RISK ASSESSMENT USING POOL FIRE AND HEALTH INDEX

RISK ASSESSMENT USING POOL FIRE AND HEALTH INDEX ANALYSIS

AT BIOENERGY PLANT

JULIZA BT MOHD FUAD NGO

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Engineering (Civil – Environmental Management)

Department of Environmental Engineering

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

NOVEMBER, 2008

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To my beloved parents, friends, course mates & lecturers, Thanks for your patience, support, guidance & confidence in me.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor Dr Mohd

Fadhil Md Din for his dedicated guidance, valuable ideas. Tireless efforts ad on-

going support troughout this project

Special appreciation to my parents; Mohd Fuad Ngo Abdullah and Hisah

Omar and my family for their understanding, support and love.

Further more, I would like also grateful to all lab assistants, including Pn.

Ros, En Yusuf, En Suhaimi and others for helping me in collection of samples,

equipment preparation and share their opinion. Words of thank would never be

enough. This project would not be able to be completed in time without their endless

cooperation and guidance.

Last but not least, I would like to thank all my fellow friends for their support

and motivations in completing this research study.

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ABSTRACT

Risk assessment is recognized as a complete process of identifying a hazard

and evaluating the risk either in absolute or relative terms. Risks at Vance Bioenergy

Sdn Bhd are measured by identifying the most hazardous and flammability of raw

material used in methyl ester and refined glycerin plant. As a result, methanol is the

most flammability; hence the study focuses at the methanol storage tank. The area

affected is determining using pool fire analysis. Besides that, the study also

identifies the air emission from the stack sampling based on the secondary data

obtained from preliminary environmental impact assessment study. The health

effects from the air quality within Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. and their surrounding

areas are determined constantly to verify whether it could affect to human or not.

Overall, the health index at three sampling point showed averagely 0.7, which is less

than 1 and presume it could not give any significant impact to health. Beside that,

the air quality also complied with the Malaysian Recommended Environmental Air

Quality Guidelines. An Emergency Response Plans (ERP) is proposed to mitigate

and prevent any risk or accident during the plant operations.

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ABSTRAK

Penilaian risiko merupakan proses lengkap dalam mengenalpasti bahaya dan

menilai risiko kemalangan sama ada secara keseluruhan atau fokus kepada sesuatu

bahagian. Risiko di Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd dilakukan dengan mengenalpasti

bahan mentah yang paling merbahaya dan mudah terbakar. Daripada kajian yang

dijalankan, metanol merupakan bahan yang sangat mudah terbakar. Untuk itu kajian

ini dijalankan di tangki simpanan methanol. Kawasan yang terjejas dikenalpasti

menggunakan analisis pool fire. Selain itu, kajian ini juga mengenalpasti kualiti

udara yang dilepaskan oleh cerombong dandang di Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd

berdasarkan kajian lepas. Kesan terhadap kesihatan dari kualiti udara di Vance

Bioenergy Sdn Bhd dan kawasan sekitarnya ditentukan untuk memastikan sama ada

udara yang dilepaskan dari cerombong member kesan dar segi kesihatan kepada

manusia atau tidak. Secara keseluruhan, index kesihatan yang diperoleh adalah 0.7

iaitu kurang dari 1 dan tidak memberi sebarang kesan kepada kesihatan manusia.

Selain itu, kualiti udara juga memenuhi Standard Kualiti Udara Malaysia.

Seterusnya, Emergency Response Plans (ERP) dicadangkan untuk mecegah dan

menghindar sebarang risiko atau kemalangan semasa loji beroperasi.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

TITLE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENT vii

LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVIATIONS x

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xii

LIST OF APPENDICES xiv

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem Statement 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study 4

1.4 Scope of the Study 4

1.5 Background of the Company 4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 6

2.2 Purpose of Risk Assessment 8

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2.3 Process of Risk Assessment 8

2.3.1 Hazard Identification 8

2.3.2 Exposure Assessment 9

2.3.3 Dose-Response Assessment 10

2.3.4 Risk Characterisation 11

2.4 Types of Risk Assessment 12

2.4.1 Qualitative Risk Assessment 12

2.4.2 Quantitative Risk Assessment 13

2.5 Pool Fire 13

2.6 Failure Rates for Tankage 14

2.7 Types of Air Pollutants 15

2.7.1 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 15

2.7.2 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 16

2.7.3 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 17

2.7.4 Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) 17

2.8 Methanol 18

2.9 Glycerin 19

2.10 Production Process of Glycerin Distillation and

Refining Plant

21

2.11 Emergency Response Plan 24

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 26

3.2 Data and Information Collection 26

3.3 Hazard Identification 27

3.4 Pool Fire 27

3.5 Air Quality 29

3.5.1 Equipment 29

3.5.2 Sampling Location 30

3.6 Exposure Assessment 34

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4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 36

4.2 Hazard Identification 36

4.3 Pool Fire 40

4.4 Failure Rate for Tank 41

4.5 Exposure Assessment 44

4.5.1 Air Emission 44

4.5.2 Air Ambient 50

4.6 Emergency Response Plan (ERP) 51

4.6.1 Declaration of Emergency 54

4.6.2 Emergency Procedure 55

4.6.2.1 Plant Emergency 55

4.6.2.2 Transportation Emergency 60

4.6.2.3 Injured Person 64

4.7 Evacuation Plan 66

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions 69

5.2 Recommendations 70

REFERENCES 71

APPENDICES 75

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LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVIATIONS

Q - Heat release rate (kW)

m” - Mass burning heat (kg/m2-sec)

ΔHc, - Heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

kβ - Empirical Constant (m-1)

D - Diameter of pool fire (m)

Af - Surface area of pool fire (m2)

q” - Radian heat flux (kW/m2)

Q - Heat release rate (kW)

R - Distance from center of the pool fire to edge of the target (m)

xr - Radiative fraction

EDair - Estimate dose (mg/kg/day)

C - Concentration

IR - Inhalation rate (m3/day)

EF - Exposure factor (days/year)

ED - Exposure Duration years (kg)

BW - Body weight (days)

NIOSH - National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

DOSH - The Department of Occupational Safety and Health

OSH - Occupational Safety & Health

ERP - Emergency Response Plan

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE

2.1 Failure rates for the tankage 15

3.1 Burning rate data for fuel 28

3.2 Standard value for IR, EF, ED, BW and AT 35

4.1 Hazard identification for raw material used in

Methylester and Refined Glycerine process

38

4.2 Effect of Thermal Radiation 40

4.3 Specification of boiler 44

4.4 The stack air quality emission 45

4.5 Health Index for A1, A2 and A3 50

4.6 Type of pollutants and effect to health 51

4.7 Definition of term used in ERP 52

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE

1.1 Location of Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. 5

2.1 Element of risk analysis 6

2.2 Process of health risk assessment 11

2.3 Methanol chemical formula 18

2.4 Glycerin chemical formula 20

2.5 Process of Palm Oil conversion into Methyl Ester

and Refine Glycerin Material

23

3.1: GrayWolf DirectSense Tox PPC Kit 29

3.2 Mini Vol. Portable Air Sampler 29

3.3 Sampling location for A1, A2 and A3 30

3.4 (a) Sampling for TSP at Station A1 31

3.4 (b) Sampling for CO, NO2 and SO2 at Station A1 31

3.4 (c) Station A1 at Jalan Keluli 5 31



3.5 (c) Station A2 at Jalan Keluli 4 32



3.6 (c) Station A3 at the Taman Pasir Putih 33

4.1 Methanol Storage Tank 37

4.2 Small pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank 42

4.3 Large pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank 43

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FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE

4.4 Predicted TSP dispersion GLC within 3km radius

from the factory.

46

4.5 Predicted NO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius

from the factory.

47

4.6 Predicted SO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius

from the factory

48

4.7 Predicted CO dispersion GLC within 3km radius

from the factory

49

4.8 Assembly Point 56

4.9 Emergency procedure for fire 57

4.10 Emergency procedure for hazardous chemical spill 58

4.11 Emergency procedure for toxic gas released 59

4.12 Emergency procedure for fire during transportation 62

4.13 Emergency procedure for chemical spill during

transportation

63

4.14 Emergency procedure for Injured Person 65

4.15 Evacuation Procedure 68

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A MSDS Acid Citric 75

B MSDS Sodium Hydroxide 81

C MSDS Methanol 88

D MSDS Glycerin 95

E MSDS Palm Oil 102

F MSDS Acid Phosphorus 108

G MSDS Sodium Methylate 30% 114

H Example of Calculation for Pool Fire 123

I Result for Air Sampling 125

J Example of Calculation for Health Index 126

K Recommended Malaysian Air Quality

Guidelines

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Risk can be defined as a dangerous or unpleasant occurrence that possibly

creates a dangerous situation. Risk assessment is a proper measurement at workplace

that could cause harm to people, seriousness of the hazard level and to propose a

mitigation procedure that could reduce the risk to the acceptable level. It is very

important to ensure nobody gets hurt and free from contamination environment

(USEPA, 2008).

Risk characterization is an integral component of the risk assessment process

for both ecological and health risks (Fowle, 2000). A human health risk assessment

is the process to estimate the nature and probability of adverse health effects in

humans that may be exposed to chemicals in contaminated environmental media,

either current or the future situation. An ecological risk assessment however is the

process in evaluating the environmental impact from an exposure to of or more

environmental stressors such as chemicals, land change, disease, invasive species and

climate changes (USEPA, 2008).

2

In Malaysia, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

(NIOSH) and The Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) are two

organizations that responsible in enhancing occupational safety and health. DOSH is

a department under the Ministry of Human Resources. This department is

responsible for ensuring the occupational safety, health and welfare of people at

work as well as protecting other people from the safety and health hazards arising

from the activities of various sectors such as manufacturing, mining and quarrying,

construction, hotels and restaurants (DOSH, 2007).

The role of occupational safety and health has been in existence since 120

years ago, in the late 19th century. It started with steam boiler safety and then

followed by machinery safety. After that, it was continued with industrial safety,

industrial safety and hygiene and lastly occupational safety and health that cover

every work sector. Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (Revised - 1974),

Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) and Petroleum Act (Safety

Measures) 1984 (Act 302) are three acts that being forced by DOSH (DOSH, 2007).

NIOSH was launch on December 1, 1992 as an intention to improve the

safety and health of workers at the workplace in Malaysia. Training is an integral

part of Occupational Safety & Health (OSH). To ensure the success of any OSH

programme at the workplace, adequate and effective training must be adapted at all

level associated with OSH. Training enables managers, supervisors and workers to

understand the workings of safety management systems and the legal compliance

required. They will also understand their own responsibilities and the necessary

actions to be taken towards upgrading safety and health at their respective

workplaces. Many training provide by NIOSH for example, Occupational Safety &

Health Act 1994, Safety & Health Officer Examination Workshop and Safety in the

Use of Chemicals (NIOSH, 2008).

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1.2 Problem Statement

The requirements of risk assessment have become more important

particularly after the fatal explosions at Petronas oil terminal at Pasir Gudang

Industrial Estate. The incidents occurred when two storage tanks containing petrol

and a natural gas tank caught fire by lightning strike during a thunderstorm on 28

April 2006 (Bernama, 2006). Even though no injuries reported, this incident

increases awareness among the people about the importance and purpose of risk

assessment. Besides that, two incidents are also reported at methanol plant in

Seberang Perai, Penang (The Star, 2004) and Labuan (The Star, 2007) on 2004 and

2007. The latest incident is at Tanjung Langsat on 24 August 2008 where a fire

broke out at one of the eight oil storage tanks (Bernama, 2008).

Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate have various types of industry such as

chemical, plastic, oil and gas, food and others. Most of them are involving with

hazardous and dangerous materials. Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. is one of the

industries at Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate that handling with contaminated and

hazardous materials. Nearby Vance Bioenergy located heavy industry such as Chye

Hup Heng Sdn Bhd (metal recycling), Panagawa Sdn Bhd (plastic manufacturing),

White Horse Ceramic Industries Sdn Bhd (tile manufacturing) and Mox Gases Sdn

Bhd (gas). Risk assessment should be carried out to ensure the possible and

dangerous accident which can be minimized.

Air is one of the major problems in Malaysia. Beside incident from fire or

explosion, another risky problem that may occur at Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd is

from air. Air emission from stack will disperse to the surrounding and may pollute

the air. Health index analysis is carried out to determine either the concentration of

air pollutants may cause an impact to human health or not.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are as follows:

a) To determine the quantitative risk assessment on potential risk at

methanol storage tank and health risk from air pollutant within the Vance

Bioenergy Sdn Bhd.

b) To propose a standard procedure of emergency response plan (ERP)

during any emergency events.

1.4 Scopes of the Study

The scopes of this study are as follows:

a) Identified the potential quantified risk within the Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd

boundary using pool fire analysis.

b) Identified the health effect of air quality at Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd by

calculating using an airborne health index equation.

c) Propose the emergency response plan (ERP) to be followed by workers,

contractors or visitor at the industry in case of any accident occurs.

1.5 Background of the Company

Vance Bioenergy is a leading biodiesel production, marketing and trading

company based in South East Asia. Vance Bioenergy’s corporate headquarters is in

Singapore and its production based in Malaysia. Vance Bioenergy is located at PLO

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668 and 669 of Jalan Keluli 5, Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate, Mukim Plentong,

Johor Bahru, Johor.

Currently, Vance Bioenergy is an established industrial biofuel

manufacturing since 2006. Palm based Methyl Ester is the main product of Vance

Bioenergy Sdn Bhd, while crude Glycerin and fatty acids solution is the by products

of Methyl Ester facility. The existing Glycerin plant is producing at 24000 tons/yr or

78 tons/d. Now, Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd intended to increase their existing

Glycerin facility to raise their production from 78 tons/d to 156 tons/d.

The main process in Vance Bioenergy is converted the crude palm oil into

Methyl Ester, which identified as biofuel raw material. However during the

separation process, the glycerin material could be extracted too. The main processes

for the production of Methyl Ester and refined glycerin from palm oil are discussed

on Chapter Two (2).

Figure 1.1: Location of Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

National Research Council defines risk analysis as having three core elements

of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Interaction and

overlap between the three elements are depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Element of risk analysis.

Risk Communication

Risk Assessment

Risk Management

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The first core element of risk analysis is risk assessment. Risk assessment is a

process through which the probability of loss by or to an engineering system is

estimated and the magnitude of the loss is also measured or estimated the aim of the

risk assessment process is to remove a hazard or reduce the level of its risk by adding

precautions or control measures, as necessary. This would create a safer and healthier

workplace (Modarres, 2006). In general, risk assessment process includes:

a) Identify hazards,

b) Evaluate the likelihood of an injury or illness occurring, and its severity,

c) Consider normal operational situations as well as non-standard events

such as shutdowns, power outages, emergencies, etc.,

d) Review all available heath and safety information about the hazard such

as manufacturers literature, information from reputable organizations,

results of testing, etc.,

e) Identify actions necessary to eliminate or control the risk,

f) Monitor and evaluate to confirm the risk is controlled,

g) Keep any documentation or records that may be necessary.

Documentation may include detailing the process used to assess the risk,

outlining any evaluations, or detailing how conclusions were made.

Assessments should be done by an experienced team of individuals who have

a good working knowledge of the workplace. Staff should be involved always

include supervisors and workers who work with the process under review as they are

the most familiar with the operation (California EPA, 2001).

Risk management is the process through which potential of magnitude and

contributors to risk are estimated, evaluated, minimized and controlled. Risk

communication is the process through which information about the nature of risk and

consequences, risk assessment approach and risk management option are exchange,

shared and discussed between the decision makers and other stakeholders (Modarres,

2006).

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2.2 Purpose of Risk Assessment

The main purposes of risk assessment are:

a) To identify all possible hazards

b) To identify measures that will prevent or minimize all possible hazards.

c) To recommend further appropriate control measures to prevent or reduce

risks.

2.3 Process of Risk Assessment

The risk assessment process is typically described as consisting of four basic

steps. There are Hazard Identification, Exposure Assessment, Dose-Response

Assessment and Risk Characterisation.

2.3.1 Hazard Identification

In Hazard Identification is all about to determine the types of health problems

a chemical could cause by reviewing study of its effects in humans and laboratory

animals. Depending on the chemical, these health effects may include short term

ailments, such as headaches, nausea and eye, nose and throat irritation or chronic

diseases, such as cancer. An important step in Hazard identification is the selection

of key research studies that can provide accurate, timely information on the hazard

posed to humans by a particular chemical (California EPA, 2001).

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2.3.2 Exposure Assessment

Exposure assessment is the process of measuring or estimating the intensity,

frequency and duration of exposure of the human population to risk agents. The

primary routes of exposures to environmental risk agents for human beings are

through the inhalation of gases, vapours and dusts, through ingestion of foods, water

or unintentionally of other materials including dust, soil and via skin contact (Ball,

2006).

The most accurate way assessing exposure is by measuring the concentration

of the agent of concern in relation to the presence and activities of affected persons.

Measurement, however is often expensive and maybe in practical. It is therefore

common to rely upon mathematical models that estimate concentrations to which

persons are exposed. Exposure assessment often depends on factors that are hard to

estimate and for which there are few data (Ball, 2006).

A major source of complexity in exposure assessment is the strong influence

that individual personal habits can have on human exposure. If exposure occurs

through air or water, exposure assessment must consider how the risk agent moves

from its source and if it is altered over time. Chemical agents are generally diluted in

the environment and may degrade after release. The aim of exposure assessment in

this case is to determine the concentration of toxic materials where they interface

with target population (Ball, 2006).

Another important aspect of exposure assessment is determining which group

in the population may be exposed to a risk agent. Some group may be especially

susceptible to adverse health effects. These include pregnant women, very young

and vey old people and people with impaired health. Exposure to multiple risk

agents often results in portions of the population becoming more sensitive to single

agents. Exposure to risk agents that act synergistically greatly complicates risk

10

assessment. Exposure to both cigarettes smoke and asbestos results in a rate of

cancer incidence much greater than that indicated by the dose-response data for the

individual substances. An individual can be exposed to a single risk agent from

several distinct sources. Exposure to lead, for example can come from breathing air,

eating food and drinking water (Ball, 2006).

2.3.3 Dose-Response Assessment

Dose-response assessment evaluates the information obtained during the

hazard identification step to estimate the amount of a chemical that is likely to result

in particular health effect in humans. An establish principle in toxicology is that “the

dose makes the poison”. For example, a commonplace chemical like table salt is

harmless in small quantities, but it can cause illness in large doses. Similarly

hydrochloric acid, a hazardous chemical produced naturally in our stomachs but can

be quite harmful if taken in large doses (California EPA, 2001).

This is the process of characterizing the relationship between the dose of an

agent administered or received and the incidence of an adverse health effect in

exposed populations. The process considers important factors such as intensity of

exposure, the age distribution of those exposed and possibly the other variables that

might affect response, such as gender and lifestyle (Ball, 2006)

Dose-response assessment estimates how different level of exposure to a

chemical can impact the likelihood and severity of health effects. The dose-response

relationship is often different for many chemicals that cause cancer than it is for

those that cause other kinds of health problems (California EPA, 2001).

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2.3.4 Risk Characterisation

The last step in risk assessment brings together the information developed in

the previous three steps to estimate the risk of health effect in an exposed population.

Risk characterisation analyzes the information developed during the exposure and

dose-response assessments to describe the resulting health risks that are expected to

occur in the exposed population (California EPA, 2001).

Figure 2.2: Process of health risk assessment (California EPA, 2001).

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2.4 Types of Risk Assessment

2.4.1 Qualitative Risk assessment

The level of risk can be described either qualitatively (i.e. by putting risks

into categories such as ‘high’, ‘medium’ or ‘low’) or quantitatively (with a numerical

estimate). Current risk assessment methods do not enable accurate quantitative

estimates of risk for low levels of exposure to environmental hazards. Numerical

estimates of risk will rarely be feasible because of variability in the agent and

population and limitations in toxicological and exposure data which will be reflected

in the uncertainty assessment, but a degree of quantification may be possible for

some components such as data collection and exposure assessment (Modarres, 2006).

Qualitative risk analysis requires that the probability and consequences of the

risks be evaluated using established qualitative-analysis methods and tools. Trends

in the results when qualitative analysis is repeated can indicate the need for more or

less risk-management action (Modarres, 2006).

It is easier to perform a qualitative risk analysis because it does not required

gathering precise data. In this approach, rank ordered approximations of probability

and consequence are often quickly estimated (Modarres, 2006).

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2.4.2 Quantitative Risk assessment

The quantitative risk assessment provides numerical scales for input and

output values, such as a number expressing a probability that there will be an

outbreak in a defined period of time or per unit of commodity (Modarres, 2006). It

may involve:

a) Asking precise questions about activity and outcome;

b) Developing mathematical model linking activity and outcome;

c) Obtaining evidence pertaining to the model;

d) Assigning quantitative values to the model;

e) Calculating outcomes;

f) Submitting for peer review.

Quantitative risk analysis generally follows qualitative risk analysis. It

requires risk identification. The qualitative and quantitative risk analysis processes

can be used separately or together. Considerations of time and budget availability

and the need for qualitative or quantitative statements about risk and impacts will

determine which method(s) to use. Trends in the results when quantitative analysis

is repeated can indicate the need for more or less risk management action (Modarres,

2006).

2.5 Pool fire

Pool fire occurs when release of flammable material from a system in an

establishment. If the material is stored below its normal boiling point, the liquid will

collect in a pool. A pool fire occurs when the liquid is ignited. The damaging

impact of a pool fire is thermal effects, primarily through the thermal radiation from

14

the flame surface. The damage are depends on the type of fuel, geometry of the pool,

duration of the fire and distance from the fire. The pool size or diameter is an

important consideration in the modeling of a pool fire (DOE, 2004).

2.6 Failure Rates for Tankage

The failure rates for the atmospheric pressure storage tanks were based

largely on a hazard analysis study carried out by Energy Anaysis Inc in the United

States. The failure rates have been modified slightly (Alara, 1997).

In postulating failure scenarios involving tangkage, fully developed major

fires in both the tanks and the bunded areas were considered. These are fires where

significant quantities of material have been exposed either through loss of a roof or

leakage into bund and ignition. The fire is considered to have progressed such that

standard correlations for flame size are applicable. The scenario considered is a fire

burning within a tank that has lost its roof (tank fire). Loss of roof can occur via

internal explosion within the tank. In the case of floating roof tanks, structural failure

or excessive external loads can cause the tank roof to sin (Alara, 1997).

The effect of the loss of roof scenario, such as the projectile motion and

impact of the roof fragments upon surrounding areas or tanks has not been known t

induce failures in the other tanks as well as easily travel in excess of 50 m but less

than 100 m before impact (Alara, 1997).

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Table 2.1: Failure rates for the tankage

Failure Rate

Tank fire

Cone roof 2.6 x 10-4 /yr

Floating deck 1.3 x 10-4 /yr

Sub dike fire 6.0 x 10-5 /tank in sub dike/yr

Dike fire 1.2 x 10-5 /tank in full dike/yr

Tank explosion 2.0 x 10-5 /yr

Tank Flash Fire 1.4 x 10-5 .yr

Sub Dike Flash Fire 1.1 x 10-5 /yr

Dike Flash Fire 4.5 x 10-6 /yr

Source: Alara, 1997

2.7 Types of Air Pollutants.

2.7.1 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, pungent, irritating, water-soluble reactive gas.

This gas is formed during the combustion process of fuel containing sulphur (e.g. oil

and coal) mainly from industrial activities. High concentrations of SO2 in the

atmosphere increase the risk of adverse symptoms in asthmatic patients and irritate

the respiratory system. Other effects associated with long-term exposure to high

concentrations of SO2 include respiratory illnesses, alterations in lung function and

aggravation of existing cardiovascular diseases (Imran, 2007).

There are also environmental concerns associated with high concentrations of

SO2. Sulfur dioxide along with NOX is a major precursor to acidic deposition, which

contributes to the acidification of soils, lakes and streams resulting in adverse impact

16

on the ecosystem. Sulfur dioxide can also be harmful to plant life and accelerates the

corrosion of buildings and monuments (Imran, 2007).

2.7.2 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish brown, highly reactive gas that is formed

in the ambient air through the oxidation of nitrogen monoxide (NO). Nitrogen oxide

(NOX) is the term used to describe the total sum of NO, NO2 and other oxides of

nitrogen. The major sources of man-made NOX emissions are high-temperature

combustion processes, such as those occurring in automobiles and power plants.

Most of the NOX (95%) from combustion processes are emitted as NO and the rest as

NO2. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is readily converted to NO2 in the environment (Siti

Noorshafarina, 2007).

Short term exposure to NO2 may lead to changes in airway responsiveness

and lung function in individuals with preexisting respiratory illnesses and increases

respiratory illness in children. Long term exposure may increase susceptibility to

respiratory infection and cause alteration in lung function. Nitrogen oxides also react

in the air to form ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution, both of which are

associated with adverse health impacts (Siti Noorshafarina, 2007).

Nitrogen oxides contribute to a wide range of environmental effects,

including the formation of acid rain and potential changes in the composition and

competition of some species of vegetation in wetland and terrestrial systems,

visibility impairment, acidification of freshwater bodies, eutrophication of estuarine

and coastal waters and increase in levels of toxins harmful to aquatic life (Siti


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2.7.3 Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and at high concentration, a

poisonous gas. Carbon monoxide is formed when the carbon present in fuel is not

burnt completely. CO is emitted mainly from motor vehicle exhaust. Other sources

of CO emission include industrial processes and open burning activities (Imran,

2007).

Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream through the lungs and reduces

oxygen delivery to organs and tissues. The health threat from exposure to CO is most

serious to those who suffer from cardiovascular diseases. At high levels of exposure,

CO can be poisonous even to healthy people. Visual impairment, reduced work

capability and poor learning ability are among the health effects associated with

exposure to elevated CO levels (Imran, 2007).

2.7.4 Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)

Total suspended particulates (TSP) are solid matter or liquid droplets from

smoke, dust, fuel ash, or condensing vapours that can be suspended in the air. They

either come from natural sources such as soil, bacteria and viruses, fungi, molds and

yeast, pollen, salt particles from evaporating sea water or from man-made sources

such as motor vehicle use, combustion products from space heating, industrial

processes and power generation. TSPs include a range of different sized particles.

The coarser particles are 50-100 micrometres and finer particles are smaller than 10

micrometres in diameter (Siti Noorshafarina, 2007).

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They represent a broad class of chemical particles and may include inorganic

fibres, trace metals (such as lead) and a variety of organic materials. TSP may

originate from combustion, forming hydrocarbons, or from sulphates and nitrates

formed during sulphur dioxide or nitrogen dioxide emissions. Particulates can be

inhaled but larger particulates can be filtered by the upper respiratory tract. Smaller

particulates (respiratory suspended particulates) can enter deeper into the lungs (Siti


2.8 Methanol

Methanol also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood

naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH.

Methanol is a clear, colorless liquid with a faint odor like alcohol. The smell is not

very strong and is considered a poor indicator of vapor concentration (Canada Safety

Council, 2005). Methanol burns in air forming carbon dioxide and water:

2 CH3OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 4 H2O

Figure 2.3: Methanol chemical formula

Methanol is used as a solvent for lacquers, paints, varnishes, cements, inks,

dyes, plastics and various industrial coatings. It is also used in the production of

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

19

pharmaceuticals, formaldehyde and other chemical products. Methanol appears as

an ingredient in many products, from industrial solvents to windshield-washer fluid

and nail-polish remover. It is also used as a fuel (Canada Safety Council, 2005).

Inhalation of methanol vapor is the most common route of occupational

exposure. Poisonings have also resulted from absorption through the skin; although

it is only a mild skin irritant, it can be absorbed through the skin in toxic amounts.

Accidental swallowing is also possible. Methanol tastes and smells much like

common alcohol (ethanol) and has been used as a substitute in illegal alcoholic

beverages (Canada Safety Council, 2005).

Methanol is a flammable liquid and can pose a serious fire risk. It burns with

a pale blue flame not usually visible in normal light. Its flash point is 12 c. above this

temperature enough vapor is produced to create a flammable mixture with air. The

vapor is heavier than air and can travel along the ground to a distant source of

ignition and flashback. Containers may explode in the heat of a fire. Although

methanol is normally stable, contact with strong oxidizing agents increases the risk

of a fire or explosion (Canada Safety Council, 2005).

2.9 Glycerin

Glycerin is a commercial product which principal component is glycerol.

The pure chemical element is called Glycerol, which indicates that it is an alcohol.

The impure commercial product is called glycerin (Bonnardeaux, 2006).

Glycerol, the main component of glycerin, has the chemical formula

C3H5(OH)3. It is a trihydric alcohol, possessing two primary and one secondary

hydroxyl groups, which are its potential reaction sites and the basis for glycerin’s

versatility as a chemical raw material (Bonnardeaux, 2006).

20

Figure 2.4: Glycerin chemical formula

Glycerin is one of the most versatile and valuable chemical substances. It

possesses a unique combination of physical and chemical properties that are utilized

in numerous products. Glycerin has over 1,500 known end uses, including many

applications as an ingredient or processing aid in cosmetics, toiletries, personal care,

drugs, and food products. In addition, glycerin is highly stable under typical storage

conditions, compatible with many other chemical materials, virtually non-toxic and

non-irritating in its varied uses, and has no known negative environmental effects

(Bonnardeaux, 2006).

A water clear, odourless, viscous liquid with a sweet taste, glycerin is derived

from both natural and petrochemical feedstock. It occurs in combined form in all

animal fats and vegetable oils and constitutes, on average, about 10 per cent of these

materials. Natural glycerin is obtained from fats and oils during soap and fatty acid

production and by transesterification (an interchange of fatty acid groups with

another alcohol) during biodiesel production. Crude glycerin is 70 to 80 per cent

pure (Bonnardeaux, 2006).

Crude glycerin is usually designated for plastics and alkyd resins markets

(lacquers, varnishes, inks, adhesives, and synthetic plastics). Crude glycerin is often

concentrated and purified prior to commercial sale. Glycerin with purities up to 95.5

per cent and 99 per cent pure are used by the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical

21

industries. Synthetic glycerin is produced from petrochemical building blocks via

several processing steps designed to achieve the desired concentration and high

product quality required for certain drug and pharmaceutical applications

(Bonnardeaux, 2006).

2.10 Production Process of Glycerin Distillation and Refining Plant

The main processes for the production of Methyl esters and refined glycerin

from palm oil are presented in Figure 2.5. First step in Glycerin Refining process is

the pH correction carried out in line by means of the dosing pump and static mixer.

Crude glycerin is then fed to the deaerator-predrying loop composed of a

recirculation pump, which also feeds the product to the distillation column, a heater

recovering energy from the pump around stream and a deaeration vessel (V-I) where

air and part of the water are removed (Vance Bioenergy, 2008).

The deaerated glycerin is fed, under the flow control to the distillation column,

on the discharge side of the reboiler recirculation pump. The distillation column is

composed of various sections that starting from the bottom are:

a. Bottom section, where the glycerin and water are evaporated, by means of an

external reboiler with forced circulation realized by means of the pump. At

the bottom section heavier product is taken by the pump and fed to wiped

film evaporator. The residue is discharged batch wise in a solid form. The

evaporated glycerin is condensed and recycled to the bottom section of the

column.

b. First packing layer is washing stages where the rising vapours are counter-

currently washed by a partial recycle of condensed glycerin. In this section,

22

all heavy components which can be carried over in distillation, are scrubbed

from the vapours.

c. The second packing layer is the rectification section where the glycerin is

condensed; in the third packing layer it is dried by counter-current washing of

the vapours. A total draw-off plate extracts the liquid dried glycerin at the

bottom of this section. The glycerin flows to a deodorizer with structured

packing where the odoriferous compounds are steam stripped. The vapours

are returned to the tower, under the scrubber while the distilled glycerin is

pumped by the bleaching section.

d. The third packing layer is the condensation stage where most of the glycerin

condenses by means of an external pump-around. The liquid glycerin is

extracted at the bottom of the layer by means of a total draw-off plate and

collected in the receiver. From there the glycerin is pumped partly to the

second packing layer for drying of the vapours and partly is cooled and

recirculated to the third packing layer of the column for condensation of the

rising vapours.

e. The vapours are then sent to the scrubber with the fourth packing layer (of

smaller section). This is the final condensation stage where the second grade

glycerin is condensed by means of another external pump-around. In the

scrubber, the condensation temperature is much lower and consequently the

glycerin concentration will be lower since also part of the steam will

condense. The liquid glycerin is extracted at the bottom of the scrubber from

where it is pumped, cooled and partly recycled as pump-around to the

scrubber and partly discharged to battery limits as second grade glycerin.

f. The vacuum system is connected to the top of the scrubber and it is composed

of two boosters, two surface condensers and two ejectors

g. The bleaching section is composed of a three-bed system of activate carbon;

first grade glycerin is cooled to bleaching temperature and then passed in

series through two of the three bleachers. When the first bed of activate

23

carbon is exhausted, this bleacher is by-passed and carbon replaced, while the

glycerin flows through the second and third bleacher. The glycerin is then

passed through a polishing bag filter and finally cooled down to storage

temperature.

Figure 2.5: Process of Palm Oil Conversion into Methyl Ester and Refine Glycerin

Material

24

2.11 Emergency Response Plan

Environmental emergencies are incidents or events that threaten public

safety, health, and welfare and include hurricanes, floods, wildfires, industrial plant

explosions, chemical spills, acts of terrorism, and others. While these events range in

size, location, causes, and effect, most have an environmental component.

Emergency response is the organizing, coordinating, and directing of available

resources in order to respond to the event and bring the emergency under control.

The goal of this coordinated response is to protect public health by minimizing the

impact of the event on the community and the environment (NIESH, 2007)

An emergency response plan must provide the resources and information

needed to evaluate the human and environmental health impact. Emergency

Response Plan is concise information necessary to respond effectively to any of the

incident as list below.

a) Fire.

b) Explosion.

c) Leakage from deteriorated or damage containers.

d) Spillage during handling or transportation.

e) Splash involving worker injury.

f) Spillage or leakage producing toxic vapours or fumes.

According to the American Society for Industrial Security’s Emergency

Planning Handbook, effective emergency planning begins with the following

(Vendrell, 2001):

a) Defining an emergency in terms relevant to the organization doing the

planning

b) Establishing an organization with specific tasks to function immediately

before, during, and after an emergency

25

c) Establishing a method for utilizing resources and for obtaining additional

resources during the emergency

d) Providing a recognizable means of moving from normal operations into and

out of the emergency mode of operation

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter explained thoroughly the procedure of works to achieve the

objectives as stated in Chapter 1. This chapter illustrates the mechanism, process and

method of analysis as conducted in similar research. The discussions also focus on

sampling station and equipment used for air quality, data collection and methods on

calculation for pool fire and health index.

3.2 Data and Information Collection

This study begins with data and information collected for standard analysis of

risk assessment. Information’s are gathered from books, journals, EIA reports,

guidelines from DOE and internet. Beside that, information on background and

process involved in Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. are also obtained.

27

3.3 Hazard Identification

All information about production process of glycerine refining plant and raw

material used are collected for analysis. Then, the data are classified by referring

National Fire Agency Protection (NFPA) based on flammability, health and

reactivity. The study will focus on the most flammable raw material used for the

plant operations. Then, the analyses are continued by determining the area affected

if any explosion occurred at the raw material storage tank using pool fire analysis.

3.4 Pool Fire

The heat release rate, Q of pool fire may be estimated from equation 1. The

example values of , m”and for common liquid is as shown in table 2.1.

(1)

Where:

Q = Heat release rate (kW)

= Mass burning heat (kg/m2-sec)

ΔHc, = Heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

kβ = Empirical Constant (m-1)

D = Diameter of pool fire (m)

Af = Surface area of pool fire (m2)

28

Table 3.1: Burning rate data for fuel

Mass Burning

Rate Heat of Combustion Empirical Constant

Fuel

m" (kg/m2-sec) ΔHc (kJ/kg) kβ (m-1)

Methanol 0.017 20000 100

Ethanol 0.015 26800 100

Butane 0.078 45700 2.7

Benzene 0.085 40100 2.7

Acetone 0.041 25800 1.9

Dioxane 0.018 26200 5.4

Gasoline 0.055 43700 2.1

Kerosene 0.039 43200 3.5

Diesel 0.045 44400 2.1

Source: USNRC Version 1805.0

To estimate the radian heat flux, the following equation has been used,

(2)

Where:

q” = Radian heat flux (kW/m2)

Q = Heat release rate (kW)

R = Distance from center of the pool fire to edge of

the target (m)

xr = Radiative fraction = 0.3

29

3.5 Air quality

3.5.1 Equipment

The main parameters of air quality indicators are Carbon Monoxide (CO),

Total Suspended Particulate (TSP), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Sulphur Oxide

(SO2). For the purpose of this study, GrayWolf DirectSense TOX PPC Kit as shown

in Figure 2.1 is used to measure the air quality parameters such as CO, NO2, and SO2

as well as the temperature. The measurement unit for all the gases using this

equipment will be in parts per million (ppm), whereas, temperature will be measured

in °C. Mini Vol. Portable Air Sampler as shows in Figure 2.2 is used for measuring

TSP.

Figure 3.1: GrayWolf DirectSense Tox PPC Kit

Figure 3.2: Mini Vol. Portable Air Sampler

30

3.5.2 Sampling Location

An early visited to sampling area must be conducted for identified the right

sampling location. Sampling location must be at open area. There are three

sampling location for air quality. The sampling location are selected at the boundary

of the factory and the nearby residential area. Every station name as A1, A2 and A3.

A1 and A2 is at the factory boundary while A3 is at Taman Pasir Putih located about

700m from the factory. The location is as shown in Figure 2.3. The sampling

location were chosen include the areas with impact potentials. Figure 2.2, 2.3 and

2.4 shows the air quality measurement at site.

Figure 3.3: Sampling location for A1, A2 and A3

31

Figure 3.4 (a): Sampling for TSP Figure 3.4 (b): Sampling for CO, NO2

at Station A1 and SO2 at Station A1

Figure 3.4 (c): Station A1 at Jalan Keluli 5

32



Figure 3.5 (c): Station A2 at Jalan Keluli 4

33



Figure 3.6 (c): Station A3 at the Taman Pasir Putih

34

3.6 Exposure Assessment

Air is an important pathway for contaminants and inhalation is the major

route of exposure to contaminants that exist in atmospheric gases or attached to

airborne particles. Data from air quality will be used for the exposure assessment.

Using equation as states below, health index for CO, NO2, SO2 and TSP are

determined. Beside that, the health effect for every parameter is also defined. In

calculating the inhalation dose, it is assumed that 100% of the contaminant is

absorbed after inhalation. The amount of a contaminant absorbed into the body

through inhalation (EDair) can be estimated as follows:

(3)

Where:

EDair = Estimate dose trough air inhalation: the air inhalation

dose is expressed as milligrams of the contaminant

inhaled per kilogram of body weight per day.

C = Concentration of the contaminant in the air, in

milligrams per cubic meter of air (mg/m3).

IR = Inhalation rate: The amount of air person breathes in

a day in cubic meters (m3/day). If contaminated air is

breathed for only part of a day, then inhalation rate is

adjusted accordingly.

EF = Exposure factor: Indicates how often the individual

has been exposed to the contaminant over a lifetime

(unitless)

ED = Exposure Duration: Duration for the individual

exposed to the contaminant (years)

BW = Body weight: The average body weight in (kg) based

on an individual’s age group

35

AT = Average time: Average time for the individual

exposed to the contaminant (days)

The standard value of IR, EF, ED, BW and AT is obtain from EPA 1991b and as

tabulate in Table 2.2.

Table 3.2: Standard value for IR, EF, ED, BW and AT

Inhalation Rate

(IR) m3/day

Exposure

Frequency (EF)

days/year

Exposure

Duration (ED)

years

Body Weight

(BW) kg

Averaging

Time (AT)

days

20 250 25 70 6250

Source: EPA 1991b,1991

Health Index (HI) is the ratio of the estimated intake dose from exposure to

the response dose. Reference dose are dependent on the route of exposure and may

only be used with exposure data for the same route. The health index is calculated

using the formula below. If the acceptable level of intake is deemed to equal the

reference dose, then by definition, a health index of less than 1.0 is acceptable.

(4)

Where:

HI = Health index (dimensionless)

ED(predicted) = The predicted estimated dose per day through air

inhalation (mg/kg/day)

ED(allowable) = The allowable or permissible estimated dose per

day through air inhalation (mg/kg/day)

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter will discuss on the result that obtain from the study. All the data

and information gathered are analyzed and the results are presented in table and

figure to make it easier to understand.

4.2 Hazard Identification

The main risks that may have potential impact to the environment arising

from the factory are mostly related to fire hazards within the proposed facility itself

and externally to the surrounding area. Data tabulated in Table 4.1 are summarized

from Material Safety Data Sheet (refer Appendix A-G). From the table shows that

all the raw materials and finished products are low risks in nature except for

Methanol and Sodium Methylate 30% solution. Based on National Fire Protection

Agency (NFPA), both materials are very flammable. This study will focus only on

37

the major fire due to the failure of the methanol storage tank. When proper

preventive measures are in place, there will be no significant impact to these

materials on site. Assessment is to evaluate and minimize the likelihood and

consequences of an accident leading to fires that can cause damage to property and

human life.

In Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd., there are three storage tanks of methanol.

Two of the tank with the capacity of 720 m3 located at PLO 669 while the other one

with 276 m3 capacity located at PLO 668. This study will focus on the storage tank

at PLO 669 which has the bigger capacity. The location of tanks is as shown in

Figure 4.1.

Methanol Storage Tank

Figure 4.1: Methanol Storage Tank

Table 4.1: Hazard identification for raw material used in Methylester and Refined Glycerine process

Raw material/Finished Product

Hazard Identification NFPA Classification

Other names

Acid Citric • Eye contact (irritant) – can result in corneal damage or blindness

• Skin contact – produce inflammation and blistering • Severe over-exposure can produce lung damage,

choking, unconsciousness or death

Health:2 Flammability: 1 Reactivity: 0

2-Hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid

Sodium Hydroxide 50% Solution

• Very hazardous in case of ∼ skin contact (corrosive, irritant, burn) ∼ eye contact (irritant, corrosive), ∼ ingestion

• Slightly hazardous in case of inhalation (lung sensitizer).

• Liquid or spray mist may produce tissue damage particularly on mucous membranes of eyes, mouth and respiratory tract.

• Inhalation of the spray mist may produce severe irritation of respiratory tract, characterized by coughing, choking, or shortness of breath.

• Severe over-exposure can result in death.


Sodium Hydroxide, 50%

Methanol • Highly flammable. • Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye

contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation. • Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator). • Severe over-exposure can result in death.


Wood alcohol Methylol Wood Spirit Carbinol Methyl alcohol 38

Table 4.1: Hazard identification for raw material used in Methylester and Refined Glycerine process (cont’d)

Raw material/Finished Product Hazard Identification NFPA

Classification Other names

Glycerine • Slightly hazardous in case of ∼ Skin contact (irritant, permeator), ∼ Eye contact (irritant), ∼ Ingestion ∼ Inhalation.


1,2,3-Propanetriol Glycerol

Palm Oil • Hazardous in case of ingestion. • Slightly hazardous in case of

∼ Eye contact (irritant) ∼ Inhalation

Health: 0 Flammability: 1 Reactivity: 0

-

Acid Phosphorous

• Corrosive to eyes and skin. The amount of tissue damage depends on length of contact.

• Eye contact can result in corneal damage or blindness. • Skin contact can produce inflammation and blistering. • Inhalation of dust will produce irritation to gastro-

intestinal or respiratory tract, characterized by burning, sneezing and coughing.

• Severe over-exposure can produce lung damage, choking, unconsciousness or death.


-

Sodium Methylate, 30%

• Skin contact can produce severe burns and ulceration of the skin.

• Eye contact will result in eye corrosion or corneal or conjunctival ulceration. Contact may result in permanent damage to the eyes and even blindness.

• Inhalation of concentrated mists, spray, or vapor may cause severe damage to the upper respiratory tract.


Sodium Methoxide

39

40

4.3 Pool Fire

The ignitions at methanol storage tank are typically cause by several factors

such as lightning, frictional heat and sparks, hot surface and electrostatic discharge.

The size of the spillage pool depends critically on the size of pool fire and radian

flux. For this study, size of spillage pool computed from two difference sizes of pool

fire which are 5m and 10 m. While the hazard distances specified for pool fires are

determine based on three levels of thermal radiation.

The maximum flux is 37.5kW/m2 which can severely damage the unprotected

tanks and other process equipment. Another one is 12.5 kW/m2 which causes wood

and other cellulosic material to ignite after prolonged time. The minimum radian flux

is 4.0kW/m2 which roughly corresponds to the threshold of pain for human. The

others approximate radian flux level and corresponding damage conditions are as

shown in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Effect of thermal radiation

Radian Flux

(kW/m2) Damage Conditions

37.5 Sufficient to cause damage to process equipment

25.0 Minimum energy required to ignite wood at definitely long

exposure (non-piloted)

12.5 Minimum energy required for piloted ignition of wood, melting

of plastic tubing

9.5 Pain threshold reached after 8 sec, second degree burns after 20

sec

4.0

Sufficient to cause pain to personnel if unable to reach cover

within 20 sec, however blistering of the skin (second degree

burns) is likely 0% lethality

1.6 Will cause no discomfort for long exposure Source: EIA Guidelines for Risk Assessment (2004)

41

Figure 4.2 shows the pool fire with diameter of 5 m. The explosion at

methanol storage tank may hit the target in circular area of 6.31 m radius for 4kW/m2

radian flux. While for 12.5kW/m2 and 37.5kW/m2 the radius is in 3.57 m and 6.31 m.

When the fire at the methanol storage tank is sustained for more than five minutes,

the huge explosion may be expected.

Figure 4.3 shows the large pool fire with diameter of 10 m. for the large size

of pool fire the effected area are larger. The distances from the pool fire centre for 4

kW/m2, 12.5 kW/m2 and 37.5 kW/m2 radian flux are respectively 12.62 m, 7.14 m

and 4.12 m.

4.4 Failure Rate for Tank

The failure rate for fire and explosion phenomena at methanol storage tank

were typically 4.07 x 10-4 /yr. This included tank and sub dike fire (90-95%), full

dike fire (2-5%) and tank explosions (3-5%). The failure rate for tank fires is

increased to 65% of the total failure rate or 2.64 x 10-4 /tank/ yr.

4kW/m2

(6.31 m)

Figure 4.2: Small pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank

12.5kW/m2

(3.57 m)

37.5kW/m2

(2.06 m)

42

4kW/m2

(12.62 m)

12.5kW/m2

(7.14 m)

37.5kW/m2

(4.12 m)

Figure 4.3: Large pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank 43

44

4.5 Exposure Assessment

4.5.1 Air Emission

The types of activities that cause air pollution are those related to air emission

of Refined Glycerin plants. The potential of air pollution will be from the existing

boiler from chemical process of the existing Methyl Ester Plant. With the proper

control the plant operation will not have much impact on the air quality. The air

emission from the existing boiler using Light Fuel Oils (LFO) at Vance Bioenergy

Sdn Bhd is obtained from the preliminary environmental impact assessment for

Refine Glycerin Plant, 2008. The specification of boiler is as tabulate in table 4.3

Table 4.3: Specification of boiler

Types Boiler Model MB3000/250 Types of fuel Diesel/Natural gaseous Usage rate of fuel (kg/hr) 811.6 (Diesel)

713( Natural gaseous) Limit Content of Sulfur (%) 3.5 (Diesel)

0 ( Natural gaseous) Stack Height (m) 30.48 Exit velocity (m/s) 12.42 (Diesel)

14.14 ( Natural gaseous) Capability (kg.wap/hr) 13608 Type of feeding Pressure Jet Modulating

Source: Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008

Two sampling have been carried out by Envilab Sdn. Bhd. and Lotus

laboratory Services (M) Sdn. Bhd. for air emission from chimney of boiler. The

results are as tabulated in table 4.4.

45

Table 4.4: The stack air quality emission

2 Nov 2007 21 Feb 2008 Parameter

g/Nm3 g/Nm3 Particulate Matter 0.019 0.08 Sulphur Oxide (SOx) 0.013 0.02 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) 0.3 0.31

Source: Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008

The air dispersion within Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate is shown in Figure

4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. It based on the worst case scenario independent of wind direction of

boiler using LFO. The result shows that the maximum concentration at the factory

site it self are 0.032 µg/m3 for TSP, 0.0016 for NO2, 0.0026 ppm for SO2 and 0.039

ppm for CO. The concentration of the air pollutants are decreasing through the

distance. The emission from the chimney of boiler also within the acceptable limits

of Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978.

0.0090 mg/Nm30.0184 mg/Nm3

(3km) (2km)

0.0325 mg/Nm3

(0.8km)

Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd

Figure 4.4: Predicted TSP dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008) 46

0.0005 µg/Nm30.0009 µg/Nm3

(3km) (2km)

0.0016 µg/Nm3

(0.8km)

Figure 4.5: Predicted NO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008).


47

0.00072 µg/Nm3

(3km) 0.00147 µg/Nm3

(2km)

0.0026 µg/Nm3

(0.8km)


Figure 4.6: Predicted SO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008). 48

49

Figure 4.7: Predicted CO dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008)

0.0108 µg/Nm3

(3km) 0.0221 µg/Nm3

(2km)

0.0389 µg/Nm3

(0.8km)


50

4.5.2 Air Ambient

The air quality sampling is done to identify either the emission from boiler

give an impact to the air ambient at the surrounding area and risk to people or not.

Overall the concentration of SO2, NO2, CO and TSP at all station are low and

complied with Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Standards. The amount of a

contaminant absorbed into the body through inhalation are calculate as equation 1

(refer Chapter 3) and the result for sampling station A1, A2 and A3 are as shown in

Appendix I

The computed health index for the individual air pollutants for A1, A2 and

A3 have been shown to be well less than 1 with the value below than 0.5 (Table 4.5).

The results of the analysis shows that air pollutants emitted from the factory plant are

not expected to have any significant impact on health of the workers and people

surrounding. Health effect of SO2, NO2, CO and TSP on human is tabulated in

Table 4.6

Table 4.5: Health Index for A1, A2 and A3

Health Index

A1 A2 A3

SO2 0.023 0.031 0.085

NO2 0.176 0.176 0.147

CO 0.082 0.075 0.082

TSP 0.238 0.419 0.283

51

52

Table 4.6: Type of pollutants and effect to health

Type of

pollutants Health effect

SO2

• Affect the respiratory system and the functions of the

lungs.

• Causes irritation of the eyes.

• Inflammation of the respiratory tract causes coughing,

mucus secretion, aggravation of asthma and chronic

bronchitis and makes people more prone to infections of the

respiratory tract.

NO2

• Irritate the lungs and lower resistance to respiratory

infections such as influenza.

• High concentration in ambient may cause increased

incidence of acute respiratory illness in children.

• Long-term exposure to NO2 may cause adverse health

effects.

CO

• CO enters the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to

the body's organs.

• The health threat from CO is most serious for those who

suffer from cardiovascular disease.

TSP

• The most frequent health problems occur within the

respiratory system.

• Bronchitis and lung damage can also occur.

Source: USEPA, 2008

4.6 Emergency Response Plan (ERP)

This Emergency Response Plan outlines the guidelines to be followed by the

employees, contractors and visitors to Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. The scope of this

plan includes the necessary details covering organization, communications,

53

responsibilities and plan of action which shall be used by all personnel involved in

emergency response. The objective of this plan is to provide overall plan of action to

be followed in an emergency situation with specific aim of

a) Ensuring the safety of all personnel

b) Minimizing damage to property

c) Ensuring safety of neighbouring plants, residential and public

Section Heads shall be responsible for regular reviewing and updating of

those sections in the plan which are relevant to his section's activities. The revision

shall be submitted to Safety, Health and Environment Section to be incorporated as

changes into the plan, after approved by the Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd Safety

Committee Chairman. The reviewing and updating shall be carried out at least

annually. The ERP will be amended when important components become outdated

or business and regulatory changes occur. Whenever changes are made, a revision

date and appendix number shall be noted. The updated revision will be issued to all

relevant personnel. At least one copy should be in every building including in the

guardhouse. In table 4.7 described the definition of some term used in ERP.

Table 4.7: Definition of term used in ERP

Definition

Emergency

Controller

Defined as the fully responsible person for the entire

emergency operation. Emergency Controller shall be the

Technical Director. In the case of any emergency occurring

during night time, week-end or holiday, the Duty Supervisor

will act as Emergency Controller until the arrival of the

Technical Director, Production General Manager or other

managers. During his absence, Production General Manager,

Production Manager / Sr. Officer or other managers will take

over.

Emergency

Commander

Defined as the Production General Manager who will assist

Emergency Controller giving instructions in controlling the

54

emergency at the site.

Table 4.7: Definition of term used in ERP (cont’d)

Definition

Fire Fighting

Team

Defined to be all Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd personnel who

have been assigned a duty / duties during emergency, to fight

fire or control emergency under the command of Fire Fighting

Chief or Emergency Commander.

First call-out is Defined as calling up the key personnel i.e. Technical Director,

Production General Manager, Fire Fighting Chief, Safety

Health and Environment Officer, Senior Production Officers

and Engineers. For outside assistance call - out for government

and neighbourhood plants information, the calling must with

the consent by the Technical Director / Production General

Manager.

Second call-out Defined as calling up the off duty personnel and outside

assistance in case of emergency become worsened.

Plant Area Defined to be the entire process plant and its facilities including

tank yard area.

Vance Bioenergy

Sdn Bhd

employee

Defined to be all employees who have been employed,

permanently or temporarily and to whom have been issued with

Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd Identification Badge.

Contractors Defined to be all workers, employed by third parties, which are

called in by Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd to perform a job at

Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd's premises.

Visitors All other persons who are legally authorized and want to visit

or enter Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd's premises.

55

4.6.1 Declaration of Emergency

The first response to all fires, explosions or condition that creates a potential

for injury or destruction shall be announced through the speaker system plant wide.

Announcement through the speaker system plant wide shall initiate the Emergency

Response Plan (ERP). Other form of communication such as hot line, walkie-talkie

and telephone can also be used to initiate the emergency. When notifying the

emergency provide information such as name of person that make announcement, the

exact location of the emergency and the type of emergency; fire, leak, explosion and

etc.

On the announcement of an emergency, the personnel at the affected area

which are not involved in the Fire Fighting Team shall proceed immediately to the

Assembly Point in front of the main office building. The Fire Fighting Team shall

proceed to the scene of the emergency fire.

The Emergency Controller or Commander shall assess the emergency

situation and declare an emergency where appropriate. He shall announce through

speaker system the type and condition of emergency. The Emergency controller

shall declare an emergency in the plant area. When the emergency is beyond control

and the Emergency Controller announced plant evacuation, all personnel not

involved in Emergency Response Plan in the plant area shall proceed to the

Assembly Point (Figure 4.8). Once an emergency is declared, the Emergency

Controller shall direct the Assistant Supervisor to activate First and Second Call-out

for the key personnel.

All Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd employees who are called out should report

immediately to the Assembly Point and assume their respective assignment as laid

56

down in the Emergency Response Plan. Those not involved in emergency Response

Plan shall report to their Section Leader appointed by the Section Head for further

instructions and standby as back-up emergency supports.

4.6.2 Emergency Procedure

For Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd the emergency response plan categorized into

three (3) types. There are Plant Emergency, Person Emergency and Transportation

Emergency.

4.6.2.1 Plant Emergency

If any personnel observe any emergency incidents at plant area, it should alert

on-site personnel of possible dangers and provides for an orderly stop of operations

in the affected area or evacuation if necessary. It shall also signal the emergency

response team (ERT) to take necessary action.

When a major emergency is declared, all personnel in the plant area have to

follow emergency procedure and discontinue all the operations. When the

emergency is beyond control and the Emergency Controller announced plant

evacuation, all personnel not involved in Emergency Response Plan in the plant area

shall proceed to the assembly point as shown in Figure 4.8. If the situation is out of

control, the emergency response team should call for assistance from external

sources like Fire Department (Bomba), Ambulance or Police. Figure 4.9, 4.10 and

4.11 show the emergency procedure for various situations.

57

FiAssembly point

56

gure 4.8: Assembly Point

57

Fight fire

Raise alarm

ERT response

Identify hazards

Prepare action plan

Action

Hand to Bomba and report to DOE

Hand over to Bomba on their arrival. Report to DOE. Update them on the situation. Standby to offer any help if required.

Work in pairs. Be prepared to withdraw if situation gets out of control.

Proceed with fire fighting, contain fire or withdraw? Fight fire with fire extinguisher or hose reel. Remove flammable substance from vicinity. Need to carry out rescue operation

Refer MSDS if necessary. Any risk of fire escalating quickly/explosion? Any structural collapse

Assess situation. Any causality? Shut down electricity and gas supplies

Raise alarm to notify ET and alert others to evacuate and stay away from area

Fight fire only if it is safe enough to do so

Fire

Figure 4.9: Emergency procedure for fire

58

Decontaminate

Report to DOE

Hand over to Bomba

Control and clean

Raise alarm

Wear PPE

Prepare action plan

Identify hazards

Cordon of area

ERT response

Identify spill if possible

Get away

Chemical

Flush contaminated clothing with water. Remove PPE to down

Submit report of the occurrence to DOE

Hand over to Bomba. Update them on the situation. Standby to offer any help that is required.

Control spread of spill. Prevent spill entering open drains. Work in pairs. Contain used adsorbents in bag/drum and label it properly for disposal. Flush area with water

Wear full protection with encapsulating and breathing apparatus, if unsure.

Decide how to handle spill (close leaking valve, neutralize spill)

Refer MDMS. Any risk of fire/explosion? Any danger of absorption through skin?

Assess situation. Any causality? Switch of electricity

Seal off area to prevent others from entering area and all other areas where spill can spread

Try to recall details of spilled chemical but do not go back for a second look (label on container, foaming, fuming, fire, smell colour, etc). Immediately inform the DOE. Determine whether to inform Bomba

Inform direct supervisor or committee members to raise alarm to notify ERT and alert others to evacuate and stay away from area

Move away a safe distance on discovering a hazardous spill and put on PPE

Figure 4.10: Emergency procedure for hazardous chemical spill

59

Figure 4.11: Emergency procedure for toxic gas released

Wear PPE

Prepare action plan

ERT response

Cordon of area

Identify hazards

Identify toxic release

Raise alarm

Rectify up spill

Hand over to Bomba

Decontaminate

Get away

Toxic gas release

Move away a safe distance on discovering a hazardous spill and put on PPE

Inform direct supervisor or committee members to raise alarm to notify ERT and alert others to evacuate and stay away from areaTry to recall details of spilled chemical but do not go back for a second look (label on container, foaming, fuming, fire, smell colour, etc). Immediately inform the DOE. Determine whether to inform Bomba Assess situation. Any causality? Switch of electricity

Seal off area to prevent others from entering area and all other areas where spill can spread

Refer MDMS. Any risk of fire/explosion? Any danger of absorption through skin?

Decide how to handle spill (close leaking valve, neutralize spill)

Wear full protection with encapsulating and breathing apparatus, if unsure.

Work in pair

Hand over to Bomba. Update them on the situation. Standby to offer any help that is required.

Flush contaminated clothing with water. Remove PPE to down

60

4.6.2.2 Transportation Emergency

The potential impacts due to the methanol storage tank will arise if accidents

occur and cause spillage or release of such waste into the environment. The

methanol storage tank discharged or spilled may cause hazard to plants or animals

due to the toxicity of the waste. In the worst scenario, accidents could result in fire

or explosion. The following rules will be followed while transporting:

a) Use highways, trunk roads and other main roads.

b) Avoid damaged/ uneven roads, congested roads and roads passing

through dense populated areas or other environmentally sensitive areas.

c) Follow the speed limit.

d) Minimize the transit time from the waste generator to the proposed site.

e) The methanol storage tank will be sent to project proponent directly

without transit.

The lorries should be equipped with the following safety equipment:

a) Fire extinguisher

b) Safety gear like masks, goggles and gloves

c) First aid kits

d) Sawdust

e) Scoop

f) Plastic bag

The lorry driver will carry the necessary information which has all the

necessary information such as type of waste, its physical and chemical properties,

first aid, spill control procedures and the necessary precaution needed to be taken

while handling the waste. The lorry driver will be trained on how to use the safety

equipment and the emergency response methods. Should there be fire, explosion or

major leak, the wastes will be moved or transferred to a safer, place. All spills will be

considered hazardous. No one will approach the spills until the identity of spill is

61

known. In all cases, the personnel at the accident site should wear protective

clothing. The safety precautions will be as follows:

a) Always approach a spill from upwind

b) Do not touch the waste materials

c) Remove all possible ignition sources (e.g. running engine)

d) Do not smoke

e) Restrict access to the area

The most effective way to control a spill resulted from transport related

accident is to contain it. This act can facilitate on-site clean-up operations and

prevent of contamination of water sources. In case of spill on land, earthen dikes

will be built with the help of shovels or bulldozer; or the land is excavated to pond

the waste. Pumps will be used to recover the spillage of methanol from truck and

storage tank. For the part too little to be pumped up, saw dust or clay powder will be

used to adsorb the spilled waste. If the situation is out of control, the lorry driver

should summon assistance from sources like office, Fire Department (Bomba),

Ambulance or Police. Personnel not actively involved will be evacuated from the

area.

Action will be taken to return the environment to its conditions before

accident. Actions that might be taken under this phase will be replacement of

contaminated earth and replanting of vegetation. Figure 4.12 and 4.13 are the ERP

for various situations during transportation.

62

Control room

Stop vehicle

Switch of engine

Evacuation

Identify hazard

Prepare plan of action

Fight fire

Is situation in control?

Clean up Contact Office/ Bomba/ DOE

Hand over to Bomba

Report

Figure 4.12: Emergency procedure for fire during transportation

63

Chemical spill on road

Stop vehicle

Evacuation

Turn on hazard light

Display hazard sign

Wear PPE

Identify spill

Is situation in control?

Refer to waste card

Contact Office/ Bomba/ DOE

Refer to waste card

Yes No

Wear all appropriate PPE

Contain spill

Clean up

Report

Wear appropriate PPE

Stop spill from containers and contain spill

Wait for help

Figure 4.13: Emergency procedure for chemical spill during transportation

64

4.6.2.3 Injured Person

The safe removal and care of injured persons is of utmost importance. The

On-Scene-Commander is responsible for assuring that care is provided for injured

persons.

If an injured person is in an area of immediate danger, that person must be

removed as carefully and as quickly as possible, to the safe area. The On-Scene-

Commander shall be notified immediately of all injuries occurring as a result of the

emergency. If necessary, the On-Scene-Commander or designated technician shall

request assistance from the Plant First Aid to provide care and/or transportation of

the injured person to the hospital.

When an ambulance is coming for transportation of the injured, contact

Security Guardhouse at main entrance so that, an ambulance is on route. In the event

of transporting a victim or injured person, using the plant ambulance, the red

emergency light may be utilized, but all traffic signs and signals must be obeyed.

Drive defensively and get the victim to the hospital quickly and safely. The

emergency procedure for injured person is described briefly in figure 4.14.

65

Control room

Production General Manager & Section Manager of the Area

Fire Fighting Team for rescue operation

To the scene emergency

Technical Director

Apply first aid

treatment Fatality

Police Report

Call for ambulance (If own ambulance

inadequate)

Describe the injuries and the number of affected personnel

Transport the injured or fatal case to

hospital

Figure 4.14: Emergency procedure for Injured Person

66

4.7 Evacuation Plan

An evacuation shall take place when the health and safety of plant personnel,

contract personnel, and visitors are endangered by fire, explosion or release of toxic

gas and vapors. The On-Scene-Commander or a designated technician shall contact

the guardhouse and the main entrance and inform them that there will be an

evacuation. The Security Supervisor or designated security personnel shall actuate

the alarm for “Evacuation” (See figure 4.15).

Evaluation plan for facility personnel need to be prepared where there is a

possibility that evacuation could be necessary. It will describe the signals to be used

to begin evacuation, the evacuation routes and alternate evacuation routes if there is a

possibility that the primary routes could be blocked by fires or releases of hazardous

wastes. The potential types of incident will have appropriate response laid out. This

will be the essence of the contingency plan. For each incident, a series of steps will

be devised to adequately respond. Also, the equipment, materials and personnel

protection e.g. respirators and protective clothing necessary to respond to each

incident must be identified.

The response strategy should specify when or invoke the arrangements with

state and local authorities and decisions criteria for evacuation. As the contingency

plan is not a static document, it must be reviewed and amended, if necessary,

whenever:

a) Applicable regulations are revised

b) The plan fails in an emergency

c) The facility changes in a way that materially increases the potential for

incidents or changes the response necessary to emergencies

d) The list of emergency coordinators changes; and

e) The list of emergency equipment changes.

67

Copies of the contingency plan and all revisions must be maintained at the

plant. In addition, the plan and all revisions can be submitted to the following

organizations that may be called on to provide emergency services:

a) Police departments

b) Fire departments

c) Hospitals

d) State and local emergency response teams.

The head of department or plant supervisor have to ensure that the head count

of their personnel is completed. Evacuation shall be made to the safest and closest

assembly point which has been assigned in the Assembly Point Area (Figure 4.4) of

this plan or as directed by the Emergency Controller. Evacuation for operating areas

should as far as possible avoid having to travel through or under vessel, pipe

structures, process areas etc. to the assembly point. Plant personnel shall stay at the

assembly point for further instructions and do not leave the assembly point without,

proper clearance from the department head or supervisor;

All plant personnel shall remain at their designated assembly area until it has

been determined that it is safe to return to the plant. To avoid delaying evacuation to

the assembly point, maximize the occupancy of each vehicle or plant truck within

safe limits and obey all traffic rules and signs out of the plant.

68

Alarm activation

Stop work

Process to

assembly area

Evacuation

Assembly

Head count

Standby Remain in Assembly Area until further

instruction. Do not return to work until ALL

Evacuation Officer conducts headcount of their

staff. Report any suspected missing personnel

Assemble according to assembly stands laid out.

Stay in line and do not move about

Walk brisk but do not run. Proceed straight to

Assembly area. If the front exit is blocked,

Emergency Director should decide to use the

back exit and proceed to External Assembly

area. Announcement should be made to inform

all evacuees to proceed to External Assembly

area. Do not collect personal belongings or stop

Supervisors evacuate their staff through the

nearest safe exit. All visitors / contractors to be

Stop work / telephone calls / meetings immediately

Activation of fire alarm

Figure 4.15: Evacuation Procedure

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The followings are the conclusion obtained from the study.

1) Methanol is the most hazardous and flammability material used at

Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. Large explosion at one of the methanol

storage tank would affect 12.62 m in radius from the fire. The failure

rate for explosion happened at methanol storage tank is 4.07 x 10 -4

/year

2) Air quality within Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. is in good condition

because the Health Index (HI) recorded is less than one.

3) Emergency Response Plan for Plant, Injured Person and Transportation

emergency had been proposed as evacuation if any incident happened.

The plan must be posted at or near raw material storage, treatment area

and inside the plant itself. ERP consist the information necessary to

respond effectively to any incident occurred. Thus it can minimize

hazards to human health or environment.

70

With proper management as proposed in emergency response plan, the

activity within Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd wil not cause any catastrophic or failure

events.

5.2 Recommendations

Following recommendation should be carried out in order to improve the

study.

1) Beside determine the radius of affected area, this study can be improved

by calculate the height of flame and burning duration.

2) Use other analysis such as BLEVE model to get more result on the risk

that may occur.

3) Beside focus on methanol storage tank only, Sodium Methylate 30%

solution also very flammability at Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. The

analysis should be carried out to identify risk from Sodium Methylate

30% solution storage tank.

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75

APPENDIX A

76

77

78

79

80

81

APPENDIX B

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

APPENDIX C

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

APPENDIX D

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

APPENDIX E

103

104

105

106

107

108

APPENDIX F

109

110

111

112

113

114

APPENDIX G

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

APPENDIX H

Example of Calculation for Pool Fire

Size of pool fire = 5m

χr : 0.3

m" : 0.017 kg/m2.sec ΔH : 20000 kJ/kg kβ : 100 m-1

For q” = 37.5 kW/m2

Area of pool fire

Heat release rate

124

kW

Radius of area affected

APPENDIX I

Result for Air Sampling

CA (mg/m3) EDair (mg/kg.days)

Normal Operation Normal Operation

A1 A2 A3 *Standard

A1 A2 A3 *Standard

SO2 3 4 11 130 0.587 0.783 2.153 25.440

NO2 3 3 25 170 5.871 5.871 4.892 33.268

CO 2450 2240 2450 30000 479.452 438.356 479.452 5870.84

TSP 0.062 0.109 0.0735 0.26 0.012 0.021 0.014 0.051

*Based on Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Standards

125

126

APPENDIX J

Example of Calculation for Health Index

For normal operation of SO2, mg/m3

For standard of SO2, mg/m3

Health index for SO2

127

APPENDIX K

Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines

Malaysia Guidelines Pollutant Averaging Time

ppm (µg/m3) Ozone (O3) 1 Hour

8 Hour 0.10 0.06

200 120

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

1 Hour 8 Hour

30.0 9.0

35* 10*

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

1 Hour 24 Hour

0.17 0.04

320 10

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 1 Hour 24 Hour

0.13 0.04

350 105

Particulate Matter (PM10)

24 Hour 12 Month

- 150 50

Total Suspended Particulate (TSP)

1 Hour 8 Hour

0.1-0 0.60

260 90

Lead (Pb) 3 Month - 1.5 Note: * mg/m3

Documents

RISK ASSESSMENT USING POOL FIRE AND HEALTH INDEX