldman, 2011, p. 515).

The empty nest syndrome is also time of transition for many middle adults. The empty nest

syndrome refers to the sadness, depression, worry, and sense of aloneness some parents

experience when the kids grow up and leave home (Feldman 2011). This can be a difficult time

for stay at home mothers who focus most of their time on taking care of the children, and little

research is devoted to the empty nest effects on fathers (Feldman 2011). 25% of fathers, in one

of the studies that did occur, experienced sadness in context of not having more time to spend

with their children (Feldman 2011). According to research, the stage of motherhood is not easy,

and data indicates that many mothers feel a great sense of freedom when this stage is completed

Middle Adulthood 8

(Feldman 2011). Research also indicates that, for many moms and dads, the sense of loss and

sadness they experience when the kids grow up and leave is temporary (Feldman 2011).

  Moreover, Feldman tells us, that after the kids leave, mothers have more time and choices: 

they can go back to school, start a new career, and become more active in their church and

community (2011). Feldman also suggests, that after the kids go, there’s more time for mom and

dad to be alone together which can lead to greater happiness for each partner (2011). Research

indicates that children may need to return home after leaving:  mothers understand, but fathers

may have to adjust (Feldman 2011). When the kids return home after graduating from college,

fathers need to try to be more understanding; they should realize that the kids are back because

the job market is in a difficult state (Feldman 2011).

   In conclusion, each of the models and research data provide insights into how middle adults

live their lives. However these models and research data do not provide absolute answers.

Middle adulthood is a time of change; however, the belief that many middle adults will

experience a midlife crisis filled with fear, turmoil, and stagnation is not support by research.

Research indicates that for many middle adulthood is a time of mellowing and enjoying life.

If changes need to be made, they happen based on proactive efforts. The proactive approach is

also helpful when many middle adults must adjust to declines in body functioning and health.

Middle Adulthood 9

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