MODERN ERA:1750 - 1914

DEMOGRAPHY AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN AN AGE OF

REVOLUTION AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITIONMalthusian Economics

Predicted human population always outpaced food, suppliesOnly natural disasters, wars, famine keep population lowDid not figure in technology, inventions, science

Key CharacteristicsPopulation • Increased from 900 million (1800) to 1.6 billion (1900)• In Europe, Asia, North America• Scientific, medical advances

– Increase life span, infant survival rate– Decrease death rate, death of mother during childbirth– New hygiene

Food supply increases• Lightly, uninhabited areas brought under cultivation• World trade allows for foods to reach areas quicker• Staples in world trade due to refrigeration, canning, ships• Agronomy, animal husbandry increase yields, variety, quality

– Fruits of the Columbian Exchange– Many nations begin to export quantities of wheat, meat

Population Movements• Internal Migration to unsettled lands, international Migrations• Urbanization• End of Slave Trade necessitated labor based migration

GRAPHING MALTHUS & DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

22NDND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONIn 1750 the world was largely subsistence agriculture

Rhythms of regional agricultural societies based on seasons, surroundingsSmall plots, rural villages, no export: exception were Russia, Baltic

Began in England but also occurred in Western Europe, US, AsiaOutgrowth of Columbian ExchangeOutgrowth of the Scientific Revolution

Enclosure ActLarger landowners begin to enclose lands• Began with enclosure of public lands• Done legally to increase yields of large landowners• Then took smaller farms, plots away from poor farmers• Done with support of Parliament

Results• Moved small, inefficient farms into better productivity• Brought new lands under cultivation• Freed labor for factories and swelled population in cities

The RevolutionNew Foodstuffs planted; new styles of crop rotationsSelected breeds of cattle, dairy cattle, sheepTechnology, science applied to farming

Agricultural Revolution followed European imperialismEuropeans brought their crops, animals with themEuropeans began exploiting cash crops for commercial profit abroad

FROM PEASANTS TO FARMERSThe process, while social, began with technology, science

Agronomy and animal husbandry replaced herding• Selective breeding, splicing, experimentation• Crop varieties, fertilizers to enrich soil

Farming machinery introduced• Thrashers, reapers, seed drills, tractors• Muscle , animal power replaced by machines• Barbed wire was a revolution

Transport, preservation made export possible• Trains, ships with large holds• Grain silos, refrigerator ships, canning, food processors

Subsistence Agriculture becomes commercial farmingWestern Europe, US, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, UruguayAustralia, New Zealand, parts of India, China, Japan

On the other hand, in some countriesPeasants went from masters of their own workTo hands for someone else’s work, or someone else’s work handsRussia, Eastern Europe, Africa, parts of Latin America, SE Asia

COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURECommercial agriculture was a revolution 1750 – 1914

Cash crops: crops grown for profitable exportOften luxuries or non-necessities with high profit marginsTwo bottlenecks (natural hindrance to profitable production)• Many are labor intensive: solution – slavery, paid agricultural workers• Many require extensive processing, preservation to be useful: solution – technology

Commercial agriculture is heavily damaging to the environment, soilFirst arose during 16th century colonialism

Caribbean, Brazilian, SE Asian plantationsLatin American haciendas, rancherosFirst export crops: sugar, hides, wool, spices

Expanded in 18th centuryBritish North American colonies added tobacco, indigo, riceAsia added tea, coffee, opium, clovesAmericas added cocoa, coffee

Industrial Revolution made additional possible moreCotton (seeds); rubber, oil (synthesizing)Beef, mutton, grains, dairy (long-term preservation, get to market on time)The rest of world, especially Africa enormously effected

Many areas of world taken from feeding people to exporting for profit

POPULATION GROWTH

The Fruits of Industry Industrialization raised material standards of living• Mass production made luxuries into common goods• Workers received pay and able to buy goods, foods Better diets and improved sanitation • Reduced death rate of adults and children• Reduced deaths due to childbirth• Increased life span• Decreased infant mortality• Declining birthrate in response to declining mortality • Voluntary birth control through contraceptionImpact on Population• Populations of Europe, America, Asia rose sharply from 1700 to 1900• Increasing urbanization especially of port cities, industrial cities

World EffectsChange typical of industrialized countriesChange confined to port cities of non-Western nations

DOMESTIC MIGRATIONIndustrialization

Drew migrants from countryside to urban centers By 1900, In Europe and Anglo-North America• 50 percent of population of industrialized nations lived in towns • More than 150 cities with over 100,000 peopleUrban problems• Shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water • By late 19th century

– Governments passed legislation to clean up cities – Passed building codes, built sewer systems

Internal MigrationSettlement of Frontiers by population centers• Existing populations expand into plains, prairies• Facilitated by railroads, technologyExamples• Westward Movement in USA, Canada, Australia• Settlement of Siberia by Russia• Great Trek by Afrikaaners• Chinese settlement of Yangtze, west, Manchuria• Settlement of Brazilian, Argentine interior plains

TRANSCONTINENTAL IMMIGRATIONReasons for immigration

Factors pushing people to immigrate• Failed revolutions, nationalisms led losers, minorities to immigrate• Severe economic, social conditions, repressions in Italy, Slavic lands• Overpopulation drove many to immigrate • Contract labor immigration in India, China, Indonesia

Factors pulling people to immigrate• Better economic opportunities abroad• Gold Rushes, free land, recruitment by settler nations

Europe 1800-192060 million Europeans migrated Canada, US, Chile, Brazil, Argentina in the AmericasSettler colonies of South Africa, Australia, New ZealandJews, Catholics transformed US through migration

Asian ImmigrationChinese Immigration • Businessmen allowed to settle in French, British port cities• Laborers exported across Pacific to do manual labor following abolition of slavery• Built American railroads in the West

Indian, Southeast Asian laborers • Migrated to British, French African, Indian Ocean, British Caribbean, Asia-Pacific

colonies • Used for heavy labor, household labor following abolition of slavery

Korean laborers moved around Japanese Empire

MIGRATION TO THE AMERICASIndustrial migrants to United States and Canada

In 1850s• 2.3 million Europeans migrated to US, Canada• Mostly Irish, German, English• Number increased after from 1870s to 1920sImmigrant labor replaced slave labor • Contributed to U.S. industrial expansion• Provided labor in factories, on railroads• Union soldiers were 1/5 immigrants 1852-1875• 200,000 Chinese migrated to California• Worked in mines and building railroads• Provided domestic labor in West1875 – 1920• S. European: Italians, Greeks to USA• E. European: Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Jews to US, Canada• N. European: Scandinavians to Canada

Latin American Migrants mostly worked on agricultural plantations • Italians migrated to South America

– Changed Chile, Uruguay, Argentina into Neo-Europes– Profoundly remade Brazil into a multi-racial society (was African)

• Asians migrated to Cuba, Peru and the Caribbean sugar fieldsMigration to the cities in Mexico, Argentina, Brazil

MIGRATIONS DUE TO EMPIREEuropean migration

Fifty million Europeans migrated 1800-1914, over half to the US Settler colonies in Canada, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, S. Africa • Most European migrants became cultivators, herders, skilled laborers• Led to Dominion Status for Canada, S. Africa, Australia, New ZealandBritain, Russia • UK: Canada, Australia, New Zealand• Russia: SiberiaSouth Africa• British acquired South Africa from Dutch in 1815• Pressure led Boers to migrate to the interior

Indentured labor, contract labor migration Most from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands • 2.5 million indentured laborers during 1820-1914 • Indentured migrants to work on plantations Example• Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean plantations • Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations• Chinese work on building railroads in US• Chinese provide heavy lifting labor throughout French, British, US empires

Other migrations Reflected global influence of imperialismHindu merchants settled heavily in East Africa, S. Africa, MalayaChinese merchants followed contract laborer to Pacific cities

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGREDATIONFirst era in history when environment seriously threatened by humansCauses of Environmental Stress

Industrialization• Pollution increased significantly especially in cities, water• Ability to destroy land for resources increased due to technology• Examples: Industrial areas of Western Europe, Eastern USA

Technology• Iincreased production on land, from resources• Marginal lands could be settled, exploited

Demographic Stress• Urbanization, expanding cities destroyed habitats• High Population Densities supported by food• Many acres moved to unproductive status• Examples: Western Europe, Asian/Indian port cities

Environmental Shift• Farming, ranching changed face of landscape

– Ranch animals introduced new fauna, diseases, threats– Farming horticulture introduced new flora– Examples: Americas, Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Hawaii

• Switch from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture changed face of environment

• Forests were the most effected by this shiftExtinction, Endangerment of Flora, Fauna• Overfishing of areas began, overforesting of areas• Many died out due to competition from domestic flora, fauna• Many were exterminated due to hunting: Passenger Pigeon, Dodo• Examples: United States, Australia, New Zealand

ECOLOGICAL IMPERIALISMEuropeans brought flora, fauna to their colonies

Preferred European animals, crops; drove out native speciesEcological imperialism worse in Australia, New Zealand

New crops transformed landscape and society Westerners converted colonial landscape to export • Wanted agriculture to be export, profit• Converted farming land to use for export crops• Destroyed centuries old farming systems to plant export crops• Many lands could no longer feed the native population• Plantations used paid, indentured native laborColonial rule • Transformed traditional production of crops and commodities • Indian cotton grown to serve British textile industry • Inexpensive imported textiles undermined Indian productionExamples• Rain forests of Ceylon converted to tea plantations • Ceylonese women recruited to harvest tea • Rubber plantations transformed Malaya and Sumatra• Americans ran sugar, pineapple plantations in Pacific, Hawaii • Planted coffee, banana trees in Africa, Americas• US interests plant hemp in Yucatan for export• Argentine, Brazilian grains, cattle take over Pampa, Mato Grosso