One-day Workshop on Research & Publication

8/14/2019 One-day Workshop on Research & Publication

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SESSION IRESEARCHPROBLEM

IDENTIFICATION

R K JAIN

PRINCIPAL

ADIT, NEW V V NAGAR

1ADIT 24.04.2009


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BASIC STEP OF RESEARCH WORK

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1. Read , read, readand read

To know what is

going on not only

around you but

around whole

world

(Do not try to

reinvent the wheel)


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ADIT 24.04.2009 3

2. Classify the

reading and

priorities as

per yourinterest and

capabilities

OT

H

E

R

W

I

S

E


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3. Write down salient

points you have

read as work done

4. Note down

research need

stated by the

researcher if any

5. Discuss with thepeople in that field


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ADIT 24.04.2009 5

6. Judge them against

infrastructure

facility available

and time frameavailable with you


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ADIT 24.04.2009 6

ASK FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

What is to be done?Why it is to be done?

How it is to be done?

Who will be beneficiary?

When he will be beneficiary?

Result: Identification of research problem

If all answer are as per your satisfaction then

If not, go to step 1 i.e. Read, read , read and read
http://www.state.fl.us/stac/brain/brain.html


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ADIT 24.04.2009 7

If you can identify the research problem

MAKE HYPOTHESIS

DONT JUST AIM, EXECUTE ACTION !!!!!!!


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By

Dr. Jitesh Thakkar

All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often

better than overconfidence, for it leads toinquiry, and inquiry leads to invention!

SESSION IIRESEARCH DESIGN:

A METHODOLOGICAL BACKGROUND FOR SCIENTIFIC WORK


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Outline What is research?

What are the components of research design?

Research Milestones

Milestone 1: Research problem formulation

Milestone 2: Literature review

Milestone 3: Research methodology

Milestone 4: Data collection

Milestone 5: Data analysis and interpretation


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10

Faculty Characteristics

Quick Starters Seek social

support / advice

Exemplary teachers positive attitude

towards students

less time

preparing for class

more timeon scholarly work

complain less

Unsuccessful Confused about

expectations

Feel socially isolated

Scholarly work onlyverbal priority, lowactual time

Defensive teachers lecture only

content focus

avoid bad

evaluations


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Research Introduction

Refers to search for knowledge

Systematic search for information on specifictopic

Art of scientific investigation

Movement from know to the unknown

Method which man employs for obtaining theknowledge of unknown

Academic Activity : used in the technical sense


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What research is not

1. Research is not information gathering frombooks or journals(No contribution to new knowledge)

2. Research isnt the transportation of the facts

3. Research is not merely rummaging forinformation

4. Research is not a catch word used to getattention.


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Why we undertake research

i) as a part of degree ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Qualification

ii) solving an unsolved problem take as challenge

iii) Intellectual / creative work ...joy of doing it.

iv) service /useful to society

v) get recognition & respectability

vi) directives of govt., employment conditions, social thinking etc.


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Objectives of ResearchMain aim is to find truth which has not been discovered yet.

- To gain familiarity with the phenomenon Exploratory orFormulative research studies

- To portray accurately the characteristics of an individual orgroup - Descriptive Research Studies

- To determine the frequency with which something occur -Diagnostic Research Studies.

- To test relationship between variables Hypothesis testingresearch.


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Characteristics contd.

Collection and interpretation of data

- Primary data Collected afresh for the first time(Original Data)

- Secondary data already collected by someone else(Compilation)

Primary data is collected by- Observations- Interviews- Questionnaires- Schedules- Discussions

- Projective Techniques

Secondary data is collected by :- Publications, Books, Journals, Newspapers,Records, Reports prepared by other research scholars.


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Good research results require a careful

design of the research methodology and

considerable evaluation efforts


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17

Basic Research Designs Compared

EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE CAUSAL

Objectives Gather backgroundinformation, define terms,

clarify problems and

hypotheses, establish

research priorities.

Describe and measuremarketing phenomena,

characteristics, or

functions of interest.

Establish causality, developif-then statements

Characteristics Relatively simple,

versatile and flexible;Often the first phase of a

multiple research design,

unstructured.

Prior formulation of

specific hypotheses;Pre-planned and

structured design.

Manipulation of one or more

independent variables;Pre-planned and structured

design;

Control of other mediating

variables

Methods Secondary data analysis

Qualitative researchExpert surveys

Pilot surveys

Secondary data

analysisSurveys

Panels

Observational and

. other data

Experiments:

LaboratoryField

Test marketing

Results/Findings Tentative Conclusive Conclusive


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[Takeda,1990]

Awareness ofproblem

Suggestion Development ConclusionEvaluation

abduction deduction

+ operation and goal knowledge

circumscription

knowledge

flows

processsteps

logical

formalism

Design research process


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Research Paradigm


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Research Process


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Research Process1. Formulating a research problem

2. Research design: It includes selection of research approach, design of

sampling plan, design of experiment and design of questionnaire.

3. Constructing an instrument for data collection: Methods and tools of data

collection.

4. Selecting a sample: Sampling theory and designs

5. Writing a research proposal: It includes Problem definition, objectives,

methodology, data and data sources and scope of the study

6. Collecting data from various sources: Primary data and secondary data

7. Data Analysis: Data processing using different statistical methods

8. Interpretation of results: by inferring the solutions

9. Validation of results: to ensure the credibility of the results.

10.Writing a research report


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Milestone 1: Stating the Research

Problem


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Stating the Research Problem

Once youve identified a research problem: State that problem clearly and completely.

Determine the feasibility of the research.

Identify subproblems:

Completely researchable units.

Small in number.

Add up to the total problem.

Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of thedata.


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Defining the Research Problem

1. There must be some objectives to be attained at. If one

wants nothing, one cannot have problem.

2. There must be alternative means (or the courses of

action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to

attain. There must be at least two means available to a

researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot

have a problem.

3. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a

researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives

(efficiency of the possible alternatives).


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Research Problem: An Illustration

Why is productivity in Japan so much higherthan in India?

What ambiguities do you observe?


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Ambiguities Involved

What sort of productivity is beingreferred to?

With what industries the same is related?

With what period of time theproductivity is being talked about?


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Research Problem Reframed

What factors were responsible for the higher labour

productivity Japans manufacturing industries

during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to Indias

manufacturing industries?


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Milestone 2: Literature

Review


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Literature Review

The available literature is reviewed todetermine if there is already a solution to the

problem.

Existing solutions do not always explainnew observations.

The existing solution might require some

revision or even be discarded.


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LITERATURE CLASSIFICATION

EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES USE OF METHODOLOGIES/ APPROACHES

NO. OF ARTICLES

THRUST AREAS

POSITIONING OF A PARTICULAR ISSUE IN

THE PRESENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE


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Suggest Hypotheses

The researcher generates intermediate

hypotheses to describe a solution to the

problem.

This is at best a temporary solution

since there is as yet no evidence to

support either the acceptance orrejection of these hypotheses.


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What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is aclaim (assumption)

about the population

parameter Examples of parameters

are population mean

or proportion

The parameter must

be identified before

analysis

I claim the mean CGPA of this

class is 7.5!


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Types of Hypotheses Descriptive hypotheses: Typically state the existence, size, form or

distribution of some variable. For example, American cities (case) are

experiencing budget difficulties (variables) Relational hypotheses: Describes a relationship between two variables with

respect to some case. For example, Foreign (variable) cars are perceived by

American consumers (case) to be of betterquality (variable) than domestic

cars Dictates relationship between country of origin and perceived

quality Correlational hypothesis: state merely that the variables occur together in

some specified manner without implying that one causes the other. For

example, Young machinist are less productive than those who are 35 years of

age or older

Explanatory (causal) hypothesis: there is an implication that the existence of,or a change in, one variable causes or leads to a change in the other variable

relationship between dependent and independent variables. For example,

An increase in family income (IV) leads to an increase in the percentage of

income saved (DV).


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Milestone 3: Selecting Research

Methodology


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Research Methodology

Methodology is not just method. Methodology is the philosophical basis for

methods

Methodologies are high-level approachesto conducting research.

The individual steps within the

methodology might vary based on the

research being performed.


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Types of Research MethodologiesTwo commonly used Methodologies

- Qualitative

- QuantitativeQualitative means collection of extensive narrative data leading to verbal

synthesis

- Historical research (study of past events)

- Case study research (study of current events over an extended periodof time)

Quantitative means collection of numerical data leading to statisticalcollection

- Descriptive (Collecting numerical data to test hypothesis)

- Co-relational (determine whether and to what degree a relationshipexists between two or more quantifiable variables)

- Causal Comparative Research (establish cause effect relationship

among the variables involves group comparisons)

- Experimental Research (establish cause effect relationship in case of

experimental research the cause is under control of experimenter


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Research Methodology

1. Exploratory Research: A study is undertaken to explore an area

where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of

undertaken a particular research study.

Different types of exploratory research are:

Literature survey- collection of literature in the related area.

Experience survey- survey of experiences of experts/specialistsin a particular field.

Study of problems to have an insight case study of related

topics

2. Explanatory research: attempts to clarify why and how these isa relationship between two aspects of situation or

phenomenon.


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Research Methodology (Contd.)

3. Conclusive research: tests the hypothesis of a research

problem formulates by exploratory research and drawsdefinite conclusion (conclusions) for implementation. This

types of research is classified as:

a) Descriptive Research: tries to discover answers to the

questions who, what, when, where and sometimes, how. Thisstudies may or may not have the potential for drawing

powerful inferences. It is popular in business studies because

of its versatility across disciplines.

b) Experimental Research: used to study the effect of a set offactors on the response variable of system of study.

R h M th d l ( d )


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Research Methodology (Contd.)

4. Modeling Research

This type of research includes the formulation of different

models of real life problems. eg.

(i) Mathematical model: mainly operations research models

aimed to solved complex reallife problems. eg:- Linear

programming models, transportation models, inventory models,

replacement models, goal programming models etc. This type

of research is mainly aimed to the development of improved

methods to obtain the results of complex problem.

(ii) Simulation model: Simulation is an experiment conducted over

a real-life stochastic system in a scaled time frame to extract asmany average operational statistics as possible to formulate

respective decision guide lines.


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Milestone 4: Acquiring

Data


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Acquire Data

The researcher now begins to gather data relating to

the research problem.

The means of data acquisition will often change

based on the type of the research problem.

This might entail only data gathering, but it could

also require the creation of new measurement

instruments.


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DATA

Data are source of information or

observation in a research.

The type of data depend on research

purposes and the academic discipline of

the researcher.


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TYPES OF DATA

Primary Data

Original

Obtained by researcher from field observations,

interviews, questionnaires, etc.

Secondary Data

Not original

Use of already published material such as government

reports, tables, work of other researcher.


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Levels of Data Measurement

Nominal Lowest level of

measurement

Ordinal Interval

Ratio Highest level of measurement


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Usage Potential of Various Levels of Data

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio


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Data Level, Operations,

and Statistical Methods

DataLevel

Nominal

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Meaningful Operations

Classifying and Counting

All of the above plus Ranking

All of the above plus Addition,Subtraction, Multiplication,

and Division

All of the above

StatisticalMethods

Nonparametric

Nonparametric

Parametric

Parametric


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SAMPLE

The manner in which the sample is drawn

determines to what extent we can generalise

from the findings.

Sample to be an accurate representation of the

whole population.

IF NOT than the research is limited to the

sample studied.


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Types of sampling

procedures


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Random Versus Nonrandom Sampling

Random sampling Every unit of the population has the same probability of being

included in the sample.

A chance mechanism is used in the selection process.

Eliminates bias in the selection process

Also known as probability sampling

Nonrandom Sampling Every unit of the population does not have the same

probability of being included in the sample. Open the selection bias

Not appropriate data collection methods for most statistical

methods

Also known as nonprobability sampling


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Non-random sampling

Provides a weak bases of generalization

Accidental sampling using what is immediately

available. The researcher does not know in what way

the data is biased. Study limited to those studied.

Accidental quota sampling having a set quota foreach characteristic or group.

Purposive sampling- using own judgment and

intuition select the sample.


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Random sampling procedure

Assure that sample drawn is representative ofpopulation.

Simple random sampling - the ideal method ofdrawing samples.

Systematic sampling selection of every nthcase in a list.

Stratified random sampling similar to quota

sampling. Cluster Sampling several stages of random

selections. Population is divided intosegments.


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Simple Random Sample

Number each frame unit from 1 to N.

Use a random number table or a random

number generator to select n distinct

numbers between 1 and N, inclusively.

Easier to perform for small populations

Cumbersome for large populations


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Errors

u Data from nonrandom samples are not appropriate for analysis by inferentialstatistical methods.

u Sampling Error occurs when the sample is not representative of the

population

u Non-sampling Errors

Missing Data, Recording, Data Entry, and Analysis Errors

Poorly conceived concepts , unclear definitions, and defective

questionnaires

Response errors occur when people so not know, will not say, or

overstate in their answers


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Sampling Distribution of

Proper analysis and interpretation of asample statistic requires knowledge of its

distribution.

Population

(parameter )

Sample

x

(statistic)

Calculate x

to estimate

Select a

random sampl

Process ofInferential Statistics

x


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Two Basic Rules about Sample Size

1. About thirty (30) individuals are required inorder to provide a pool large enough for

even simple kinds of analysis.

2. You need a sample large enough to ensure

that it is theoretically possible to each cell in

your analytical table to have five cases fall in

it.


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Central Limit Theorem

If a large number (typically n30) of units are

drawn by from a population (with any

probability distribution), then the

sampling(probability) distribution of thesample mean can be approximated by a

normal distribution, i.e.

),(

2

nNX


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Sample size

Homogenous can have a small sample Highly variable consider

Statistics

Reflection of total population More questions more controls

therefore the larger the sample

Larger the sample the more accurate.

Distribution of Sample Means


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ExponentialPopulation

n = 2 n = 5 n = 30


for Various Sample Sizes

UniformPopulation n = 2 n = 5 n = 30

Di t ib ti f S l M


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for Various Sample Sizes

NormalPopulation n = 2 n = 5 n = 30

U ShapedPopulation

n = 2 n = 5 n = 30


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Milestone 5:

Data Analysis & Interpretation


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Data Analysis

The data that were gathered in the previous

step are analyzed as a first step in ascertaining

their meaning.

As before, the analysis of the data does not

constitute research.

This is basic number crunching.


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General Steps in Hypothesis Testing

e.g.: Test the assumption that the true mean number of TV

sets in U.S. homes is three ( Known)

1. State the H0

2. State the H1

3. Choose

4. Choose n

5. Choose Test

0

1

: 3

: 3

=.05

100

Z

H

H

n

test


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100 households surveyed

Computed test stat =-2,

p-value = .0228

Reject null hypothesisThe true mean number of TV sets is

less than 3

(continued)

Reject H0

-1.645Z

6. Set up critical value(s)

7. Collect data

8. Compute test statistic

and p-value9. Make statistical decision

10. Express conclusion

General Steps in Hypothesis Testing


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Parametric vs Nonparametric Statistics

Parametric Statistics are statistical techniquesbased on assumptions about the populationfrom which the sample data are collected. Assumption that data being analyzed are randomly

selected from a normally distributed population. Requires quantitative measurement that yield interval orratio level data.

Nonparametric Statistics are based on fewer

assumptions about the population and theparameters. Sometimes called distribution-free statistics. A variety of nonparametric statistics are available for use

with nominal or ordinal data.


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Parametric / non-parametric tests

Parametric tests

T-test

Z-test

Chi-square test

Non-parametric tests

Mann-Whiney test

Wilcoxon Matched-

Kruskal-Wallis Test

Friedman Test


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Data Interpretation

The researcher interprets the newly analyzed

data and suggests a conclusion.

This can be difficult.

Keep in mind that data analysis that

suggests a correlation between two

variables cant automatically be

interpreted as suggesting causalitybetween those variables.


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SESSION IIIManaging R&D projects

Prof. Jagdish Hirani

67


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R & D

The phrase research and development

(also R and D or, more often, R&D),

according to the Organization for

Economic Co-operation andDevelopment, refers to :

"creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in

order to increase the stock of knowledge, including

knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use

of this stock of knowledge to devise new

applications

68 Prof. Jagdish Hirani

Technology & R&D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development


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Technology & R&D

technology is ..the application of scientific and other knowledge to practical tasks by

organizations that involve people and machines.

There are 3 important aspects to this definition:

Technology is about taking action to meet a human need ratherthan merely understanding the workings of the natural world, which

is the goal of science

It uses much more than scientific knowledge and includes values

as much as facts, practical craft knowledge as much astheoretical knowledge.

It involves organized ways of doing things. It covers the intended

and unintended interactions between products (machines,devices, artifacts) and the people and systems who make them, use

them or are affected by them through various processes.


Are other options more attractive


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Are other options more attractive

than R&D ?

Selection Identification

Acquisition Protection

Exploitation

internal

e.g. productplans &

strategy

R&D, learning

e.g. strategy

e.g. product

plans

e.g. R&Dpractice

technology

partners

capabilities

partnersmarket

Patents etc

customersScience base

competitors

Gregory (1995)



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How to plan

Plan

Actions

Values

Goals

Resources

Direction

Objectives

Competences


R&D management practices in


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R&D management practices in

Indian organizations Ad-hoc systems are used for R&D project management

Use of effective planning and control techniques is

missing

Comprehensive systems for feedback are found but

these systems provide reactive control.

Cost is considered most important criterion for public

organization and time is considered most important for

private organizations.

No data capture for effective monitoring and control.



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PERT: one of the techniques

Program evaluation and review technique

(PERT) is a management tool which has

been the subject of criticism when used

in research and development (R&D)projects


PERT


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PERTPERT is a method to analyze the involved tasks in completing

a given project, especially the time needed to complete eachtask, and identifying the minimum time needed to completethe total project.

PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning andscheduling of large and complex projects. It was able toincorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a

project while not knowing precisely the details and durationsof all the activities.

It is more ofan event-oriented technique rather than start-and completion-oriented, and is used more in projects wheretime, rather than cost, is the major factor.

It is applied to very large-scale, one-time, complex, non-

routine infrastructure and Research and Developmentprojects.


PERT conventions


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PERT conventionsA PERT chart is a tool that facilitates decision making;

The first draft of a PERT chart will number its events

sequentially in 10s (10, 20, 30, etc.) to allow the laterinsertion of additional events.

Two consecutive events in a PERT chart are linked byactivities, which are conventionally represented asarrows in the diagram above.

The events are presented in a logical sequence and noactivity can commence until its immediately precedingevent is completed.

The planner decides which milestones should be PERTevents and also decides their proper sequence.

A PERT chart may have multiple pages with many sub-tasks.

Pert is valuable to manage where multiple task are goingsimultaneously to reduce the redundancy


PERT terminology


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PERT terminology A PERT event: is a point that marks the start or completion of one or more tasks. It

consumes no time, and uses no resources. It marks the completion of one or more tasks,and is not reached until all of the activities leading to that event have been completed.

Apredecessor event: an event (or events) that immediately precedes some other eventwithout any other events intervening. It may be the consequence of more than oneactivity.

A successor event: an event (or events) that immediately follows some other eventwithout any other events intervening. It may be the consequence of more than oneactivity.

A PERT activity: is the actual performance of a task. It consumes time, it requiresresources (such as labour, materials, space, machinery), and it can be understood as

representing the time, effort, and resources required to move from one event to another.A PERT activity cannot be completed until the event preceding it has occurred.

Optimistic time (O): the minimum possible time required to accomplish a task, assumingeverything proceeds better than is normally expected

Pessimistic time (P): the maximum possible time required to accomplish a task, assumingeverything goes wrong (but excluding major catastrophes).

Most likely time (M): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task,assuming everything proceeds as normal.

Expected time (TE): the best estimate of the time required to accomplish a task, assumingeverything proceeds as normal (the implication being that the expected time is theaverage time the task would require if the task were repeated on a number of occasionsover an extended period of time).

TE = (O + 4M + P) 6


PERT terminology


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PERT terminology FloatorSlackis the amount of time that a task in a project network can be

delayed without causing a delay - Subsequent tasks (free float) or ProjectCompletion (total float)

Critical Path: the longest possible continuous pathway taken from theinitial event to the terminal event. It determines the total calendar timerequired for the project; and, therefore, any time delays along the criticalpath will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the sameamount.

Critical Activity: An activity that has total float equal to zero. Activity withzero float does not mean it is on critical path.

Lead time (rhymes with "feed", not "fed"): the time by which apredecessoreventmust be completed in order to allow sufficient time for the activitiesthat must elapse before a specific PERT event is reached to be completed.

Lag time: the earliest time by which a successor eventcan follow a specificPERT event.

Slack: the slack of an event is a measure of the excess time and resourcesavailable in achieving this event. Positive slack(+) would indicate ahead of

schedule; negative slack would indicate behind schedule; and zero slackwould indicate on schedule.

Fast tracking: performing more critical activities in parallel

Crashing critical path: Shortening duration of critical activities

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_(project_management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_(project_management)


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Pert approach with innovation

I had opportunity of applying PERT formanaging research and development

(R&D) project in applied research.(

during 1977 -1980) I had added logic gate symbols from

electronics in preparing PERT chart for

R&D project


f


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Benefits

With PERT application to R&D Project hadhelped to envisage all uncertainties in

advance and plan for time and resources

required for the same.



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Protecting Intellectual Property

Patents

Copyright

Embedding Technology

None

80Prof. Jagdish Hirani


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Retaining Knowledge

Important when developing new Technology to ensure that the

knowledge created is retained in the business. Knowledge can be lost because of:

Lack of documentation

Loss of personnel and hence expertise

81Prof. Jagdish Hirani


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SESSION IVRESEARCH APPROACHES

By

Dr. Jitesh Thakkar

Outline


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Outline

Qualitative v/s Quantitative research approaches Comparative analysis of various research

approaches

Parameters deciding quality of research

Approach 1: Case study research

Approach 2: Action research

Approach 3: Survey research

Approach 4: Experimental research

Approach 5: Simulation research

Research Design - First Thoughts


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Research Design First Thoughts

Focuses upon the planning of scientific

research. It is the development of a strategyfor finding out something

This involves the following: Purpose of Research

Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory

Explanatory: Nature of Relationships/Hypotheses

Association v/s Causation Specifying what you want to find out

Determining the best way to proceed with finding out

Choice of Research Design - Qualitative versus Quantitative


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QUALITATIVE V/s QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH TRADITIONS

Quantitative Approaches


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Quantitative Approaches

Useful for factual information

Focus is upon variables

Reliability is a primary virtue

Tendency to be devoid of context

Many cases and subjects

Statistical Analysis

Detachment of researcher is more likely

Examples: Experimentation, Survey Research, Secondary

Research

Qualitative Approaches


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Qualitative Approaches

Construct social reality, cultural meaning

Focus is upon interactive processes, events

Validity or Authenticity is a primary virtue

Contextual circumstances prevail Few cases and subjects

Thematic Analysis

Immersion of researcher is more likely Examples: Biographies/Narratives, Case studies,

Grounded Theory, Historical-Comparative Research

Comparison of Select Research Strategies


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Case study research approach Rationalist research Analytical -

conceptual

Focus is to investigate

why

Ability to incorporate issues

in a subjective manner which

can further improve

objectivity of results

Intent is not to statistically

infer relationships but to

observe the processes and

use logic to deduce or infer

relationship.

Addition of case is not

equivalent to increasing thesample size but rather to

extending the experiment or

survey to another population

that may have different

parameters in some ways,

but is similar in other ways

Focus is to know what and

how

Looks for statistical

generalizability, validity,

reliability and repeatability by

analyzing quantitative survey

data

Does not guarantee objectivity

just by generating few mere

numbers which can not covey

anything

Involves two types of inference

representation inference (aboutthe target population) and

relational inference (explain the

relationship of one factor with

another)

Availability of standard

procedures, testability

Conceptual

definitions.

Relationships

are usually

developed

logically

Predictions

come from

logical analyses.

Empirical

evidence comes

from case

studies


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Parameters deciding Quality of

Research

Reliability & Validity


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Researchers want their findings to reflect the truth

Quantitative researchers use several criteria to assessthe quality of a study, and two the most important are

reliability and validity

R li bilit & V lidit


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Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency (theproperty of holding together and retaining its shape) ofinformation

The term is most often associated with the methodsused to measure research variables

Ex. if a thermometer measured bobs temperature as98.1F one minute and as 102.5 F the next minute,the reliability of the thermometer would be highlysuspect

R li bilit & V lidit


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Statistical reliability refers to the probability that thesame results would be obtained with a completely new

sample of subjects that is the results are an accurate

reflection of a wider group than just the particular

people who participated in the study

Reliabilit & Validit


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Validity is a more complex concept that broadlyconcerns the soundness of the studys evidence- thatis, whether the finding are cogent (powerfullypersuasive), convincing and well grounded

Validity question is whether there is evidence tosupport the assertion that the methods are reallymeasuring the abstract concepts that they purport to

measure

Bias


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Bias

It can threaten the studys validity

Bias is an influence that produces a distortion (Anyundesired change in an signal between input andthe output) in the study results

Bias can result from a number of factorsincluding:

Study participants

Subjectivity of the researcher Sample characteristics

Faulty methods of data collection

Faulty study design

Bias


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Bias

Random bias: a handful of study participants

might fail to provide totally accurate information

as a result of extreme fatigue at the time the data

were collected

Systematic bias: results when the bias isconsistent or uniform. E.g. If a scale consistently

measured peoples weights as being 2 ponds

heavier than their true weight, they would be

systemetic bias in the data on weight

Generalizability


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Generalizability

Generalizability to assess the extent to which thefindings can be applied to other groups and settings

Design study strong in reliability and validity

The type of people to whom the results might be

generalized, select them nonbiased

Research Control


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Research Control

Holding constant other influences on the

dependent variable so that the true

relationship between the independent and

dependent variables can be understood

Research control attempts to eliminate

contaminating factors that might cloud the

relationship between the varaibles that are of

central interest

Triangulation


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Triangulation

Triangulation is the collection ofinformation in many ways rather than

relying solely on one source. It is also

referred to as a "multi-instrument"approach.


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Approach I

Case Study Research

Case Research


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Case research methodology is just one of many

empirical approaches that aim to developunderstanding of real world events on its ability to

combine a variety of information sources including

documentation, interviews, and artifacts (e.g.,

technology or tools) by allowing the researcher to

exercise control over factors/parameters to be studied

(Yin, 2003).

It could be divided into two categories exploratorycase studies (focuses on theory development) and

explanatory case studies (focuses on hypothesis

testing).


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Approach 2:

ACTION RESEARCH

Why Action Research?


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Why Action Research?

Action research is an approach that alwaysinvolves participants making or implementingchange, rather than just investigating an issue.

Action research involves the participants making

informed decisions about what and how they aregoing to implement change. Data is gathered tosupport decisions made.

Action research process


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Action research process

1. Identify an area of focus

2. Collect data

3. Analyze and interpret data

4. Develop an action plan

Phases of Action Research


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DIAGNOSING

Identifying orDefining a Problem ACTION PLANNING

Considering alternativecourses of action

ACTION TAKING

Implementinga course of action

EVALUATING

Studying the outcomesof an action

SPECIFYINGLEARNING

Identifying generalfindings

CLIENT SYSTEMINFRASTRUCTURE

Specification and agreementthat constitutes the research

environment


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Approach 3: Survey Research

Components of a survey method


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Components of a survey method

The survey design

The population and sample

The instrumentation Variables in the study

Data analysis

The instrumentation


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The instrument (tool) Existing

New

Rating scale Likert scale: Rating the Items. 1-to-5 rating scale where:

1. = strongly unfavorable to the concept

2. = somewhat unfavorable to the concept3. = undecided

4. = somewhat favorable to the concept

5. = strongly favorable to the concept

Pilot

Administration Postal survey

email

Variables


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Variables

Something that varies

Weight, anxiety level, income and bodytemperature are all variables

Quantitative research seek to understand how orwhy things vary and to learn how differences in onevariable are related to differences in another

Dependent versus independent variables


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Dependent versus independent variables

Variability in the dependent variable is presumed to

depend on variability in the independent variable

For example, researchers investigate the extent to

which lung cancer (the dependent variable) dependson smoking (the independent variable)

The terms independent variable and dependentvariable are used to indicate direction of influence

rather than causal link

Relationship


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Relationship

What is the direction of the relationshipbetween variables E.g. Are people who smokemore likely or less likely to get lung cancer thanthose who do not ?

How strong is the relationship betwen variablesE.g. How powerful is the relationship between

smoking and lung cancer? How probable is it thatsmokers will be lung cancer victims?

Hypothesis Testing


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Hypothesis Testing

For example: hypothesis 1 : X is statisticallysignificantly related to Y.

The relationship is positive (as X increases, Y

increases) or negative (as X decreases, Y increases).

The magnitude of the relationship is small, medium,

or large.

If the magnitude is small, then a unit change in x is

associated with a small change in Y.

Correlation & Regression


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Correlation: it is a measure of the strength of the

relationship between two variables.

For example, a correlation might relate distance from

urban location to gasoline consumption. Expressed on a

scale from -1.0 to +1.0, the strongest correlations are atboth extremes and provide the best predictions.

Regression: Answer What is the relationship between

the variables?

d


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Regression is all about finding relationships

between two or more variables!!!

GENERALIZING FROM THE MODEL


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Empirical research provides information about

relationships among scores obtained on a group ofcases at one point in time.

Researchers usually are not particularly interested

in this relationship. They are usually moreinterested in knowing how the relationshipgeneralizes beyond the specific situation studied.

For example, does the relationship generalize toother groups of cases, to other times, and to otherways of assessing the relationship?

Statistical Generalization


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An inference is made from anempirical relationshipobserved on a sample (d) tothe corresponding, butunknown, empiricalrelationship (D) in the

population.

Public opinion polls illustrate a well-known use of statistical generalization

procedures.


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Approach 4: Experimental

Research

Experimental Design


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p g

Improve a process by increasingperformance

Establish Statistical control

Factor: A variable that is changed, andresults observed

Level: A value that is assigned to change

the factor

Experimental Design (Contd.)


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Treatment condition (TC): The set ofconditions for a test in an experiment

OA: Simplified method of putting together

the TC, so that design is balanced. Factorscan be analyzed singly/combination

Interaction: Two or more factors produce

a result that is different than theirseparate effect

Experimental Design


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Full Factorial Design - the total no. of

experiments required to run all possible

combinations of all the levels for each of

the factors

Fractional Factorial Design- a portion of

total combinations

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN


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ONE FACTOR AT A TIME

Treatmentconditions

Factors/ Levels Response

A B C D NF

12345

NTC

121111

112111

111211

111121

111112

y0yAyBy

CyDyNF

Orthogonal Arrays


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If there are N options or factors, the full

optimization space contains 2N combinations.

This space is called a full factorial design.

A fractional factorial design is a subset of the full

factorial design. An Orthogonal Array (OA) or Taguchi design is a

well-known approach to fractional factorial designs.

An OA allows us to determine the effect of a factorin the presence of other factors using a reduced

space.

OA Selection Rules


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Taguchi developed OAs to identify factorsinfluence without loss of accuracy.

No. of factors OA

2 to 3 L4

4 to 7 L88 to 11 L12

12 to 15 L16

For 2- levels

S l ti R l td


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No. of factors OA

2 to 4 L9

5 to 7 L27

Selection Rules contd..

For 3- levels


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Approach 5: Simulation

SUMMARY


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System Analysis Simulation

Requirement of Simulation

Models

Simulation Languages

Validation

Common Mistakes

Example4/25/2009 125V N Singh, Mech Dept ,ADIT

SYSTEM


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A part/process /entity under consideration

4/25/2009 126V N Singh, Mech Dept ,ADIT

System


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System

Experiment

with the

actual system

Experiment

with a model

of the system

Mathematical

model

Physical

model

Analytical

solutionSIMULATION


SIMULATION


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Prediction of performance for givenInput

Reproduction of the conditions of a

situation.

The modeling of a process or systemin such a way that the model is able

to produce the response of the actualsystem.


Requirement for Simulation


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q

Evaluate decisions before implementation

Is less costly, time consuming, and disruptive thanexperimenting on the actual system

Save money

Save time Save resources

Avoid mistakes

Optimize solutions

Useful when the system is not available

Good for exploring a large parameter space


Requirement for Simulation


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q

Gives planners unlimited freedom to try outdifferent ideas for improvement, risk free,with virtually no cost, no waste of time and

no disruption of the current system


IMPORTANCE OF SIMULATION


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Pre-requisite for optimal Design Off Design Performance Prediction

Sensitivity Analysis

Control Strategy can be developed


SIMULATION MODELS


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Continuous & Discrete Deterministic & Probabilistic

Steady State & Dynamic


Static and Dynamic Models


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y

Static model: time is not a variable E.g., E = mc2

Dynamic model: system state changes withtime

CPU scheduling



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Continuous and Discrete-time Model

Continuous-time model Discrete-time model

System state is defined at all

times

System state is defined only

at instants in time

TimeTime Tuesdays andThursdays

Timespentexecutinga job

Numberof studentsattendingthis class



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Continuous and Discrete-state Model

Continuous-state model Discrete-state model

Use continuous state

variables

Use discrete state variables

Time Time

Timespentexecutinga job

Numberof jobs



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Deterministic and Probabilistic Model

Deterministic model Probabilistic model

Output of a model can be

predicted with certainty

Gives a different result for

the same input parameters

input input

outputoutput



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Linear and Nonlinear Models

Linear model Nonlinear model

Output parameters are

linearly correlated with

input parameters

Otherwise



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Stable and Unstable Models

Stable model Unstable model

Settles down to a steady

state

Otherwise


O d Cl d M d l


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Open and Closed Models

Open model Close model

Input is external to the

model and is independent

of the model

No external input


SYSTEM SIMULATION


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Component Simulation Equation Fitting

Mathematical (Physical insights Lead to

elaboration of model). Modeling

Physical Insight, Differential equation. Knowledge

of process Science.


Selecting a Language for Simulation


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Simulation language General-purpose language

Dedicated Softwares

Other Tools

Algorithms

Flow charts

Information Flow Diagram (Component,

System)


Simulation Languages


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Have built-in facilities Time advancing

Event scheduling

Entity manipulation Random-variate generation

Statistical data collection

Report generation Examples: SIMULA, Maisie, ParSEC


General-purpose Languages


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C++ Java

Matlab

Advantages

Versatile

Easy to use

Portable

Potentially more efficient4/25/2009 143V N Singh, Mech Dept ,ADIT

Dedicated Softwares


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FEA based softwares , ANSYS etc CFD based software , FLUENT etc


Validation


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Trends Experimental Results

Accuracy Levels


Common Mistakes


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Invalid Mathematical models

Improper initial/Boundary conditions

Short simulations (Less Iterations)

Improper language/ Software



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SESSION V

THESIS WRITING

By:

Dr. Bharat Ramani

Contents..


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Motivation/Inspiration

What is a thesis ???

Organization/Structure of thesis

Common problems / mistakes

Check-list

Typical shortcomings

Conclusion


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The difference

between the right

word and the almost

right word is the

difference between

lightning and

lighting.

The Bad News


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Writing a thesis ishard, painful work

Youve already donethe fun part (the

research)

Its unlike any otherdocument

Thesis writing is not amarketable skill

Why write a thesis?


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Its the union card foracademia

You all have to suffer

like we did!

In the procces, you will

learn

How to writeShorter conference &

journal papers will be

easy!

Just count


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Just repeat


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What is a Thesis ?


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A promise that you will follow through on

what you say.

A contract between you and your readers.

A commitment.

How true you are to that commitmentdetermines how effective your essay is.

How long ??


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The most essential gift for a good

writer is a built-in, shockproof shit

detector.

Ernest Hemingway

Your thesis will not be judged by weight

PhD thesis 70,000 to 100,000 wordsM h i 40 000 50 000 d


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Masters thesis 40,000 to 50,000 words

Honours thesis/treatise 20,000 to 35,000 words

Thesis examiners like it crisp and tight;

they dont like windbags.

Thesis includes..


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Inner cover page

Certificate Signed by supervisor (s)

Begin numbering pages with this page as number (i)

Acknowledgement (s)

Abstract

* 150 words.

Keywords

Maximum six

Table of contents


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Includes above items; Titles and subtitles of all chapters, references,

appendices, drawings, program listing, floppies /CD roms, etc.

Nomenclature and Abbreviations

- In alphabetical order followed by Greek symbols,

superscripts, subscripts, underlined quantities, etc.

Body of report: Chapter 1: Introduction or Background

Chapter 2: Literature Review and statement of problem

Critical Observation

Problem formulation

Chapter 3: Work done covering

Analytical modeling


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y g

Employment of software package(s)

Other computational algorithms

Equipment design / Experimental set up

Simulation

Experimental verification

and any other aspect of the work you decide to mention.

Chapter..

Conclusions/concluding remarks and scope for future

work

References/Appendix

Rule of Three


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Within each chapter, repeat yourself 3

times Intro. We will show ..

Body. Show them ..

Concl. We have shown ..

Within thesis, repeat your contributions 3times

Intro chapter

Main chapters

Conclusion chapter

But dont bore reader E.g. in introduction be brief, in

conclusions be broader

Common mistakes


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Informal text Examiners will jump on

imprecision

Opinions

.. The main problem in CP ismodelling ..

A thesis is an argument!

.. A major bottleneck

preventing the uptake of CP

is modelling [Freuder, AAAI-98]

Common mistakes


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Complex sentencesfull of long words

A thesis should be a

simple, convincing

argument!

Entertainment or

humour Joke footnote

Common problems


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Its never possible tocover all issues

So you will never

finish?

Its sometimes enough

to identify the issues

Examiners greatly

appreciate finding a

few mistakes

Common problems


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Much of your thesis isjoint work

Identify some work that isyours alone

Include a statement at thestart of your contributions:

Linkage/connectivitythroughout the text.

Common problems


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Ideas become obviousto you

You stop writing to a

sufficient level of detail

Especially hurts the

opening chapters as

they are often written

last

Common problems


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Writing too much There are rules about

maximum length

But rarely rules about the

minimum

Nashs PhD thesis

27 pages long

Won him a Nobel prize

Je n'ai fait celle-ci plus longue que parce que je n'ai pas eu le loisir de

la faire plus courte. Blaise Pascal, 1657

Common problems


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At some point, yourbrain will surelybecome toast

Take a break

Eat properly, exercise,sleep

Toasted brain is only

temporary Just look at me?

Conclusion


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Writing Thesis is an art.

Make proper planning.

Prepare review paper.

Maintain regularity.

Develop habit of self reading.

Learn from your published paper.

Discuss every point with guide.


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Keep focused and keep it simple!

Make sure you stick to your subject and dont

wander off

If there is something interesting that you want to

include, but which is of dubious relevance to the

subject use footnotes or appendices


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by

Dr. Jitesh Thakkar

HOW TO WRITE AND PUBLISH ASCIENTIFIC PAPER?

4/25/2009 170

Research is not finished untilthe results are published!

Outline

Select misconceptions


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Select misconceptions

Scientific writing and components

Research paper writing Manuscript

preparation

Manuscript submission

Review process

Addressing review comments

Review frameworks

Select learning4/25/2009 171

Why

bother?


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Good papersand talks are a

fundamental part

of research

excellence

Fallacywe write papersand give talks

mainly to impressothers, gainrecognition, and

get promoted

4/25/2009 172

Ill write when its time to write


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First year plan

Second year collect data

Third year this is when I

write

Then bask in glory

Delaying Tactics

Ill first read all the how to write a thesis material availableon the planet


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on the planet

After that Ill read everything ever written about my topicand make exhaustive notes

Then Ill plan my data collection strategy By then some new publications will have come out and Ill

have to go back to the literature

Ill go to a conference on How to focus when writing athesis Ill check the literature again Ill do a biostatistics course and then a course on Counter-

intuitive aspects of Access databases

Whats the worlds literature up to now? Wow, theres a course on Looking after your inner childwhilst writing a thesis

A new bunch of paper has just come out. Amazing.

Do not be Frightened


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Write a paper,and give a talk, about

any idea,no matter how weedy and insignificant itmay seem to you

Fallacy You need to have a fantastic idea beforeyou can write a paper. (Everyone elseseems to.)

4/25/2009 175

Writing papers: model 1


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Idea Do research Write paper

4/25/2009 176

Writing papers: model 2


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Idea Do research Write paper

Idea Write paper Do research

Forces us to be clear, focused

Crystallises what we dont understand

Opens the way to dialogue with others:reality check, critique, and collaboration

4/25/2009 177

Wisdom


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It is wise policy to begin writing thepaper while work is still in progress.

The writing process itself is likely to

point to inconsistencies in the resultsor perhaps to suggest interesting

sidelines that might be followed.

4/25/2009 178

Organization of a Research Paper


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Title

Abstract

Body

Main sections

Introduction Method

Participants Apparatus Procedure Design

Results and Discussion Conclusions

4/25/2009 179

Paper Writing: Design Abstractsummarizes the research contributions, not

the paper (i e it shouldnt be an outline of the paper)


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4/25/2009

180

the paper (i.e., it shouldn t be an outline of the paper)

Introduction/motivation what youve done andwhy the reader should care, plus an outline of the paper

Technical sections one or more sections summarizingthe research ideas youve developed

Experiments/results/analysis one or more sections presentingexperimental results and/or supporting proofs

Future work summary of where youre headed next and openquestions still to be answered

Related work sometimes comes after introduction, sometimesbefore conclusions (depends to some extent on whether yourebuilding on previous research, or dismissing it as irrelevant)

Conclusions reminder ofwhat youve saidand why itsimportant

What Is Scientific Writing?


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State your facts as simply as possible, even boldly. No one

wants flowers of eloquence or literary ornaments in a research

article R.B. McKerrow

English need not be difficult - The best English is that whichgives the sense in the fewest short words!

Confusion results from an amorphous task. The easy task is

the one in which you know exactly what must be done and in

exactly what order it must be done!

4/25/2009 181

Before starting to write

Put together structure of the paper:


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Put together structure of the paper:

Title, authors, addresses, possibly key words, etc. Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Methods & Materials

3. Results 4. Discussion & Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

IMRaD is a typical structure (AIMRaDAR). In some casesother structures may be more appropriate.

Divide long sections into subsections4/25/2009 182

Logic of IMRAD:What questi

on (problem) was studied?


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What question (problem) was studied?

The answer is the Introduction.

How was the problem studied?

The answer is Methods.

What were the findings?

The answer is the Results.

What do these findings mean?

The answer is Discussion.

4/25/2009 183


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How To Prepare the Title

First impressions are strong impressions; a title

ought therefore to be well studied and to

give, so far as its limits permit, a definite and

concise indication of what is to come.

4/25/2009 184

How to Prepare Title The title often decides if the paper is looked at by colleagues: So

many papers, so little time!


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many papers, so little time!

I first check the title (and/or authors). If interesting I look atthe abstract. If Im still interested I look at the figures andonly then do I read through the text.

What is a good title? The fewest possible words that

adequately describe the contents of the paper

Avoid waste words - Studies on, Investigation on, and

Observation on.

It should not promise too much.

Tell the complete story but keep it short!

Focus on YOUR study!

Dont be ambiguoustell what you found!

4/25/2009 185

How to Prepare Title

An opening A, An or The is also a waste word.

4/25/2009


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p g ,

Example: Action of Antibiotics on Bacteria It is short and carries no excess baggage

Alternation 1: Preliminary observations on the effect of certain

antibiotics on various species of Bacteria

Alteration 2: Action of Streptomycin on Mycobacterium tuberculosis

If the Action of can be defined easily, the meaning might be clearer

Alteration 3: Inhibition of Growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by

Streptomycin.

Most of the indexing and abstracting services are geared to key word

systems, generating either KWIC (Key Word In Context) or KWOC (Key

Word Out of Context).

186

Authorship

Who should be an author?


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4/25/2009

187

Anyone who contributed significantly to the conceptual

development or writing of the paper

Not necessarilypeople who provided feedback,

implemented code, or ran experiments

What order should the authors be listed in?

If some authors contributed more of the

conceptual development and/or did most/all of the writing, they

should be listed first

If the contribution was equal or the authors worked as a team, the

authors should be listed in alphabetical order

Sometimes the note The authors are listed in alphabetical orderis explicitly included

Authorship

An example Suppose that Scientist A designs a series of


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experiments that might result in important new

knowledge, and then Scientist A tells Technicians B

exactly how to perform the experiments. If the

experiments work out and a manuscript results, Scientist

A should be the sole author, even though Technician B

did all the work. (Of course, the assistance of Technician

B should be recognized in the Acknowledgment).

The preferred designation normally is first name,

middle initial, last name.

4/25/2009 188


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How to Prepare the Abstract

I have the strong impression that scientific

communication is being seriouslyhindered by poor quality abstracts

written in jargon ridden mumbo-jumbo

Sheila M. McNab

4/25/2009 189

Questions an Abstract AnswersWhy did you do this study or project?


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Why did you do this study or project?What did you do, and how?

What did you find?What do your findings mean?

If the paper is about a new method or

apparatus the last two questions might

be changed to:

What are the advantages (of the method or apparatus)?How well does it work?

4/25/2009 190

Rule of Thumb

1 Write 1 2 introduction sentences that explain topic


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1. Write 1-2 introduction sentences that explain topic,

purpose, and research question(s).

2. Write 1-2 sentences describing your research

methods (this may also include the type of data

analysis you used).3. Write 1-2 sentences describing the results /

findings.

4. Write 1-2 sentences containing your conclusions

and recommendations.

4/25/2009 191

DontsDo not commence with "this paper,

"this report" or similar.


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Write about the research, not the paper.

Do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.

Avoid sentences that end in "is described",

"is reported", "is analyzed" or similar.

Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that

"it is believed that", "it is felt that"or similar.

Do not merely copy key sentences from yourpaper: you'll put in too much or too

little information.

In every case, the four words can be omitted without

damaging the essential message.

4/25/2009 192

Use of Key Words

Titles and abstracts are filed electronically


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Titles and abstracts are filed electronically

Judicious use of keywords may increase theease with which interested parties can locate

your study

4/25/2009 193


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How to Write Introduction

A bad beginning makes a bad ending - Euripides

4/25/2009 194

How to Write Introduction If you do not have a clear purpose in mind, you might go

writing off in six directions at once!


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writing off in six directions at once!

The Introduction should also provide the rationale for thepresent study.

Choose references carefully to provide the most important

background information.

It should generally be written in the present tense, because youwill be referring primarily to your problem and the established

knowledge relating to it at the start of your work.

In the Introduction you should have a hook to gain the readers

attention. Why did you choose that subject, and why is itimportant?

4/25/2009 195

INTRODUCTION

The first paragraph is crucial for catching the attention of thedi d f i t th th i t f th


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audience and for conveying to them the importance of the

questions that you have addressed in the paper.

If you dont catch the attention of the audience in the first

few sentences the chances are high that they wont

continue reading.

So, make the first sentence both snappy and profound.

For example,

Cell polarity plays a fundamental role in development. Byasymmetrically localizing determinants in a cells before

division, daughter cells can adopt different fates

4/25/2009 196

The last paragraph of the Introduction should be a shortsummary of what you set out to do and what you haveachieved.


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achieved.

e,g

In this paper, we have studied the by using a

novel technique in which

. This approach has allowed us to directlycompare A and B, and todistinguish between alternative possibilities for theirfunctions. We

conclude that .. and provide a model to reconcileour findings andthose of others

4/25/2009 197

Rules of Thumb1. The Introduction should present first, with all possible


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clarity, the nature and scope of the probleminvestigated.

2. It should review the pertinent literature to orient the

reader.

3. It should state the method of the investigation andreasons for the choice of a particular method should

be stated.

4. It should state the principal results of theinvestigation.

5. It should state the principal conclusion(s) suggested

by the results.4/25/2009 198

No related work yetI feelstupid


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Problem 1: the reader knowsnothing about the problem yet; soyour (carefully trimmed) descriptionof various technical tradeoffs is

absolutely incomprehensible

Problem 2: describing alternativeapproaches gets between the

reader and your idea I feeltired

stupid

4/25/2009 199

Caution

Your introduction makes claims


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The body of the paper provides evidence tosupport each claim

Check each claim in the introduction,

identify the evidence, and forward-referenceit from the claim

Evidence can be: analysis and comparison,

theorems, measurements, case studies

4/25/2009 200


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How to write Literature

Review?

4/25/2009 201

Literature Review Motivation for literature searches:

full grasp of subject (large picture)


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4/25/2009 202

full grasp of subject (large picture)

show originality of own work

list of references for your own paper

ideas for new research

Every day more than 1000 papers are published in

electrical engineering, thus you must carefully selectwhat you read

The amount of papers is doubled every ten years

Literature review is a written summary of the state of the art in

your area (should be the second chapter in your doctoral thesis) a review is written for experts in the field (a tutorial is

written for students)

papers collected in your files are not a review!

Writing a literature review

timeTopic 2 Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 1


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Literature review

- classification

- topic 1

- topic 2

- topic 3- historical notes

Classification

Topic 1

Topic 2

Topic 3

x xxx

time

Landmark papers

p p p p


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How to Write the Materials andMethods Section

The greatest invention of the nineteenth

century was the invention of the method of

invention

- A.N. Whitehead

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How to Write the Materials and Methods Section

The purpose is to describe the experimental design and then

provide enough detail so that a competent worker can repeat the


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provide enough detail so that a competent worker can repeat the

experiments.

Use past tense.

Critically important because the cornerstone of the scientific

method requires that your results, to be of scientific merit, must

be reproducible. If there is serious doubt that your experiments could be

repeated, the reviewer will recommend rejection of your

manuscript no matter how inspiring your results.

Questions such as how and how muchshould be precisely

answered by the author and not left for the reviewer or the reader

to puzzle over.

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Documents

One-day Workshop on Research & Publication