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Piaget, Erikson, Kohlberg, & Jesus:

Growing the SoulDonald A. Murk, PhD

Messiah College

dmurk@messiah.edu

Piaget

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.

Piaget’s Theory:

Is concerned with children, rather than all learners.

Focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.

Proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

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To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

Schemas

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive modeand enable us to form a mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952) defined a schema as:'a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing componenactions that are tightly interconnected and governed by

a core meaning'.

Assimilation and Accommodation

Assimilation - using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Accommodation - This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

Equilibration

Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

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Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 yrs)

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.

It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e. a schema) of the object.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself.

Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive development, because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.

This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

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Based on Piaget’s Theory Teachers Should:

Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.

Use active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths".

Use collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).

Devise situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.

Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can be set.

Erikson

Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development considers the impact of external factors, parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. According to Erikson’s theory, every person must pass through a series of eight interrelated stages over the entire life cycle

Infancy: Birth-18 Months OldBasic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope

During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust to the world.

Toddler / Early Childhood Years: 18 Months to 3 YearsAutonomy vs. Shame – Will

The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from wrong. The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather than shame. During this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear. Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and and low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills.

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Preschooler: 3 to 5 YearsInitiative vs. Guilt – Purpose

During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie’s and Ken’s, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—”WHY?”

The most significant relationship is with the basic family.

School Age Child: 6 to 12 YearsIndustry vs. Inferiority – Competence

During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem.

As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important.

Using Erikson’s Theory in the Classroom

Preschool:

1. Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest.2. Let the children be in charge of the learning process when participating in a classroom project. This will exhibit teacher appreciation for the areas of interest of the students as well as confidence in their ability.3. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices. 4. Offer continuous feedback on work that has been completed.

Preschool

5. Do not ridicule or criticize students openly. Find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a positive solution and outcome. 6. When children experiment they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently than the teacher planned.7. Utilize physical activity to teach fairness and sportsmanship.

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Elementary Level

1. Create a list of classroom duties that needed to be completed on a scheduled bases. Ask students for their input when creating the list as well as who will be in charge of what. 2. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision making process when discussing rules. 3. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role playing different situations. 4. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes. Teach them to hold their head high and move forward.

5. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and/or academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child. 6. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best. 7. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express themselves with a focus on their strengths.8. Utilize physical activity to build social development and to help students appreciate their own abilities as well as the abilities of others.

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pre-conventional level,

children are only interested in securing their own benefit. This is their idea of morality.

They begin by avoiding punishment, and quickly learn that they may secure other benefits by pleasing others. No other ethical concepts are available to children this young. This Kohlberg’s stage is a parallel of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage – for a child whose conceptual framework does not extend beyond their own senses and movements, the moral concepts of right and wrong would be difficult to develop.

conventional level

the stage at which children learn about rules and authority. They learn that there are certain “conventions” that govern how they should and should not behave, and learn to obey them.

At this stage, no distinction is drawn between moral principles and legal principles. What is right is what is handed down by authority, and disobeying the rules is always by definition “bad.”

Conventional (cont)

This level is split into two stages:

First stage: Children are interested in pleasing others and securing the favor of others.

Second stage: Children extend the principle to cover the whole of their society, believing that morality is what keeps the social order intact.

Kohlberg believed that many people stay in this stage of moral reasoning for their whole lives, deriving moral principles from social or religious authority figures and never thinking about morality for themselves.

post-conventional level

children have learned that there is a difference between what is right and wrong from a moral perspective, and what is right and wrong according to the rules. Although they often overlap, there are still times when breaking a rule is the right thing to do.

Post-conventional moral principles are either utilitarian principles of mutual benefit (closely related to the “social order” stage, but universal and non-authoritarian in nature)

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Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Punishment Orientation and Obedience

By doing what the others say, they can avoid punishment

They begin to see different sides to an issue vs. fully obeying what they are told

Conventional Morality

Good Interpersonal Relationships

The individual recognizes that being a good person brings him closer to others

Maintaining Social Order

The individual now sees that he needs to act good in order for the society to accept him

Postconventional Morality

Individual Rights and Social Contract

The individual now has a concept of basic rights and the right to democracy –that everyone has a say in an issue

Universal Principles

The individual is able to define principles that is most just and fair

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Level ~Ages Name Characteristics

Stage 1

3-7 Intuitive-predictive Egocentric, becoming aware of time. Forming images that will affect their later life.

Stage 2

6-12 Mythical-literalAware of the stories and beliefs of the local community. Using these to give sense to their experiences.

Stage 3

12- Synthetic-conventionalExtending faith beyond the family and using this as a vehicle for creating a sense of identity and values.

Stage 4

early adult Individuative-reflectiveThe sense of identity and outlook on the world are differentiated and the person develops explicit systems of meaning.

Stage 5 adult Conjunctive

The person faces up to the paradoxes of experience and begins to develop universal ideas and becomes more oriented towards other people.

Stage 6

adult UniversalizingThe person becomes totally altruistic and they feel an integral part of an all-inclusive sense of being. This stage is rarely achieved.

Jesus

Luke 2:52

New International VersionAnd Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man.

New Living TranslationJesus grew in wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and all the people.

English Standard VersionAnd Jesus increased in wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man.

Berean Study BibleAnd Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man.

Berean Literal BibleAnd Jesus continued to advance in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men.

New American Standard Bible And Jesus kept increasing in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men.

King James BibleAnd Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man.

International Standard VersionMeanwhile, Jesus kept on growing wiser and more mature, and in favor with God and his fellow man.

New American Standard 1977 And Jesus kept increasing in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men.

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.--Here again we have nothing but a normal orderly development. With Him, as with others, wisdom widened with the years, and came into His human soul through the same channels and by the same processes as into the souls of others--instruction, e.g., in the school of Nazareth, and attendance at its synagogue--the difference being that He, in every stage, attained the perfection of moral and spiritual wisdom which belongs to that stage

The boy grew into youth, and the young man into manhood, and the purity and lowliness and unselfish sympathy drew even then the hearts of all men.

The evangelist would teach us that, with Jesus, bodily development proceeded in the same orderly fashion as it does with other men, while wisdom - deepening with the years - passed into his soul as it passes into the souls of other men, by the ordinary channels of instruction, study, and thought.

On the last words, "in favor with God and man," Dean Plumptre very beautifully writes, "The Boy grew into youth, and the young Man into manhood, and his purity and lowliness and unselfish sympathy drew even then the hearts of all men.

The Bible says:

Jesus grew in wisdom — that's mental or intellectual growth.

Jesus grew in stature — that's physical growth.

Jesus grew in favor with God — that's spiritual growth.

Jesus grew in favor with men — that's social growth.

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Those should be the goals you have in your family for each of your children, which focus on balanced growth: mental, physical, spiritual, and social. The Bible is very clear that the primary responsibility of raising children and helping them be prepared for life belongs to the parents.

The moment you took part in a conception you got a job description; raising your children well is your responsibility. Help your children grow strong mentally, physically, spiritually, and socially.

Young children who see others practicing the same customs and rituals as they do themselves will feel a sense of belonging and pride.

Young children are very concrete. They learn through their direct experience and through observation of other's behavior, and not by way of abstract discussion. It is of little use to explain the philosophical, historical or religious basis for a given cultural or spiritual practice to young children.

children will best learn particular practices by participating in them. Religious or traditional cultural festivals, holidays, and rituals are perfect teaching opportunities, as are opportunities to teach children about traditional foods and dress. Children's participation in holidays and rituals and cultural activities teaches them that they are valued members of a particular community. Such memories form the ongoing basis of children's cultural and religious identity, and become the building blocks of tradition.

Scriptures

2 Peter 3:18 but grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ To Him be the glory, both now and to the day of eternity.

Ephesians 3:17-19

so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith; and that you, being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend with all the saints what is the breadth and length and height and depth, and to know the love of Christ which surpasses knowledge, that you may be filled up to all the fullness of God.

Scriptures (cont)

1 Peter 2:2 like newborn babies, long for the pure milk of the word, so that by it you may grow in respect to salvation

Colossians 3:16 Let the word of Christ richly dwell within you, with all wisdom teaching and admonishing one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing with thankfulness in your hearts to God.

1 Corinthians 13:11 When I was a child, I used to speak like a child, think like a child, reason like a child; when I became a man, I did away with childish things.

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Proverbs 22:6 Train up a child in the way he should go, Even when he is old he will not depart from it.

Proverbs 2:1-5 My son, if you will receive my words And treasure my commandments within you, Make your ear attentive to wisdom, Incline your heart to understanding; For if you cry for discernment, Lift your voice for understanding;

Ephesians 4:15 but speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in all aspects into Him who is the head, even Christ,