Modern EuropeHIS-107

Unit 8 – 1920s

Weimar Germany (1918-1933)

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) November Revolution (November 9, 1918)

Occurred two days before the end of World War I Bloodless overthrow of the imperial government The kaiser abdicated Social Democratic Party (SPD) announced a new

German republic Socialists wanted democratic reforms within

existing imperial bureaucracy Radicals and communists wanted more wide

sweeping reforms Communists and independent socialists staged

armed uprisings in Berlin Social Democrats tried to crush the uprisings

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Elections not held until January 1919 New government was headed by president

Friedrich Ebert New Constitution

Very democratic system Proportional representation - All votes were

counted up centrally to divide seats fairly between parties

Article 48 – Gave the president the right to dismiss Parliament and rule by himself in cases of “emergency”

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Weak governmental system

Proportional representation made it difficult for one party to gain a majority

This meant coalitions would have to be formed to gain the majority

Between 1919-1932, there were a total of 21 governments

Difficult to pass legislation This led to the president more and more using his

powers to pass legislation By 1930, three times as many laws were passed by the

president than by the Reichstag

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) During the first five years, the republic saw

riots, strikes, shootings and attempts to overthrow Ebert’s coalition government

Communists Felt that Ebert and the socialists had failed to

complete the revolution because they had not abolished private property

The Freikorps Former army officers fighting Bolsheviks, Poles,

and communists Fiercely right-wing anti-Marxist, anti-Semitic, and

anti-liberal

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Spartacists

Led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht Radical socialists Became the foundation of the Communist Party

Spartacist Uprising (January 5-12, 1919) General strike led by the Spartacists in Berlin Failed attempt to overthrow Ebert’s government Freikorps were brought in to bring peace and

stability back to Berlin Both Luxemburg and Liebknecht were killed

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) “Red Bavaria” (April 6 – May 3, 1919)

The Spartacists were successfully able to seize the Bavarian government in Munich

Friekorps were once again sent into put down the communist regime

Kapp Putsch (March 1920) Military led attempted coup led by Wolfgang Kapp Very reactionary and strongly monarchistic A general strike was called as a way to defeat the

putsch Over 250,000 banded together against the putsch Friekorps refused to join the putsch

Kapp Putsch “Stop! Whosoever proceeds will be shot”

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Weimar coalition

Socialists, Catholic centrists, and liberal democrats Parliamentary liberalism

Pluralistic framework Universal suffrage for men and women Bill of rights that guaranteed civil liberties

The failure of Weimar Social, political, and economic crisis The humiliation of World War I Germany “stabbed in the back” by socialists and

Jews What was needed was authoritarian leadership

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Article 231 – “War Guilt Clause” Placed full blame on Germany for the start of the war Ordered reparations of over 132 billion marks to the

Allied countries Many Germans saw this as an embarrassment since

it left the country economically broke and unarmed In April 1921, the Allies first began demanding

payment of war reparations from Germany The final reparations bill was announced as being

£6.6 billion (~$292 billion in 2011) The German government asked for permission to

suspend payments until the German economy recovered

The Allies refused

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) In 1922, Germany fails to pay reparations to

France and Belgium Specifically they defaulted on coal and timber

deliveries In January 1923, France and Belgium respond by

occupying the Ruhr as a way to force payments This was the center of German coal, iron, and steel

production Germans launch a general strike of passive

resistance with the occupiers German government actually paid the workers to strike However, the German government had to figure out a

way of paying the workers It started to print more money

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) This led to rapid devaluation of the German

mark In 1921, the exchange rate was 75 marks to $1

U.S. In November 1923, it 4 billion marks to $1 U.S. Many lost their life savings due to the devaluation

of the mark By the end of 1923, the Weimar government

was able to bring things back under control Mostly done at the hands of Chancellor Gustav

Stresemann Strikes were brought to an end and a new

currency, the Rentenmark was issued

Million Mark notes being used as note paper (October 1923)

Woman burning Marks as a heat source

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Dawes Plan (1924)

Called for the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr

Germany was given more time to pay reparations Also given 800 million marks in U.S. loans

Germany stabilizes and begins to grow again without inflation

Young Plan (1930) Clear that Germany still could not make large

payments Reduced payments to 112 billion Marks ($103

billion in 2011) over 59 years Also allowed for 2/3 of the annual payments to be

postponed

For three generations, you’ll have to slave away!

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Locarno Treaties (October 1925)

Guaranteed the common boundaries of Belgium, France, and Germany as specified in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919

Germany signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, agreeing to change the eastern borders of Germany by arbitration only

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Despite Germany’s apparent recovery after 1923,

there were still serious problems Many people’s life savings had been wiped out by

hyperinflation and they were bitterly angry Economically, Germany was heavily dependent upon

US loans, which could be recalled at any time Ebert died in 1925 and was replaced by Hindenburg

Hindenburg was a conservative leader which showed how much support remained for the old, authoritarian Germany

Stresemann’s attempts to revise the Treaty of Versailles met with little success at the League of Nations

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Just before his death in 1929, Stresemann

said: “The economic position is only flourishing on the surface. Germany is in fact dancing on a volcano. If the short-term credits are called in, a large section of our economy will collapse…”

In October 1929, the Wall Street Crash saw the value of US shares collapse US bankers and businesses started recalling their

loans The result was a worldwide depression This meant economic disaster for Germany

Adolph Hitler

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party In September 1919, Hitler was working as a

police spy for the German Army One of his duties was to infiltrate the German

Worker’s Party (DAP) He liked the ideas of the party and joined it It promoted the idea of nationalistic “non-Jewish”

socialism This became the foundation of the Nazi party

In October 1920, Hitler creates the Sturm Abteilung (SA), which became his own private army Their job was to protect Hitler and disrupt meetings

of political opponents The SA became known as “storm troopers”

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party In July 1921, Hitler was elected to be Führer of the

party He renamed it to the National Socialist German

Workers’ Party (NSDAP), or the Nazi party By 1923, Germany’s economy was in rough shape

In September 1923, Germany resumed making reparation payments to France

By November, people would be required to carry billions of marks to buy groceries, of which many could not afford

The Nazi party felt this was the perfect opportunity to seize power By November 1923, the Nazi party had over 55,000

members

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party Their plan called for the kidnapping of Bavarian

leaders at a Munich beer hall They would then force them at gunpoint to make Hitler

their leader They had a famous WWI general on their side who

would then help them win over the army Munich Beer Hall Putsch (November 8, 1923)

Hitler and his SA troops stormed in to the beer hall He managed to convince the leaders to support him However, they were unable to secure the support of

the army Hitler was arrested for conspiracy to commit

treason

Leaders of the Beer Hall Putsch

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party Hitler was put on trial in February 1924

The judges at the time were Nazi sympathizers Hitler used the trial to spread Nazi propaganda

During the trial he stated: “I alone bear the responsibility. But I am not a

criminal because of that. If today I stand here as a revolutionary, it is as a revolutionary against the revolution. There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918.”

He was still found guilty and sentenced to five years in prison with possibility of parole

He was given a large and comfortable cell at Landsberg prison

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party During his time in prison, Hitler dictated Mein

Kampf It contained a number of his political ideas In included his belief in lebensraum, “living room,” for

Germans It also included the concept of a “superior” race (the

Aryans) and “inferior” races (Jews and Slavs) He was released from prison on December 20,

1924 By this time, he realized his mistake was not having

the support of the military Instead, he was going to get support of the people and

the army by using the democratic process to his advantage

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party While Hitler was in prison, the popularity of the

Nazi party had declined It had even been banned in Bavaria after the Putsch

When he was released from prison, he spent the next few years reorganizing the Nazi party Designed it to give a more legitimate appearance He used his oratory skills to win over politicians and

masses He reworked his image to appeal to the middle and

upper classes Hitler was able to enjoy a comfortable lifestyle in

Bavaria However, the Nazi party did not have any real

power until 1929

German political representation in the Reichstag

Political Parties in the Reichstag

May 1924

Dec. 1924

May1928

Sep.1930

July1932

Nov.1932

Mar.1933

Communist Party (KPD)

62 45 54 77 89 100 81

Social Democratic Party (SDP)

100 131 153 143 133 121 120

Catholic Centre Party (BVP)

81 88 78 87 97 90 93

Nationalist Party (DNVP)

95 103 73 41 37 52 52

Nazi Party (NSDAP)

32 14 12 107 230 196 288

Other Parties

102 112 121 122 22 35 23

Rise of Fascism in Italy

Italy after World War I Aftermath of World War I

A democracy in distress 700,000 dead $15 billion debt

Problems: Split between the industrial north and agrarian

south Conflict over land, wages, and local power Government corruption and indecision Inflation, unemployment, and strikes

Demands for radical reform

Italy after World War I In 1920, socialists and anarchists attempted

to take control of the factories Red Leagues formed in the countryside to

break up large estates In the November 1920 elections, Italians

abandoned the center and shifted to the extremes On the right was the Catholic People’s Party On the left was the Socialist Party Both did not want revolution but instead pushed

for greater reforms The rise of socialism led to the rise of more

right-wing vigilante groups

Fascism

Fascism Totalitarian philosophy of government that

glorifies the state and nation and assigns to the state control over every aspect of national life Comes from the Latin word fasces

In ancient Rome, the fasces were cylindrical bundles of wooden rods, tied tightly together around an axe

They symbolize unity and power A form of extreme right-wing ideology It celebrates the nation or the race as an organic

community transcending all other loyalties Powerful and continuing nationalism Constant use of patriotic mottos, slogans, symbols,

songs, etc. Flags are seen everywhere

Fascism Fascism seeks forcibly to subordinate all

aspects of society to its vision of organic community This is usually through a totalitarian state

It uses organized violence to suppress opposition Glorification of force Accepts the tenets of Social Darwinism Is anti-democratic

The individual had no significance except as a member of the state

Fascism The fascists were taught:

Credere! (to believe) Obbedire! (to obey) Combattere! (to fight)

The “phoenix rising up from the ashes” Emphasis on a national or racial rebirth after a

period of decline or destruction Calls for a “spiritual revolution” against signs of

moral decay (such as individualism and materialism)

Seeks to purge “alien” forces and groups that threaten the organic community

Fascism Fascist governments tend to use the most

common religion in the nation as a tool to manipulate public opinion

They meld religious rhetoric, symbolism, mythology, etc., into their policies Appears to give a religious permission to

government policies Organized labor is the only real threat to a

fascist government Labor unions are suppressed or independent unions

are eliminated The industrial and business aristocracy of a fascist

state often are the ones who put the government leaders into power

Fascism Fascism, to some extent, was a product of a

general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle class of post-war Italy: Fears regarding the survival of capitalism Economic depression The rise of a militant left A feeling of national shame and humiliation at

Italy’s poor treatment by the other Entente leaders after World War I

Fascism In 1920, the Italian Socialist Party organized

militant strikes in Turin and other northern Italian industrial cities There was the belief that the economic chaos in

the north could spread to the rest of Italy Hundreds of new fascist groups developed

throughout Italy in response “Black Shirts” (paramilitary squadriste) violently

attacked the Socialists

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)

Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (1883–1945)

Was born to a socialist father and teacher mother Fled to Switzerland in 1902 to avoid military duty Returned to Italy in 1904

Editor of Avantia (1904-1914) Leading socialist daily Lost editorship when he urged Italy to side with

the Allies during World War I As a supporter for the war, he was kicked out

of the socialist party The party wanted Italy to remain neutral

Mussolini He fought briefly in the war before he was

wounded When he returned to Milan he had turned to the

right wing Moved towards revolutionary nationalism

Founded Il Poplo d’Italia (The People of Italy) Pushed his ideas for support of the war and the

guarantees promised by the Allies His editorial positions:

The war was a turning point for Italy The returning combat soldiers would form a new elite and

bring about a new type of state This new elite would transform Italian politics and society

Mussolini He also began organizing the right-wing groups

Attracted young, idealist, fanatical nationalists who were upset with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

Became known as fasci (“groups” in Italian) In 1919, Mussolini formed the Fasci Italiani di

Combattimento Italian Combat Squad consisting of 200 members Claimed to oppose discrimination based on social class

and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war Wanted to raise Italy back up to the greatness of the

old Roman Empire This helped the party gain support mainly of the

middle-class

Fascism In Italy The national government continued to weaken In the 1921 election, Fascists won 35 seats

They were included in the political coalition bloc of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti’s government

In September 1922, Mussolini began negotiations with the king to allow the Fascist party into the government When that failed, Mussolini threatened a coup d'état

On October 28, 1922, 50,000 fascist militia marched on Rome Occupied the city Victor Emmanuel III refused to allowed the military

to arrest the Fascists

Fascism In Italy He invited Mussolini to join a coalition government

withGiolitti

On December 24, 925, Mussolini took full control of the government A law was passed naming him “head of the

government” He was answerable to no one, not even the king

The Fascist Party took over the Italian government without firing a single shot

Failure of the Italian government was more in its weakness than the power of the Fascist Party Also partly due to the failure of Peace of Versailles

Black Shirts marching on Rome

Italy Under Mussolini The Fascist Party set up a one-party dictatorship Three doctrines

Statism - “Nothing above, outside, or against the state”

Nationalism - The “highest form of society” Militarism - The “ennoblement” of man in war

First step was to change the government Got rid the electoral laws Abolished cabinet system

Mussolini assumed role of prime minister and party leader (Il Duce)

Introduced repression and censorship

Italy Under Mussolini Ending class conflict

A managed economy A corporate state

Lateran Treaty (1929) Granted independence to papal residence in the

Vatican City Also promised restitution for expropriations

occurred during unification Roman Catholicism established as the state

religion Maintaining the status quo and “making the

trains run on time”

Peace between Rome and the Church

The Great Depression The 1920s were a period of prosperity for most

of Europe Even Germany saw a rise in production after 1924

Problems with this prosperity: Based mainly on credit Workers still made much less than they were worth Wages lagged behind profits and dividends Agricultural depression due to the destruction of

fields during World War I Modern technology caused the production of wheat to

dramatically increase However demand remained the same so prices

plummeted Most farmers could not make enough to pay off their

mortgages

The Great Depression Crash of 1929

Wall Street Crash of October 1929 brought about the collapse of the American financial system

This led to a chain reaction of crashes of other western financial systems

Common patterns of economic crisis: Decreased trade Cutbacks in production and consumption Increased unemployment Widespread deprivation and frustration Radical political agitation

The Great Depression Agricultural countries were hurt

Their exports of agricultural goods were worth much less than the goods they were importing

This led to a decline in the value of their currencies Many countries left the gold standard

This was because they had to use their gold reserves to pay for their imports

Started with Britain but was followed by 20 other countries

Led to the further devaluation of most of the currency

Tariffs were implemented or increased Designed to protect domestic production Quotas were adopted by many nations as well