Phonology Curs Introductiv

8/3/2019 Phonology Curs Introductiv

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1. PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY BRANCHES OF

LINGUISTICS

Linguistics represents the scientific study of human language. According

to what linguists focus on, a map of linguistics includes the following areas ofstudy:

a. From a diachronic-synchronic perspective:1. Synchronic linguistics, whose objects of study is language at a certain

point in its chronological evolution;2. Diachronic linguistics, concerned with the structural changes in the

evolution of a certain language or group of languages.

b. From a theoretical-applied perspective:

1. Theoretical (general) linguistics dealing with the development of modelsof linguistic knowledge, operating with frameworks for describingindividual languages and theories about universal aspects of language.Traditionally, it includes a number of separate areas such as phonetics,phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.

2. Applied linguistics, a branch concerned with the exploitation of linguistictheory in other fields such as language teaching or language acquisition;more recently it has expanded its span and has become the province ofheterogeneous cross-disciplinary research.

c. From an independent-contextual perspective:1. Independent linguistics considers language for its own sake.2. Contextual linguistics covers the studies where linguistics interacts with

other sciences: social sciences (sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics);medical sciences (psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, language acquisition);rhetoric and philosophy (critical discourse analysis); computer science(computational linguistics), cognitive science (cognitive linguistics), etc.

For the purpose of this course we shall restrict our interest to theoreticallinguistics. This branch encompasses a number of sub-branches, among whichthere are:

A. The study of thesounds of a language comprises:1. Phonetics , which deals with the physical aspects of speech.2. Phonology, which studies the sound structure of a language.

B. The study of the language structure includes:3. Morphology, the branch concerned with the internal structure of

words.4. Syntax, that investigates the rules governing the combination of words

into phrases and sentences.C. The study ofmeanings conveyed by means of language covers:


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5. Semantics, a science that analyzes the relations between words andmeanings in a language.

6. Pragmatics, which looks at the practical use of language in specificcontexts.

In conclusion, both English phonetics and phonology are branches oftheoretical linguistics, they are both concerned with the sounds made in theproduction of English, looking at the phenomenon of speech from differentpoints of view.


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2. THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH.

ENGLISH AROUND THE GLOBE

English, the second most spoken language in the world, is of Germanic

origin and belongs to the Indo-European family of languages.The status of English as a global language is given by its extensive useunder different shapes. English is the mother tongue of approximately 300million native speakers, the second language of another 300 million speakersand a further 100 million speakers use it as a foreign language. Over a billionpeople speak English at least at a basic level. English today is probably the thirdlargest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese andSpanish.1

English is an official language or is predominantly spoken in the

following countries: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Beliza, Botswana, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada, Dominica, Ethiopia, Fiji,Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya,

Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius,Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Panama,

Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia,Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore,Solomon Islands, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad andTobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Kingdom, United States, Vanuatu, Zambia,

Zimbabwe.English is the predominant language of science, aviation, diplomacy,tourism and economy. Scott Montgomerya Seattle-based geologist and authorof The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science,shows that English hasestablished itself as the preferred world language for science. "Because of itsscale and dynamism, science has become the most active and dynamic creator ofnew language in the world today. And most of this creation is occurring inEnglish, the lingua franca of scientific effort," Montgomery said2. Montgomerybelieves the future will almost certainly see a continued expansion of Englishuse in science, especially in international settings, though not to the finalexclusion of other tongues. Already, more than 90 percent of journal literature insome scientific fields is printed in English. English is also one of the six officiallanguages of the United Nations.

Paradoxically though, English is not an official language in either theUnited States or the United Kingdom. Although the United States federalgovernment has no official languages, English has been given official status by30 of the 50 state governments. Nor is English the official language in Australia.

The expansion of the British Empire and the primacy of the United Statessince WWII have spread English throughout the globe. Because of that global

spread, English has developed a host of English dialects and English-basedcreole languages and pidgins. Because of the wide use of English as a second


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language, English speakers have many different accents, which often signal thespeaker's native dialect or language.

Although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are anumber of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as Received

Pronunciation in Britain. RP for short is the prestige accent in Britain,generally associated with the south-east where RP speakers reside. It came to beadopted by the BBC as early as the 1920s. It has been the symbol of educationand high position in society since a lot of prestigious public and private schools,as well as the armed forces adopted it. RP, just like any other accent, is howeverconstantly changing. It is still used nowadays by the Royal Family, Parliament,The Church of England, the High Courts and other national institutions. But assmall a percentage as 3% of the British actually speak it. It remains the type ofpronunciation widely recommended as a model for foreign learners.

General American

(sometimes called Standard Midwestern, StandardSpoken American English or American Broadcast English) is one of the mosthomogeneous and widespread accents of Anglophone North America. Being theaccent of American English perceived by Americans to be most "neutral" andfree of regional characteristics, it is thought to be the American counterpart ofReceived pronunciation. Within American English, General American andaccents approximating it are distinguished from Southern American English, Northeastern accents, or social group accents such as African AmericanVernacular English.

Figure 1. Countries in which English is an official /de facto official language (inred)3


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3. INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS

3.1. DEFINITION

The name of the science, phonetics, derives from the Greek word phonemeaning sound or voice, and the verbal counterpart phonein. Phonetics is thescientific study of the actual speech sounds of language. General phonetics isconcerned with the speech sounds of languages in general, whereas specialphonetics focuses on the sounds belonging to the phonetic system of a particularlanguage.

Phonetics deals with the concrete physical aspects of speech, namely theproduction, audition and perception of the sounds in a language, as opposed to

phonology, which operates at the level of sound systems and abstract soundunits.

3.2. BRANCHES OF PHONETICS

The production, audition and perception of sounds are the coordinateswhich help us identify the three main branches of phonetics: articulatoryphonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics. The physical act of speakingis thus analyzed from three interrelated and interdependent perspectives, thethree stages in the speaking act: the way speakers articulate or pronounce thesounds they use in verbal communication (articulatory phonetics); thetransmission of sounds during an act of speaking (acoustic phonetics); theauditory perception of sounds in an act of speaking (auditory phonetics).

General phonetics also includes comparative phonetics, that is thecomparative study of sounds in two or more different languages, andexperimental phonetics, which employs the methods and means of investigation borrowed from other sciences (physics, computer science, physiology,psychology) in order to measure and analyze the nature of speech sounds.

In English it is profitable to relate phonetics to other branches of linguistic

study. The connection between phonetics and lexicology explains the differencein meaning between different phonetic sequences, different stress placement incomparable utterances. For example, the words in the pair tap/ pat havedifferent meanings due to the change in the order of phonemes; ship is to bedistinguished fromsheep in point of meaning and pronunciation of the middlevowel; a blue printdiffers in meaning from a blueprintsince the two items havedifferent stress patterns.

Phonetics also informs grammatical structure; quite numerous nominal/verbal pairs that reflect different accentual patterns, although they share the

segmental sound structure, such as (an) insult/ (to) insult. A change in theintonational contour triggers a grammatical choice in Sam called the police.


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(falling intonation, declarative sentence) versus Sam called the police (risingintonation, interrogative sentence expressing surprise especially in colloquialspeech).

The perceptual characteristics of sounds may be exploited for rhetorical

and stylistic purposes: this is where phonetics meets stylistic studies. Cases ofalliteration (the repetition of the initial consonantal sound) or assonance (therepetition of vowel sounds in non-rhyming words) are frequently revealed anddiscussed in stylistic analyses for their euphonic and highlighting effects. Noticethe alliteration in the following excerpt, where the repetition of the s soundcreates a sense of quiet, reinforcing the meaning of the verse:

I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet. (Robert Frost,Acquainted with the Night)

Pragmatics is another linguistic discipline that may rely on phonetics in

formulating its observations. The sentence Dont go

uttered with a fallingintonational contour is a command; the same sentence pronounced with afalling-rising intonational contour is a pleading request. The play upon themeand focus, the old and the new information packaged in utterances is also a topicin pragmatics that resorts to phonetics for clarification. In Sam did this, any ofthe three syllables can receive the tonic stress if that item of information ispresented as new in the context of communication.

3.2.1. Articulatory Phonetics

Articulatory phonetics studies the articulation (= production) of speechsounds. Articulation can only be understood by means of studying the anatomyand physiology of speech. As there are no designated human speech organs,some respiratory and digestive organs have adapted and developed a secondaryfunction that of speech production.

Speech is achieved by compression of the lung volume causing air flowwhich may be made audible if set into vibration by the activity of the larynx.This sound can then be made into speech by various modifications of thesupralaryngeal vocal tract. Therefore the organs and the processes that make

speech possible are the lungs (they provide the energy source duringrespiration), the vocal folds (they convert the energy into audible sound, aprocess called phonation), and the articulators (they transform the sound intointelligible speech in the process ofarticulation proper).

The vocal organs are:

1. The lungs are the place where any act of speech production originates.In English it is only during respiration that speech production can take place,

just like in most languages. Since speaking happens as we expel air from ourlungs, the sounds we produce are called egressive. The airstream initiated in the


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lungs will follow a trajectory called the vocal tract. First the air comes up fromthe lungs through the trachea, or the windpipe, a tube which goes up to thevocal cords.

2. The larynx(also called the voice box) is situated between the tracheaand the root of the tongue; immediately behind the larynx is the pharynx and theupper border of the larynx actually opens up into the pharynx. It consists ofseveral cartilages and a single bone, the hyoid. The inside of the bottom of thelarynx is round and shaped like a cylinder. As air ascends through the larynx, itencounters two folds of tissue that extend out from the left and right sides of thelarynx. These are known as the vocal folds. The space in the middle of thelarynx between the vocal folds - the glottis - is triangular in shape, with thenarrow part of the 'V ' pointing towards the front. During breathing, the twofolds part as the air comes into the larynx or goes out. During phonation, thevocal folds come closer, setting the type of sound that is produced: a glottal stopif the closure is complete, a voiced sound if they open and close rapidly and thusproduce vibration, or a voiceless sound when absence of vibration occurs, thefolds being completely or partially open. The rate of vibration of the vocal cordsis connected to the pitch of ones voice: a high the rate of vibration is correlatedwith high pitch. The epiglottis is the fold of tissue below the root of the tonguethat covers the larynx during swallowing protecting it from any chunks of foodthat might cause death by choking.

3. The pharynx connects the larynx and the esophagus with the oralcavity. The pharynx has two possible outlets for the airstream, both of which actas resonators: the nasal cavity and the oral cavity. The airstream can exit thepharynx either of two ways, depending on the position of the soft palate: if thesoft palate is lowered, a portion of the air will pass through the nasal cavity (theremainder finding its way out through the oral cavity); alternatively, if the softpalate is raised, access to the nasal cavity is cut off, the air can only pass throughthe oral cavity.

4. The oral cavity is the most important component of the vocal tract onaccount of the essential role it plays in phonation: it is in this cavity that themain features of the speech sounds are uttered. The cavity functions as aresonator, modifying the characteristics and volume of the sounds. It houses themost important articulators.

According to their position, the articulators are divided into two classes:upper and lower articulators. To the first class belong the upper lip, the upperteeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate and the soft palate (=velum); to thesecond class, the lower lip, the lower teeth and the tongue.


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The tongue deserves special attention on account of its important role inthe production of both vowels and consonants.

According to their active or passive role in phonation, the articulators are

either active (e.g lips, tongue tip, tongue blade, tongue body, tongue root) orpassive (e.g. lips, upper teeth, alveolar ridge, postalveolar region, hard palate,soft palate, uvula, back pharyngeal wall). Return to the table below when you study theconsonants:

Active articulator Passive articulator

bilabial Lower lip Upper liplabiodental Lower lip Upper teethdental Apex or lamina Upper teethinterdental Lamina Upper and lower teethalveolar Apex or lamina Alveolar ridgeretroflex Apex Back of alveolar ridge

or hard palate palato-alveolar Lamina Back of alveolar ridge palatal Lamina Hard palatevelar Back Velumuvular Back Uvula pharyngeal Root Pharyngeal wallepiglottal Epiglottis Pharyngeal wall

Table 1. Active and passive articulators4

Some consonants have two simultaneous places of articulation. Secondaryarticulation occurs when an additional articulation is overlaid on the basic sound(e.g. labialized [kw] in the word quick). In the production of sounds with doublearticulation (e.g. the labio-velar glide [w] in wife) both places of articulation areof equal importance.

5. The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is a large air-filled space above and behind the nose in

the middle of the face. Nasals are produced with closure of the oral cavity andradiation of the sound through the nasal cavity. The obstructed oral cavity actsas a side-branch resonator.


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Figure 2. The main organs involved in articulatory processes5

3.2.2. Acoustic Phonetics

Speech sounds are waves produced by the vibration of the vocal cords inthe larynx and then transmitted through the air. It falls within the scope ofacoustic phonetics to examine the characteristics of the speech sound waves.Therefore, this branch of phonetics operates with notions borrowed from thecognate branch of physics, acoustics, in charge of determining the behaviour ofany physical waves (graphically represented in sinusoidal shape).

Sound waves are characterized by:a) duration (the length of time measured in milliseconds);

b) frequency orpitch (measured in Hertz or cycles per second) representshow often a wave repeats itself.

Vowels, for instance, consist of a series of periodic waves with variousfrequencies. The frequency of the simple wave produced by the simplest back-and-forth motion is called the fundamental frequency, whereas theothers are called the harmonics of the respective sound. The vibration of thevocal cords generates the fundamental frequency of a sound, whereas the

resonating cavities above the larynx are responsible for its harmonics.Phoneticians are interested in the energy bands (formants) given by the


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strongly reinforced harmonics of a sound; the range of formants a sound ismade up of results in its acoustic spectrum.c) amplitude (the loudness of the sound measured in decibels) is defined by

the size of the pressure difference a wave causes.

Images of the shape of sound waves waveforms- can be rendered asspectrograms by machines calledspectrographs.

Figure 3. A spectrogram of the words a bab, a dad, a gag.6

3.2.3. Auditory phonetics

A hearers perception of the speech sounds of a language is the primaryconcern of auditory phonetics. Awareness of the anatomy and physiology of thehearing process is a prerequisite in this field.

The hearing mechanism is jointly made possible by the inner, middle andouter ear. The auricle of the outer ear collects and directs the sound wavesthrough the ear canal to the middle ear. The tympanum is a middle earmembrane that turns these sound vibrations in the ear canal into vibrations taken

over by the middle ear ossicles, the hammer, anvil and stirrup, further connectedto the oval window that leads to the inner ear. Both the cochlea (the organ ofhearing) and the labyrinth (the organ of balance) are housed by the inner ear.The cochlea cavity is filled with a fluid called endolymph and coated with haircells called stereocilia. Vibrations coming from the middle ear reach theendolymph and make hair cells resonate with sounds of various frequencies;these receptor cells then send a nerve impulse to the brain, to be perceived as asound with the respective pitch.

The range within which stimuli may be perceived as sound represents the

auditory field. For humans, its frequency values vary between approximately 20HZ to 20 000 Hz. As a rule, changes in frequency larger than 2Hz are perceived


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by the human hearing mechanism; in other words, 2 Hz is the frequencyresolution of the human ear. As for intensity, the range of audible sounds isconsiderable; the intensity of a sound should be higher than 0 Db, but the upperlimits vary according to how harmful a sound may be due to the pressure on the

eardrums it can cause.In naturally occurring situations, one may witness the phenomenon of asound maskinganother: a normally clearly audible sound fails to be perceived assuch on account of an almost simultaneously produced louder sound.

Figure 4.The mechanism of hearing

. Sound waves enter the outer ear and travelthrough the external auditory canal until they reach the tympanic membrane,causing the membrane and the attached chain of auditory ossicles to vibrate. Themotion of the stapes against the oval window sets up waves in the fluids of thecochlea, causing the basilar membrane to vibrate. This stimulates the sensorycells of the organ of Corti, atop the basilar membrane, to send nerve impulses tothe brain.7


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4. INTRODUCTION TO PHONOLOGY

4.1. DEFINITION

Although in practice one cannot separate the linguistic features of soundsfrom their phonological context and values, nor could one elaborate on phonological phenomena without invoking phonetic features, sounds lendthemselves to a double interpretation. The point of view of the physicalproperties of speech sounds is claimed by phonetics, but the way they combineinto patterns, interact with each other and function within the sound system of acertain language is the province of phonology proper.

4.2. BRANCHES OF PHONOLOGY

Linguists distinguish two areas of phonology: segmental phonology and suprasegmental phonology. If attention is paid to sounds as individual units(phonological segments), it is within the framework of segmental phonology. Ifmore complex structures such as syllables, metrical feet, phonological words, phrases or utterances together with their characteristic tone, pitch, rhythm,intonation are targeted at, then all these phenomena are encompassed bysuprasegmental phonology.

4.3. THE PHONEME AND THE ALLOPHONES

Linguistic units which cannot be substituted for each other without achange in meaning can be referred to as linguistically contrastive orsignificantunits. Such units may be phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic etc.

If, for example, the sound [g] in the phonetic context [b_] gives themeaning bag, and if the sound [t] in the phonetic context [b_] gives themeaning bat, then we can conclude that the sounds [g] and [b] belong toseparate linguistic units. Phonemes are the linguistically contrastive orsignificant sounds (or sets of sounds) of a language.

Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of eachphoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speechsound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phoneticcontext of the phoneme. The phonetic context of a phoneme is also referred to asits environment. Occasionally, allophone selection is not conditioned by the phonetic environment but may vary form person to person and occasion tooccasion.

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speechsegments; in other words, it is a class of speech sounds judged by nativespeakers to be the same sound. An allophone is a concrete sound, whilst aphoneme is a set of such sounds.


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For practical purposes, two different bracketing conventions have beenadopted; slashes enclose phonemes (e.g. /g/), square brackets enclose allophones(e.g. [g]).

A phoneme is an abstract phonological unit. "Abstract" in this context

means that the pronunciation of the phoneme is not fully specified, i.e. a phoneme can be pronounced in slightly different ways depending on itsenvironment. The actual realisation of a phoneme in a given environment iscalledphone, a set ofphones that realise the same phoneme is referred to as itsallophones. Compare e.g. the /p/-sounds in pairand keeper. The [p] in pairisaspirated, meaning that the production of this sound is accompanied by a "puffof air" (the emission of air), whereas in the production of the [p] in keeperthereis no such aspiration. The aspirated and the non-aspirated variants are thusallophones of the samephoneme.

The phoneme-allophone distinction fits thetype-token

dichotomy. Inlinguistics, the term token is used to refer to any single instance of somephenomenon or category that is under investigation, and type is used for somecategory of which a token is a member.

The allophones aspirated [ph] and unaspirated [p] are phonetically distinct,but phonologically the same.

At any given time, the set of phonemes in a language is a closed set (likefunction words and syntactic rules, the set of phonemes is part of the limited,hard wired part of language). A speaker cannot simply add a new phoneme tothe language the way a new word can be added. The set of phonemes changesonly over time.

4.4. TRANSCRIPTION CONVENTIONS

Native and non-native speakers of English alike acknowledge thefrequently large distance between the spelling(orthography) andpronunciationof a word; the lack of predictability and consistency when pronouncingorthographically similar words (such as chemistry, chef, cherub, cheiromancy,which share the che letter string) is also notorious. Moreover, other pairs of

words (mane/ main, sought/ sort, etc.) are written differently despite theiridentical pronunciation. These pitfalls need to be addressed by phonetics andthus avoided by language learners.

It is standard practice in phonetics and phonology to use a set ofconventional symbols to write down the way an utterance (a stretch of speech) is pronounced. To accurately render the pronunciation of any utterance in alanguage is to transcribe it, and this is one of the major obvious goals of speechsounds studies. Simple as it may seem, this is not an easy task. Each sound isgiven a symbol and for a unified and principled transcription the symbols have

to belong to a single conventionalized system.


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The usage of symbols in this course is the one recommended by the International Phonetic Association. It is known as the International PhoneticAlphabet(IPA) and it is broadly applied in phones studies.

At this point, one distinction is a must: phonemic versus allophonic

transcription of words and phrases. Linguists deal with the challenge ofrepresenting sounds by positing two different levels: at one level, there is thephoneme (hence the name phonemic/ phonologicaltranscription), at the otherlevel there are allophones (hence the name allophonic/ phonetic transcription):Level Transcription Unit phonemic /p/ phoneme(phonological)

allophonic [p] [ph] allophones

(phonetic)As it can be seen, phonemic transcriptions are enclosed in slant lines,

called solidi, whereas allophonic transcriptions are enclosed in square brackets.

4.5. THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (IPA)

"The aim of the International Phonetic Association is to promote the study of thescience of phonetics and the various practical applications of that science. Forboth these it is desirable to have a consistent way of representing the sounds of

language in written form. From its foundation in 1886 the Association has beenconcerned to develop a set of symbols which would be convenient to use, butcomprehensive enough to cope with the wide variety of sounds found in thelanguages of the world; and to encourage the use of this notation as widely as

possible among those concerned with language. The system is generally knownas the International Phonetic Alphabet. Both the Association and its Alphabetare widely referred to by the abbreviation IPA . The IPA is based on the Romanalphabet, which has the advantage of being widely familiar, but also includesletters and additional symbols from a variety of other sources. These additions

are necessary because the variety of sounds in languages is much greater thanthe number of letters in the Roman alphabet. The use of sequences of phonetic

symbols to represent speech is known as transcription."8The 2005 revised version of the IPA convention is available on the InternationalPhonetic Association website.9


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For exemplification here follow example of how these phonemic symbolsare actually used in transcription.The sounds represented here are those ofBritish English spoken with an R.P. (Received Pronounciation) accent. Note thatother varieties of English differ considerably in pronunciation, especially the

vowels and diphthongs.A.The English Alphabet

B. English words10


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4.6. PRONUNCIATION GUIDES

Pronunciation is represented in dictionaries via the symbols pertaining toa certain alphabet. In the Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary (CALD) orOxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (OALD), for example, you can find outthe phonemic sequence and the stress pattern characterizing a word representedby means of the IPA symbols. It is then useful to practice and learn the IPA

conventions so that you may make use of pronunciations shown in dictionaries.While learning the phonemic symbols you can resort to another

instrument, talking dictionaries. They are available on the World Wide Web orCC-ROMs and they will read aloud words and definitions to you.

Additionally, pronunciation dictionaries such as the Cambridge EnglishPronouncing Dictionary usually include more words than regular dictionariesand they can prove particularly helpful in finding out how to pronounce variousplace names, family names, brand names and technical terms; they also specifydifferent accentual variations in pronunciation.


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Online resources for practising or checking pronunciation are not scarce,many sites offer recordings of accents of English from around the world. Hereare some suggestions:

Radio broadcasts online will give you access to the standard pronunciation used in news reports; on some of these radio stations eventranscripts of recordings are available to help you better understand broadcasts:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/ from the BBC (British BroadcastingCorporation)

http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/ from the ABC (Australian BroadcastingCorporation)

http://www.rte.ie/ from RT (Radio Telefs ireann) in Ireland http://www.rsi.sg/english from Radio Singapore http://www.penguinradio.com/ gives links to many radio stations from

around the world that broadcast online.

If you are interested in British regional accents you may find useful either

http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/ or the British Librarys http://www.bl.uk/collections/sound-

archive/accents.htmlof

Other options include samples of particular speech styles: http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/ for famous political speeches; http://www.lsa.umich.edu/eli/micase/audio/ for academic speech samples

(lectures, seminars, meetings, student presentations, etc.) from theMichigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE).

Some online dictionaries show and exemplify the pronunciation of words:

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ for the Cambridge Advanced Learners

Dictionary and the Cambridge Dictionary of American English; http://www.m-w.com/ for the Miriam-Webster Online Dictionary

pronunciation of words in North American English.

For specialized areas of study, you may even find terminologypronunciation tips:

http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm (Biology terms in Latin); http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/names/aeto/htm (names of dinosaurs);

http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10002096 (terms fromGenetics).
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/http://www.rte.ie/http://www.rsi.sg/englishhttp://www.penguinradio.com/http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/http://www.bl.uk/collections/sound-archive/accents.htmlofhttp://www.bl.uk/collections/sound-archive/accents.htmlofhttp://www.historyplace.com/speeches/http://www.lsa.umich.edu/eli/micase/audio/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/http://www.m-w.com/http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htmhttp://www.dinosauria.com/dml/names/aeto/htmhttp://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10002096http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/http://www.rte.ie/http://www.rsi.sg/englishhttp://www.penguinradio.com/http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/http://www.bl.uk/collections/sound-archive/accents.htmlofhttp://www.bl.uk/collections/sound-archive/accents.htmlofhttp://www.historyplace.com/speeches/http://www.lsa.umich.edu/eli/micase/audio/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/http://www.m-w.com/http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htmhttp://www.dinosauria.com/dml/names/aeto/htmhttp://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10002096


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4.7. PRONUNCIATION TIPS FOR ROMANIAN LEARNERS

VOWELS

a. front vowels:/i:/: this vowel is similar to the Romanian i in stressed syllables, especially infinal position or when followed by a voiced consonant (e.g. bine / criza/ dii!)//: this vowel has an intermediate position between the Romanian vowels i ande./e/: the English vowel strongly resembles the Romanian e (e.g.set, tel, test); donot pronounce it too open.//: the English vowel is intermediate between // and /a/; keep your mouthwide open for this vowel. Pronounce clearly the English words bed/bad.

b. back vowels:/:/: the English vowel is back, unlike the Romanian a, which is a central vowel;distinguish between cam (Rom)/ calm (English); do not add a /r/ after it, unlessanother vowel follows.//: there is no similar Romanian counterpart; do not pronounce it with fullyrounded lips or as a closer or central variant./:/: it is similar to the Romanian o; make sure you avoid pronouncing a /r/ afterit unless it is followed by a vowel.//: do not prounce it as tense as the Romanian u./u:/: it is more open, less rounded and longer than the Romanian u.

c. central vowels//: it is shorter and slightly closer than the Romanian a; avoid liprounding./:/: start from the Romanian and prolong it without any liprounding.//: make sure it is short and pronounced without any lip-rounding.

d. diphthongs:/e/: do not replace it by e; pronounce it as in tei, chei.

/a/: similar to the Romanian diphthong in cai, tai.//: it is not difficult to pronounce if // is pronounced correctly.//: similar to u in tu; do not say ou as in nou./a/: similar to au in bau./ /: pay attention to the initial vowel, which is lax; do not add any /r/ after it./e/: do not begin it with a very close /e/; do not add any /r/ after it./ /: do not begin it with a tense /u/; do not add any /r/ after it.

CONSONANTS

/p/, /t/, /k/: remember to use an aspirated allophone whenever necessary.


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/t/, /d/: do not articulate them with the tip of tongue against the upperteeth; in English /t/ and /d/ are alveolar./k/, /g/: do not palatalize them when followed by /e/, //, /e/./t/, //: the Romanian affricates ci, gi (in daci, rugi) are palatalized, unlike the

English ones.//, //: avoid replacing them by /f/, /v/ (do not touch the upper teeth with thelower lip); do not replace them by /t/, /d/ (place the tip of the tongue between theteeth and not against the alveolar ridge); avoid replacing them by /s/, /z/, whichhave an alveolar articulation./s/, /z/: in Romanian they are dental, not alveolar.//, / /: avoid palatalization./n/: pronounce it with an alveolar articulation, not with a dental one as inRomanian.

//: it is a velar sound, not a palatal one; it resemblesn

inAnca, dunga

.//: it can be articulated by trying to pronounce /u/ without rounded lips.

4.8. MINIMAL PAIRS

The above mentioned [bg] / [bt] contrast is demonstrated by theexistence of minimal pairs or contrast in identical environment. Minimalpairs are pairs of words which vary only by the identity of the segment (anotherword for a single speech sound) at a single location in the word (eg. [mt] and[kt]). If two segments contrast in identical environment then they must belongto different phonemes. A paradigm of minimal phonological contrasts is a set ofwords differing only by one speech sound. Notice how some of the Englishconsonants could be defined by the following set of minimally contrastingwords:/pi:k/ vs /li:k/ vs /si:k/ vs /gi:k/ vs /bi:k/ vs /mi:k/ vs /ri:k/ (corresponding to thewords peak/ leek/ seek/ geek/ beak/ meek/reek)

4.7. SPEECH SOUND DISTRIBUTION

The set of phonetic environments in which a speech sound occursrepresents its distribution.A pair of phones is in contrastive distribution if interchanging the two

causes a change in meaning. To check this, one needs to construct a minimalpair.e.g. [p] and [b] are in contrastive distribution since interchanging them in thepair [pet] / [bet] results in a change in meaning.

Speech sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of thesame phoneme which occur in non-overlapping environments. Aspirated and

non-aspirated variants of /p/ are in contrastive distribution: voiceless aspirated


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stops ([ph], [th], [kh]) occur only at the beginning of a syllable, whereas voicelessunaspirated stops occur only elsewhere.

Whenever two phones occur in overlapping environments but cause nodistinction in the meaning of the respective words they are said to be in free

variation. For example released/ unreleased word-final stops (in top/ pot,final /p/ and /t/ may be released [p], [t] or unreleased [p], [t]).

4.8. PHONETIC AND PHONEMIC FEATURES

The smallest units of speech are the phonetic features that make up speechsounds. Features whose presence or absence in a given sound segment normallyaffects meaning are known as distinctive (or phonemic) features. Note thatfeatures are usually thought of as binary oppositions. Sometimes the presence ofone feature will always imply the presence of another (rounding and backness ofvowels). Such features are known as mutually redundant features.Non-distinctive (allophonic) features pertain to identical phonemes (nodifferent meanings are engendered by a switch of such features) but differentallophones. Examples of non-distinctive fetures include, for example, nasality ofEnglish vowels (e.g. bean/bead), aspiration of English stops in syllable intialposition and before a stressed vowel (e.g. pair/ spare).Knowing the phonetic features of English helps one to group sounds togetherinto natural classes - a class of sounds with at least one phonetic feature incommon. Every phonetic feature has the capacity of building a natural class

(e.g. sonorants, obstruents, nasals, etc.)Articulatory Correlates of Distinctive Features11

1. syllabic/non-syllabic [+/-syl]. Syllabic sounds are those that constitutesyllable peaks, non-syllabic sounds are those that do not. Syllabic soundsare typically more prominent than contiguous non-syllabic sounds.(Vowels, syllabic consonants vs. glides, non-syllabic consonants.

2. consonantal/non-consonantal [+/-cons]. Consonantal sounds areproduced with a sustained vocal tract constriction at least equal to thatrequired in the production of fricatives; non-consonantal sounds are produced without such a constriction. (Obstruents, nasals, liquids vs.vowels and glides.)

3. sonorant/obstruent [+/-son]. Sonorant sounds are produced with a vocaltract configuration sufficiently open that the air pressure inside andoutside the mouth is approximately equal. Obstruent sounds are producedwith a vocal tract constriction sufficient to increase the air pressure insidethe mouth significantly over that of the ambient air. (Vowels, glides,liquids, nasals vs. stops and fricatives.)

4. coronal/non-coronal [+/-cor]. Coronal sounds are produced by raisingthe tongue blade toward the teeth or the hard palate; non-coronal sounds


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are produced without such a gesture. (Dentals, alveolars, palato-alvcolars,palatals vs. labials, velars, uvulars, pharyngeals.)

5. anterior/posterior [+/-ant]. Anterior sounds are produced with a primaryconstriction at or in front of the alveolar ridge, while posterior sounds are

produced with a primary constriction behind the alveolar ridge. (Labials,dentals, alveolars vs. palato-alveolars, palatals, velars, uvulars,pharyngeals.)

6. labial/non-labial [+/-lab]. As the term implies, labial sounds are formedwith a constriction at the lips, while non-labial sounds are formed withoutsuch a constriction. (Labial consonants, rounded vowels vs. all othersounds.)

7. distributed/non-distributed [+/-distr]. Distributed sounds are producedwith a constriction that extends for a considerable distance along the mid-

sagittal axis of the oral tract; non-distributed sounds are produced with aconstriction that extends for only a short distance in this direction.(Sounds produced with the blade or front of the tongue vs. soundsproduced with the tip of the tongue. This feature may also distinguishbilabial sounds from labio-dental sounds.)

8. high/non-high [+/-high]. High sounds are produced by raising the bodyof the tongue toward the palate; non-high sounds are produced withoutsuch a gesture. (Palatals, velars, palatalized and velarized consonants,high vowels and glides vs. all other sounds.)

9. back/non-back [+/-back]. Back sounds are produced with the tonguebody relatively retracted; non-back or front sounds are produced with thetongue body relatively advanced. (Velars, uvulars, pharyngeals, velarsand pharyngealized consonants, central vowels and glides, back vowelsand glides vs. all others.)

10. low/non-low [+/-low]. Low sounds are produced by drawing the body ofthe tongue down away from the roof of the mouth; non-low sounds are produced without such a gesture. (Pharyngeal and pharyngealizedconsonants, low vowels vs. all others.)

11. rounded/unrounded [+/-round]. Rounded sounds are produced with

protrusion of the lips; unrounded sounds are produced without suchprotrusion. (Rounded consonants and vowels vs. unrounded consonantsand laterals.)

12. continuant/stop [+/-cont]. Continuants are formed with a vocal tractconfiguration allowing the airstream to flow through the mid-sagittalregion of the oral tract: stops are produced with a sustained occlusion inthis region. (Vowels, glides, fricatives vs. nasal and oral stops, laterals.)

13. lateral/central [+/-lat]. Lateral sounds, the most familiar of which is [l],are produced with the tongue placed in such a way as to prevent the

airstream flowing outward through the center of the Mouth, whileallowing it to pass over one or both sides of the tongue, central sounds do


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not involve such a constriction. (Lateral sonorants, fricatives andaffricates vs. all other sounds.)

14. nasal/oral [+/-nas]. Nasal sounds are produced by lowering the velumand allowing the air to pass outward through the nose; oral sounds are

produced with velum raised to prevent the passage of air through the nose.(Nasal stops, nasalized consonants, vowels and glides vs. all othersounds.)

15. advanced/unadvanced tongue root [+/-ATR]. As its name implies, thisfeature is implemented by drawing the root of the tongue forward,enlarging the pharyngeal cavity and often raising the tongue body as well;[-ATR] sounds (do not involve this gesture. ([+ATR] vowels such as[i,u,e,o] vs. [-ATR] vowels.)

16. tense/lax [+/-tense]. Tense vowels are produced with a tongue body or

tongue root configuration involving a greater degree of constriction thanthat found in their lax counterparts; this greater degree of constriction isfrequently accompanied by greater length. (Tense vowels vs. lax vowels.)We note that this feature and the last (ATR) are not known to co-occurdistinctively in any language and may be variant implementations of asingle feature category.

17. strident/non-strident [+/-strid]. Strident sounds are produced with acomplex constriction forcing the airstream to strike two surfaces,producing high-intensity fricative noise; non-strident sounds are producedwithout such a constriction. (Sibilants, labiodentals, uvulars vs. all othersounds.) The feature [+strid] is found only in fricatives and affricates.

18. spread/non-spread glottis [+/-spread]. Spread or aspirated sounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn apart, producing a non-periodic(noise) component in the acoustic signal; non-spread or unaspiratedsounds are produced without this gesture. (Aspirated consonants, breathyvoiced or murmured consonants, voiceless vowels and glides vs. allothers.)

19. constricted/nonconstricted glottis [+/-constr.]. Constricted or glottalizedsounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn together, preventing

normal vocal cord vibration; non-constricted (non-glottalized) sounds areproduced without such a gesture. (Fricatives, implosives, glottalized orlaryngealized consonants, vowels and glides vs. all others.)

20. voiced/voiceless [+/- voiced]. Voiced sounds are produced with alaryngeal configuration permitting periodic vibration of the vocal cords;voiceless sounds lack such periodic vibration. (Voiced vs. voicelessconsonants.)

4.9. PHONOLOGICAL RULES


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There may be a wider or narrower gap between sounds spoken inutterances and the corresponding phonemes. Sometimes speech may be difficultto process because several changes affect sounds by changing, deleting orinserting sounds. Take for instance the sentence You couldnt give me a lift,

could you?; it can be pronounced / ju:/

kdnt/

gv mi: /

lft/

kd ju:/ in slowcareful speech, or /j / kdn / gbm / lf / k/ in fast connected speech,characteristic of everyday conversation between native speakers.

Despite the differences between the slow and careful pronunciation andthe fast coarticulated speech one, a native speaker of English is likely to comeup with the same interpretation. This happens because the native speaker has thecompetence to match the first sequence of phenemes (the underlying structure)to the fast spoken stretch of speech (the surface structure) via a set ofphonological rules.12 These rules are a set of explicit predictions about the way

particular phones represent particular phonemes in a ceratin language. The phonetic representation of an utterance is derived from the phonologialrepresentation by applying phonological rules:

Underlying (phonological) Surface (phonetic)representation representation

phonologicalrules

Essentially, any phonological rule is bound to specify three kinds ofinformation:- the class of phonemes affected (the input items)- the phonetic change that occurs (the output)- the specific phonological environment where this rules appliesThe information may be formalized as in A B / X_Y, where A represents theinput item, B the output item and X_Y the phonological environment, with Xand Y standing for the left-hand and right-hand environment, respectively, and_ representing the position of A.

Ther are different types of phonological rules. Let us illustrate two kinds.Allophonic rules fill in qualities of pronunciation that are absent in the lexicalforms of morphemes but are required by their circumstances in speech, like theaspiration of word-initial /k/ in coats and the rounding of the word-initial /r/ ofrules.Examples:

Rule 1. The English Stop Aspiration Rule13Unless preceded by /s/, stops (/p/, /t/, and /k/) are aspirated before stressed vowels.

{p t k} [+aspirated] / {#_ , _V }

Interpretation:


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means becomes or is changed to/ means in the environment of

____ is placed before or after segments that condition the change.# indicates a syllable boundary; you can also just use $

Rule 2. Vowel Nasalization in English14

Nasalize vowels when they occur before nasal consonants (within the same syllable).

V [ + NASAL] / ___ [ + NASAL] (C) #

Interpretation: means becomes or is changed to/ means in the environment of

____ is placed before or after segments that condition the change.

( ) enclose optional segments, whose presence or absence are irrelevant to the rule# indicates a syllable boundary; you can also just use $

Morphemic (morphophonological) rules change or choose between meaningfulqualities given as part of the lexical entries of morphemes, as where voicing ofthe /z/ of the plural suffix is replaced by voiclessness, giving /s/, in words like/kots/ coats and /saks/socks.

ExamplesThe English plural rule

The English regular noun plural morpheme15

(orthographically rendered as(e)s) has three allomorphs16: /s/, /z/, and /iz/, depending on the nature of thepreceding segment. The actual shape of the three allomorphs of the pluralmorpheme is said to be phonologically conditioned:

- [z] is selected after voiced non-sibilant segments;- [s] is selected after voiceless non-sibilant segments;- [iz] is selected after sibilant segments ([s], [z], [], [], [t], [d]).

The English regular past tense or the third person singular present tense areother examples of this type of rule.

4.10. PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOLS IN A NUTSHELL17

The term phoneme was first used by A. Dufriche-Desgenettes. It wastaken over by Ferdinand de Saussure who defined it as an element of thephonological system, a complex psychic unit that mingles representationsof both articulatory and acoustic processes. In 1894, Baudouin deCourtenay referred to the phoneme as to a psychic equivalent of a sound,opposing it to its physical realization.

The Prague School


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An outstanding representative of the Prague school, N. Trubetzkoy, wasextremely influenced by B. de Courtenays psychological approach to thephoneme. He elaborated the system of phonology based on key conceptssuch as phonological oppositions, archiphoneme, neutralization, rules for

determining phonemes. He tried to define the phoneme from the point ofview of its function in the language system. Roman Jakobsons theory was based on Saussures idea about the

phonemes as oppositional units. The relations between phonemes wereclaimed to be those of binary oppositions. He then tried to define eachphoneme by an exhaustive set of distinctive features.

The Russian and the Soviet Phonological School (L.V. Serba, A.A. Reformatskij, R.I. Avanesov) has had an important contribution inlinguistics and phonology. Russian linguists developed their phonological

theories in contradistinction to the Prague school; they often mingledphonetics with phonology. However, they laid emphasis on the word-differentiating function of phonemes.

The London School Daniel Jones, J. R.Firth.Jones distinguishes the phoneme as a family of sounds which occur in thespeech of a single person. He was aware of the importance of establishinga simple and coherent system of phonetic transcription for languages. Heproposed that an unambiguous system of transcription where each symbolstands for each phoneme be the solution.According to Firth, the theory of the phoneme is linked to the study of theword, because the substitution of one sound for another may producedifferent lexical units, a different form or a different function of asentence.

The Copenhagen School Louis HjelmslevFor Hjelmslev a phoneme, being an entity, has a value, a content (afunctional destination in the phonemic system of a language); a form (itoccupies a certain place within the phonemic sytem); and an expression (amaterialization). He is of the opinion that the expression of a phoneme isindependent of its form and content. By the method of commutation

Hjelmslev established phonemes. The American School

Edward Sapirs conception of the phoneme is close to that of the PragueSchool, although psychological considerations are complemented by afunctional perspective.Leonard Bloomfield, dealing with types of phonemes, distinguishedsimple primary phonemes from compound phonemes (e.g. diphthongs)and secondary phonemes ((suprasegmentals).

Generative phonologyhas been modelled by Noam Chomsky and Morris

Halle (cf. Chomsky & Halle 1968) as part ofgenerative grammar. Asinput of the phonological component of the language faculty in this


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framework serve syntactic surface structures, where each terminal node(or each lexical item) has its specific phonological feature representation.

Optimality Theory (OT) is the most influential linguistic theory of the1990s (Prince & Smolensky 1993). It originated in research on phonology

but has been extended to other areas in linguistic theory. OT suggests thatUniversal Grammar contains a set of constraints that are all violable andwhich represent universal properties of language. The ranking of theseconstraints is language specific, thus giving rise to variation betweenlanguages.

The term phoneme was introduced in Romanian linguistics by SextilPuscariu and Al. Rosetti in the 1930s. Other important considerationswere contributed later on by I. Iordan and F. Seidel. The founder of theRomanian phonological school is considered to be Emil Petrovici who,

influenced by a functional approach, presented his view on the phonemein his studies centered on the softening of the Romanian consonants.

Notes


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1 Rosenberg, Matt. English Speaking Countries. Available online athttp://geography.about.com/od/politicalgeography/a/englishcountry.htm[15th Nov. 2007]2 Lovgren, Stefan. English in Decline as a First language. In National Geographic, Feb 24, 2006. Availableonline at http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/02/0226_040226_language.html [15th Nov. 2007]3 Language and Culture. An Introduction to Human Communication. Available online athttp://anthro.palomar.edu/language/language_1.htm[15th Nov. 2007]4 Mateescu, Dan.2002.English phonetics and Phonological Theory. Bucuresti: Editura Universitii Bucuresti. p.

73.5 Bickford, A. J. and David Tuggy. Electronic Glossary of Linguistic Terms. Available online athttp://www.sil.org/Mexico/ling/Glosario/E005bi-OrgansArt.htm [15th Nov. 2007]6 Ladefoged, Peter. A Course in Phonetics. Available online athttp://www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter8/8.7.htm[15th Nov. 2007]7Encyclopdia Britannica. Ear: hearing mechanism. Available online at http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-536/The-mechanism-of-hearing [15th Nov. 2007]8 ***.1999.Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.39The International Phonetic Association. Available online at http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/fullchart.html[15th Nov. 2007]10 Omniglot. Writing systems and languages of the world. Available online at

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/english.htm[15th Nov. 2007]11Halle, Morris and G. N. Clements.1983. Problem Book in Phonology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p.121.12 see also Phonology LIN3010. Lecture 10. 2/2/07. Available online at http://grove.ufl.edu/~rhabib/Lecture10-phonologicalanalysis4.3&4.6.pdf[15th Nov. 2007]13 Roach, Peter J. 2004. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. p.240.14 Introduction to Linguistics. Phonology Class 3. Available online athttp://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Spring-2005/6996F887-2D28-4438-8D6D-14C2B91CBBA0/0/24_phon_2_1.pdf[15th Nov. 2007]15 A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.16 Phonologically conditioned variants of a single morpheme are called allomorphs.17 Cf. Goglniceanu, Clina.2003.Introduction to Linguistics . Iai: Institutul European. p.63-82.
http://geography.about.com/od/politicalgeography/a/englishcountry.htmhttp://geography.about.com/od/politicalgeography/a/englishcountry.htmhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/02/0226_040226_language.htmlhttp://anthro.palomar.edu/language/language_1.htmhttp://www.sil.org/Mexico/ling/Glosario/E005bi-OrgansArt.htmhttp://www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter8/8.7.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/eb/art-536/The-mechanism-of-hearinghttp://www.britannica.com/eb/art-536/The-mechanism-of-hearinghttp://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/fullchart.htmlhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/english.htmhttp://grove.ufl.edu/~rhabib/Lecture10-phonologicalanalysis4.3&4.6.pdfhttp://grove.ufl.edu/~rhabib/Lecture10-phonologicalanalysis4.3&4.6.pdfhttp://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Spring-2005/6996F887-2D28-4438-8D6D-14C2B91CBBA0/0/24_phon_2_1.pdfhttp://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Spring-2005/6996F887-2D28-4438-8D6D-14C2B91CBBA0/0/24_phon_2_1.pdfhttp://geography.about.com/od/politicalgeography/a/englishcountry.htmhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/02/0226_040226_language.htmlhttp://anthro.palomar.edu/language/language_1.htmhttp://www.sil.org/Mexico/ling/Glosario/E005bi-OrgansArt.htmhttp://www.phonetics.ucla.edu/course/chapter8/8.7.htmhttp://www.britannica.com/eb/art-536/The-mechanism-of-hearinghttp://www.britannica.com/eb/art-536/The-mechanism-of-hearinghttp://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/fullchart.htmlhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/english.htmhttp://grove.ufl.edu/~rhabib/Lecture10-phonologicalanalysis4.3&4.6.pdfhttp://grove.ufl.edu/~rhabib/Lecture10-phonologicalanalysis4.3&4.6.pdfhttp://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Spring-2005/6996F887-2D28-4438-8D6D-14C2B91CBBA0/0/24_phon_2_1.pdfhttp://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Spring-2005/6996F887-2D28-4438-8D6D-14C2B91CBBA0/0/24_phon_2_1.pdf

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