SCHOOL START TIMES LITERATURE REVIEW · SCHOOL START TIMES LITERATURE REVIEW Prepared for Virginia Beach City Public Schools ... between school days and weekends (3 percent and 22.7

In the following report, Hanover Research provides an

overview of the literature on the relationship between school

start times and student outcomes, with an emphasis on

academic achievement.

SCHOOL START TIMES LITERATURE REVIEW

Prepared for Virginia Beach City Public Schools

March 2016

Hanover Research | March 2016

© 2015 Hanover Research 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary and Key Findings ............................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3

KEY FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................. 3

Section I: Start Times and Achievement ............................................................................ 5

SCHOOL START TIMES .................................................................................................................. 5

School Start Times in Virginia and Maryland ..................................................................... 7

OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...................................................................................................... 7

Start Time and Student Achievement ............................................................................. 11

Section II: Start Times and Other Student Outcomes ...................................................... 16

OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................................................................... 16

Start Time and Sleep ........................................................................................................ 16

Start Time and Car Accidents ........................................................................................... 22

Start Time and Attendance .............................................................................................. 23

Start Time and Extracurricular Activities ......................................................................... 23



EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND KEY FINDINGS

INTRODUCTION

In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics released a policy statement recommending a start time of 8:30 a.m. or later for middle and high schools. However, estimates from the same report suggest that only 15 percent of U.S. high schools begin after 8:30 a.m., and 40 percent begin before 8:00 a.m.1 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention similarly advocate for later school start times, citing potential improvements to adolescent health and academic outcomes.2 Multiple empirically-based studies focus on the impact that later school start times have on a variety of student outcomes, including academic achievement, attendance, health, and safety. In the following report, Hanover Research provides a review of this literature. This information will assist Virginia Beach City Public Schools in framing its discussion of proposed changes to start times in the district. The report comprises the following sections:

Section I: Start Times and Achievement presents an overview of the research

examining the relationship between school start times and academic outcomes.

Section II: Start Times and Other Student Outcomes presents an overview of the

literature exploring school start times and non-academic student outcomes, including sleep, teen car crash rates, attendance, and participation in extracurricular activities.

KEY FINDINGS

The existing literature is inconclusive regarding the relationship between school

start times and academic achievement. Many of the studies included in this analysis reveal potentially positive academic effects resulting from delayed school start times, as measured through grades and standardized test scores. However, there is a lack of causative evidence to suggest that later school start times improve student academic achievement. Indeed, several articles reviewed for this report determined no significant link between school start times and student achievement. Also note that the majority of research examines school start times at the middle and high school level, making it difficult to extrapolate results to elementary school students.

1[1] Shute, N. “Pediatricians Say School Should Start Later For Teens’ Health.” NPR, August 27, 2014.

http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2014/08/25/343125751/pediatricians-say-school-should-start-later-for-teens-health

[2] “Let Them Sleep: AAP Recommends Delaying Start Times of Middle and High Schools to Combat Teen Sleep Deprivation.” American Academy of Pediatrics, August 25, 2014. https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/Let-Them-Sleep-AAP-Recommends-Delaying-Start-Times-of-Middle-and-High-Schools-to-Combat-Teen-Sleep-Deprivation.aspx

2 “Schools Start Too Early.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/features/school-start-

times/



Research suggests that later school start times result in increased sleep for middle

and high school students and significantly lower car crash rates. Multiple studies of middle and high school students found that students get more sleep when school starts later. Specifically, studies reporting positive results examined schools with start times of 8:00 am to 9:00 am. Relatedly, later school start times increased the likelihood that students would get at least eight hours of sleep each night. In addition, multiple studies found that car crash rates were significantly lower for schools operating with later start times (ranging from 8:30 to 9:00 a.m.).

Although delayed start times are associated with a decrease in tardiness, findings

related to student attendance are mixed. Some studies found that earlier school start times were correlated with higher numbers of student absences, with one study of high school students in Chicago Public Schools reporting that students were absent more during first period than any other time of day. However, other publications found either no relationship between start time and attendance or both negative and positive effects.



SECTION I: START TIMES AND ACHIEVEMENT

The following section provides an overview of the most recent, empirically-based literature regarding school start times and academic achievement.

SCHOOL START TIMES

In recent years, an increasing number of stakeholders have advocated for later school start times on the grounds that adolescents do not obtain adequate amounts of sleep. A National Sleep Foundation survey found that the majority of students in middle and high school (59 percent and 87 percent, respectively) do not achieve the recommended 8.5 to 9.5 hours of sleep per school night.3 In 2014, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) released a policy statement in support of later school start times, recommending that middle and high schools delay start times to 8:30 a.m. or later. The policy statement cites current research on the correlation between early school start times and poorer academic and behavioral outcomes among students. According to the AAP, the recommended delay “will align school schedules to the biological sleep rhythms of adolescents, whose sleep-wake cycles begin to shift up to two hours later at the start of puberty.”4 The National Sleep Foundation cites multiple factors that keep students awake at night, including increased technology consumption, extracurricular activities, increased homework loads, and after-school jobs.5 However, the report places critical weight on the role that early school start times play in adolescent students’ sleep deprivation. The report estimates that nearly 40 percent of U.S. high schools start school before 9:00 a.m., and that only 15 percent begin school later than 8:30 a.m. The average U.S. middle school begins at 8:00 a.m., while over 20 percent of middle schools begin classes at 7:45 a.m. or earlier.6 Early school start times also cause students to sleep in on the weekends. Researchers studying student sleep consistently find variability between sleep patterns on the weekend versus during the school week, which is likely caused by students attempting to compensate for their lack of sleep during the school week.7 However, findings suggest that later school

3 “Let Them Sleep: AAP Recommends Delaying Start Times of Middle and High Schools to Combat Teen Sleep

Deprivation,” Op. cit. 4 Ibid.

5 [1] Owens, J. “Insufficient Sleep in Adolescents and Young Adults: An Update on Causes and Consequences.”

Pediatrics, 134:3, September 2014. pp. 924–925. https://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/owens-insufficient-sleep-in-adolescents-and-young-adults-an-update-on-causes-and-consequences.pdf

[2] “Teens and Sleep.” National Sleep Foundation. https://sleepfoundation.org/sleep-topics/teens-and-sleep/page/0/1

6 “Let Them Sleep: AAP Recommends Delaying Start Times of Middle and High Schools to Combat Teen Sleep

Deprivation,” Op. cit. 7 [1] Owens, J., K. Belon, and P. Moss. “Impact of Delaying School Start Time on Adolescent Sleep, Mood, and

Behavior.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164:7, July 1, 2010. p. 613. http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=383436

[2] Wahlstrom, K. et al. “Examining the Impact of Later High School Start Times on the Health and Academic Performance of High School Students: A Multi-Site Study.” Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement, 2014. p. 23. http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/162769

http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=383436



start times during the week decrease this variability between weekend and weeknight sleep schedules.8 A 2014 multi-site study evaluating the effects of high school start times on students in Minnesota, Colorado, and Wyoming found that students’ perceptions of the adequacy of their sleep fluctuated significantly between weekdays and weekends (Figure 1.1). The percentage of students stating that they “always” get enough sleep is noticeably different between school days and weekends (3 percent and 22.7 percent, respectively). Figure 1.1: How Often Students Think They Get Enough Sleep (School Days vs. Weekends)

Source: Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement

9

In addition, the report found that most high school students desire later school start times. Amongst students surveyed, the largest proportion recommended that school begin at 9:00 a.m. (35.8 percent), with the next largest percentage of students recommending that school start at 8:30 a.m. (24.8 percent) (Figure 1.2).10

Figure 1.2: Students’ Ideal High School Start Time

PERCENT PERCENT

7:00 A.M. 3.2% 8:30 A.M. 24.8%

7:30 A.M. 5.1% 9:00 A.M. 35.8%

8:00 A.M. 16.3% LATER THAN 9:00 A.M. 14.8% Source: Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement

11

8 Danner, F. and B. Phillips. “Adolescent Sleep, School Start Times, and Teen Motor Vehicle Crashes.” Journal of

Clinical Sleep Medicine, 4:6, December 15, 2008. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2603528/#B14 9 Wahlstrom et al., Op. cit., p. 23.

10 Ibid., p. 25.

11 Ibid.

13.7% 30.9%

7.1%

25.8%

18.9%

29%

48.5%

3%

22.7%

0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%

School Days

Weekends

Never Rarely Sometimes Usually Always



SCHOOL START TIMES IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND

Later school start times are gaining traction throughout Virginia and neighboring states. According to Start Later for Excellence in Education Proposal (SLEEP), an organization supporting delayed school start times in Fairfax County, 72 out of 95 counties in Virginia start high schools at 8:00 a.m. or later.12 Most recently, Fairfax County Public Schools (FCPS) voted to delay high school start times by nearly an hour (to 8:10 a.m.) in the 2015-16 school year. The initial shift cost FCPS an estimated $5 million. District officials predict that the start time delay will cost around $3.6 million annually after the initial year. Sandy Evans, vice chairman of the Fairfax County School Board, noted that “the improvement to student health and academics is worth the cost of delaying school start times.”13 Montgomery County Public Schools (MCPS) in Maryland also recently delayed school start times at the elementary, middle, and high school level. Middle schools and high schools in MCPS begin 20 minutes later than before, with start times of 8:15 a.m. and 7:45 a.m., respectively. District elementary schools operate on a more modest delay of 10 minutes, with school start times at the elementary level ranging between 9:00 a.m. and 9:25 a.m.14 However, other districts in the area have decided to forgo changes to school start times for logistical and political reasons. In early 2016, the Anne Arundel County Board of Education in Maryland canceled an $8.1 million proposal to push back school start times for the 2017-18 school year. According to school board members, teacher raises and other school programs took priority over delaying school start times. Other board members noted that a recent survey revealed that a majority of community members – roughly 70 percent – did not support the initiative to delay school start times.15

OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In recent years, many empirically-based studies have examined the relationship between school start times and academic achievement. Figure 1.3 presents an overview of relevant studies that examine the effects of school start times, specifically on academic outcomes associated with student achievement. An asterisk (*) in the Result column indicates that findings are statistically significant for some or all of the outcomes tested.

12

[1] “SLEEP: Start Later for Excellence in Education Proposal for Fairfax County VA Schools.” Start Later for Excellence in Education Proposal, December 23, 2015. http://www.sleepinfairfax.org/

[2] Shapiro, T.R. “Fairfax County High Schools to Push Back Start Times next Fall.” The Washington Post, October 24, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/fairfax-county-high-schools-to-push-back-start-times-next-fall/2014/10/24/fecd6dd0-5b27-11e4-8264-deed989ae9a2_story.html

13 Huang, C. “Fairfax, Montgomery Officials to Share Experience Delaying School Start Times.” The Capital Gazette,

October 19, 2015. http://www.capitalgazette.com/news/schools/ph-ac-cn-schoolstart-fairfax-1018-20151019-story.html

14 Ibid.

15 Huang, C. “School Board Scraps Plans to Change Start Times.” The Capital Gazette, February 16, 2016.

http://www.capitalgazette.com/news/schools/ph-ac-cn-budget-vote-0217-20160217-story.html



Figure 1.3: Summary of School Start Times and Student Achievement Literature

AUTHOR(S) AND YEAR SAMPLE CONDITIONS OUTCOMES RESULT

Arlington Public Schools (2005)

16

Arlington Public School students enrolled in

Grades 6-11

High school start times shifted 45 minutes later, while middle school start times shifted 20 minutes earlier.

Academic outcomes were measured using grades and grade point average (GPA).

Students experienced mixed academic outcomes following a delay in school start time. Some students’ GPAs improved slightly, but not significantly. First period grades improved slightly for students in Grades 10 and 11.

Mixed

Carrell, S., T. Maghakian, and J.

West (2011)17

6,165 first-year U.S. Air Force Academy

students

Students were randomly assigned to 7:00 a.m., 7:30 a.m., or 7:50 a.m. start times.

Academic outcomes were measured using grades.

Delaying first period classes 50 minutes resulted in a significant positive effect on student achievement, both in first-period courses and on subsequent courses throughout the day.

Positive*

Cortes, K., J. Bricker, and C. Rohlfs (2012)

18

Chicago Public Schools students enrolled in

Grades 9-12

Academic performance was measured in first period courses against the same course offered at a different time of the day.

Academic outcomes were measured using grades and standardized test scores.

First period classes were associated with lower course grades, but this difference diminished over time.

First period courses were associated with moderate effects on first period test scores, especially for math classes.

Positive

16

“Impact of 2001 Adjustments to High School and Middle School Start Times.” Arlington Public Schools, June 2005. pp. 4; 8-9. http://www.fcps.edu/fts/taskforce07/documents/arlington605.pdf

17 Carrell, E., T. Maghakian, and J. West. “A’s from Zzzz’s? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Achievement of Adolescents.” American Economic Journal:

Economic Policy, 3, August 2011. pp. 67; 72; 79. http://faculty.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/scarrell/sleep.pdf 18

Cortes, E., J. Bricker, and C. Rohlfs. “The Role of Specific Subjects in Education Production Functions: Evidence from Morning Classes in Chicago Public High Schools.” The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, 12:1. pp. 5; 32. http://users.nber.org/~cortesk/bejeap2012.pdf




Edwards, F. (2012)19

Middle school students in Wake County, NC

School start times ranged from 7:30 a.m. to 9:15 a.m.

Academic outcomes were measured using standardized test scores.

Later school start times were associated with significantly higher math and reading test scores.

Positive*

Hinrichs, P. (2011)20

Public high schools in Minneapolis and St. Paul (MN) and state-

level data from KS and VA

School start times in Minneapolis shifted from 7:15 a.m. to 8:40 a.m., while St. Paul school start times remained at 7:30 a.m.

Academic outcomes were measured using ACT scores in MN and school-level data in KS and VA.

School start times in each state were not associated with higher ACT scores or school-level data.

Neutral

Keller, P. et al. (2015)21

718 public elementary

schools in KY

School start times ranged from 7:00 a.m. to 9:10 a.m., with a mean school start time of 8:05 a.m.

Academic outcomes were measured using NAPD scores on K-PREP.

Later school start times correlated with significantly higher NAPD scores in language, math, social studies, and writing. The same was true for reading and science scores, but increases were not significant.

Positive*

19

Edwards, F. “Early to Rise? The Effect of Daily Start Times on Academic Performance.” Economics of Education Review, 31, 2012. pp. 970, 973, 983. https://teensneedsleep.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/edwards-early-to-rise-the-effect-of-daily-start-times-on-academic-performance-published-version.pdf

20 Hinrichs, P. “When the Bell Tolls: The Effects of School Starting Times on Academic Achievement.” Education Finance and Policy, 6:4, Fall 2011. pp. 2–5, 17.

http://robinsonptsa.org/images/Sleep_School.pdf 21

Keller, P. et al. “Earlier School Start Times as a Risk Factor for Poor School Performance: An Examination of Public Elementary Schools in the Commonwealth of Kentucky.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 107:1, 2015. pp. 237-238; 240-241. http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/edu-a0037195.pdf




Wahlstrom, K. et al. (2014)

22

Eight public high schools in five school

districts in three states (MN, CO, WY)

Schools pushed their start times back anywhere from 30 to 80 minutes. Resulting start times ranged from 8:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m..

Academic outcomes were measured using mean core course GPA and standardized test scores.

Students in five out of the six schools that provided GPA data experienced statistically significant increases in mean core course GPA.

On the whole, students did not experience significant increases in standardized test scores after moving to a later start time.

Neutral to Positive*

22

Wahlstrom et al., Op. cit., pp. 13-14; 36; 40-41.



START TIME AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

The following subsection provides a more extensive analysis of the empirical literature on the relationship between school start times and student achievement. Overall, the findings reveal mixed effects, with the majority of studies revealing potentially positive academic effects resulting from delayed school start times, as measured through grades and standardized test scores. This section is organized by the educational outcomes examined by the study – specifically, state standardized test scores and student grades and GPA.

STATE STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES

Several recent studies suggest that delaying school start times produces positive effects on student achievement, as measured by standardized test scores. A 2012 study published in the Economics of Education Review found that later start times were associated with improved performance of middle school students on standardized tests in both reading and math. To perform this analysis, economist Finley Edwards gathered standardized test data from middle school students (Grades 6-8) in Wake County Public Schools (WCPS) in North Carolina.23 At the time of Edwards’ study, WCPS operated using a three-tiered system where middle schools began at 7:30 a.m. or 8:15 a.m.24 Edwards found that starting school one hour later was associated with a three percentile point gain in both reading and math standardized test scores for an average middle schooler.25 In addition, the author reported that the benefits of later start times were especially pronounced for low-performing students26 Finally, Edwards found that the beneficial results associated with later middle school start times persisted into Grade 10.27 As a result, he suggested that delaying start times could be a cost-effective method of increasing student performance, comparing the relatively low cost of delaying school start times to the higher cost of decreasing classroom size. However, Edwards did acknowledge the financial impact of moving a district bus schedule from a three-tiered system to a one-tiered system. Edwards estimated that WCPS saved approximately $100 million in transportation costs using a three-tiered bus system, and that moving to a one-tiered system would cost roughly $150 more per student per year.28 Conversely, a 2011 study published in Education Finance and Policy evaluated the impact of high school start times in two Minnesota school districts and found that later school start times had no correlation with student achievement as measured by both the ACT and other standardized tests.29 In the study, economist Peter Hinrichs used ACT data collected between 1993 and 2002 for all students enrolled in Grades 10-12 in the Minneapolis-St. Paul

23

Edwards, Op. cit., p. 970. 24

Ibid. 25

Ibid., p. 982. 26

Ibid., p. 974. 27

Ibid., p. 981. 28

Ibid., p. 983. 29

Hinrichs, Op. cit., p. 1.



metropolitan area.30 These two cities allowed Hinrichs to compare start time effects because St. Paul maintained a 7:30 a.m. start time after Minneapolis shifted to a later 8:40 a.m. start time in the 1997-98 academic year.31 After comparing student ACT scores in Minneapolis to those in St. Paul, Hinrichs found no suggestion of school start times having an effect on student achievement as measured by ACT scores.32 In the same study, Hinrichs also analyzed state assessment data from Kansas and Virginia to evaluate the relationship between school start times and student performance on standardized tests other than the ACT. Hinrichs specifies that analyzing state assessment data avoids selection bias that may be present when using ACT scores. Still, Hinrichs’ results from Kansas and Virginia supported his findings from Minnesota; he concluded that school start time bore no effect on test scores in reading, math, social studies, and science.33 Similarly, a 2014 multi-site study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota found neutral effects when examining the impact of delayed high school start times on the standardized test scores of students in Minnesota, Colorado, and Wyoming.34 The three-year research study involved 9,000 students and examined changes in academic performance after school start times shifted anywhere from 30 to 80 minutes later for high school students. The study evaluated academic performance using multiple measures, including performance on state and national achievement tests. The researchers found that changes in standardized achievement test results, such as state-level assessments and the ACT, were not impacted by later start times and did not follow a consistent pattern.35 While many studies investigate the academic impacts of delayed school start times on middle and high school students, fewer examine the relationship at the elementary school level. A 2015 study published in The Journal of Education Psychology found that early school start times correlate with lower standardized test scores among elementary school students. The researchers found that “earlier school start times can be associated with poorer school performance in elementary schools,” especially for middle and upper class elementary school students.36 They conclude that the practice of shifting the elementary school day earlier to accommodate later start times for middle and high schools “may simply be shifting the problem from adolescents to younger children, instead of eliminating it altogether.”37

30

Ibid., p. 6. 31

Ibid., p. 3. 32

Ibid., p. 1. 33

Ibid., p. 14. 34

Wahlstrom et al., Op. cit., pp. 8–10. 35

Ibid., p. 41. 36

Keller et al., Op. cit., p. 241. 37

Ibid., p. 242.



GRADES AND GRADE POINT AVERAGES

Studies examining the association between school start times and course grades and GPA produce mixed results. The preponderance of evidence in this arena suggests a small, positive correlation between later school start times and course grades for high school and college students. A 2012 study of high school students enrolled in Chicago Public Schools (CPS) compared grades of students who took a subject during the first class period to those who took the same subject later in the school day.38 The findings revealed that having a class in first period “significantly reduces grades in that particular course,” but bears no effect on grades in related subjects.39 However, researchers determined that taking math during first period was associated with reduced test scores throughout all subjects and reduced grades in future math classes. This effect was particularly pronounced amongst Black students.40

Similarly, a study of freshmen enrolled in the United States Air Force Academy (USAFA) found that a later school start time had “a significant positive effect on student academic achievement.”41 The study, which evaluated 6,165 first-year USAFA students between 2004 and 2008, measured students’ academic performance using final grades earned in first period courses.42 Although this study was conducted on college freshman it is important to note that USAFA students adhere to highly structured course schedules that are similar to high school schedules. Researchers found that “when a student is randomly assigned to a first period course starting prior to 8 a.m., they perform significantly worse in all their courses taken on that day compared to students who are not assigned to a first period course.”43

The 2014 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota also examined the impact of school start times on student grades. For this outcome measure, the study determined that many of the sampled high schools experienced increases in grades (measured by GPA) following delays in start time, with several notable exceptions. Specifically, three high schools out of the eight included in the study experienced both increases and decreases in student grades that are described in detail in Figure 1.4.44

38

Cortes, Bricker, and Rohlfs, Op. cit., p. 5. 39

Ibid., p. i. 40

Ibid. 41

Carrell, Maghakian, and West, Op. cit., p. 63. 42

Ibid., p. 70. 43

Ibid., p. 63. 44

Wahlstrom et. al., Op. cit., pp. 8–10.



Figure 1.4: Changes in Mean GPA for First or Third Period Courses

GRADE

LEVEL

HIGH SCHOOL / DISTRICT

FAIRVIEW BOULDER MAHTOMEDI SAINT LOUIS

PARK SOUTH WASHINGTON

COUNTY JACKSON

HOLE

All Grades

+ + +/- NS +/- +

Grade 9 + N/A +/- N/A N/A +

Grade 10 NS N/A +/- N/A + +

Grade 11 + N/A +/- N/A + +

Grade 12 + N/A +/- N/A + + Source: Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement

45

Note: “+” indicates statistically significant increases in grade point average (GPA). “+/-” indicates that the results were mixed: some GPAs increased, while others decreased. “N/A” means the analysis could not be completed. “NS” means the results were not statistically significant.

In 2005, Arlington Public Schools (APS) published an analysis describing the impact that later high school start times had on academic and non-academic outcomes within the district. In the 2001-02 academic year, APS implemented a districtwide schedule change in which high schools began 45 minutes later (8:15 a.m.) and middle schools began twenty minutes earlier at (7:50 a.m.). To evaluate the academic impact of the start time shift, APS analyzed middle and high school students’ first period grades during the year preceding the change and during the first year of implementation.46 Overall, APS reported slight improvements in high school students’ first period grades following the start time delay.47 Figure 1.5 presents the average first period GPAs of the two high school cohorts.

Figure 1.5: APS High School Students’ First Period Grades, 2000-2002

GRADUATING CLASS OF 2003

2000-01: AVERAGE FIRST PERIOD GPA

(GRADE 10) 2001-02: AVERAGE FIRST PERIOD GPA

(GRADE 11)

ELECTIVE COURSES 2.75 2.89

CORE COURSES 2.27 2.37

ALL COURSES 2.46 2.54


2000-01: AVERAGE FIRST PERIOD GPA

(GRADE 9) 2001-02: AVERAGE FIRST PERIOD GPA

(GRADE 10)



ALL COURSES 2.58 2.68 Source: Arlington Public Schools

48

APS identified mixed results when analyzing the impact of earlier school start times on middle school students. Students enrolled in Grade 7 in 2000-01 and Grade 8 in 2001-02 experienced declines in first period grades. Overall, these students’ first period GPA

45

Figure adapted from Ibid., p. 40. 46

“Impact of 2001 Adjustments to High School and Middle School Start Times,” Op. cit., p. 4. 47

Ibid., pp. 8–9. 48

Figure adapted from Ibid.



dropped from 3.07 to 2.66 between 2000 and 2002.49 However, students enrolled in Grade 6 in 2000-01 and Grade 7 in 2001-02 experienced modest increases in first period grades. APS attributed the mixed results to a difference in difficulty between Grade 7 and Grade 8 courses – that is, students entering Grade 8 in 2001-02 earned lesser grades due to an increase in the difficulty of core classes.50 Figure 1.6 presents the trends in middle school students’ first period grades following the shift to an earlier school start time.

Figure 1.6: APS Middle School Students’ First Period Grades, 2000-2002


2000 – 2001:

AVERAGE GRADE 7 GPA 2001 – 2002:

AVERAGE GRADE 8 GPA



ALL COURSES 3.07 2.66


2000 – 2001:

AVERAGE GRADE 6 GPA 2001 – 2002:

AVERAGE GRADE 7 GPA



ALL COURSES 2.72 2.99 Source: Arlington Public Schools

51

49

Ibid., p. 10. 50

Ibid., pp. 11–12. 51

Figure adapted from Ibid., pp. 10–11.



SECTION II: START TIMES AND OTHER STUDENT OUTCOMES

In addition to research examining the relationship between school start times and student achievement, many studies have explored the relationship between school start times and numerous non-academic outcomes. Specifically, this section of the report provides an overview of the research that examines the association between school start times and student sleep, teen car crash rates, attendance, tardiness, and other outcomes.

OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Figure 2.1 presents an overview of relevant studies that examine the effects of delayed school start times on non-academic student outcomes. An asterisk (*) in the Result column indicates that findings are statistically significant for some or all of the outcomes tested. Note that the majority of studies are conducted at the high school and middle school level, so the findings presented in this section should be interpreted in that context.

START TIME AND SLEEP

Results from recent empirically-based literature affirm that delayed school start times are associated with increases in student sleep. In a 2015 study on school start time and adolescent sleep patterns published in the American Journal of Public Health, researchers note that modest delays in school start time positively correlate with the amount of sleep adolescents receive.52 Researchers conducted the study by surveying a random sample of 40 to 50 students from 81 schools across the United States.53 Survey findings indicate that each 30 minute delay in school start time before 8:00 a.m. was associated with an additional 11.36 minutes of sleep on weeknights. These extra 11.36 minutes of sleep increased students’ odds of achieving “adequate sleep” by 1.52 times. However, after 8:00 a.m., delays in start time were not associated with students achieving adequate sleep.54

52

Paksarian, D. et al. “School Start Time and Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Results From the US National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent Supplement.” American Journal of Public Health, 105:7, July 2015. pp. 1355–1356. Accessed via ProQuest.

53 Ibid., p. 1352.

54 Ibid., p. 1354.



Figure 2.1: Summary of School Start Times and Other Student Outcomes Literature


Arlington Public Schools (2005)

55

Arlington Public School students enrolled in

Grades 6-11

High school start times shifted 45 minutes later, while middle school start times shifted 20 minutes earlier.

Non-academic outcomes included participation in extracurricular activities, preparedness, alertness, attendance, and tardiness.

Extracurricular activity involvement increased amongst both middle and high school students.

There was no change in student preparedness or alertness.

Attendance rates decreased after the shift.

Mixed

Boergers, J., C. Gable, and J. Owens (2013)

56

177 students enrolled in a coeducational

boarding high school

School start times were delayed by 25 minutes (8:00 a.m. to 8:25 a.m.).

Non-academic outcomes included sleep duration; sleepiness; mood; caffeine consumption; and time engaged in athletics, extracurricular activities, and homework.

Weekday sleep increased significantly.

Researchers noted non-significant decreases in daytime sleepiness and caffeine use, along with non-significant improvements in mood.

Time engaged in athletics, extracurricular activities, and homework did not change.

Positive*

Cortes, K., J. Bricker, and C. Rohlfs (2012)

57

Chicago Public Schools students enrolled in

Grades 9-12

Academic performance was measured in first period courses against the same course offered at a different time of the day.

Non-academic outcomes measured include attendance.

Students were absent an additional four to seven days in first period compared to other class times.

Positive*

55

“Impact of 2001 Adjustments to High School and Middle School Start Times,” Op. cit. 56

Boergers, J., C. Gable, and J. Owens. “Later School Start Time Is Associated with Improved Sleep and Daytime Functioning in Adolescents.” Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 35:1, January 2014. pp. 11–15. http://www.gwern.net/docs/melatonin/2014-boergers.pdf

57 Cortes, Bricker, and Rohlfs, Op. cit., pp. i; 19; 24.




Danner, F. and B. Phillips (2008)

58

Middle and high school students in one public

school district in KY

School start times in year one (7:30 a.m. for high schools and 8:00 a.m. for middle schools) were delayed by one hour in year two (8:30 a.m. and 9:00 a.m., respectively).

Non-academic outcomes included sleep duration and car crashes.

Students reported getting an additional 12 minutes of sleep per night.

Average county car crash rates for teen drivers significantly decreased by 16.5 percent.

Positive*

Edwards, F. (2012)59

Middle school students

in Wake County, NC School start times ranged

from 7:30 a.m. to 9:15 a.m.

Non-academic outcomes included time spent watching television, time spent doing homework, and attendance.

Students starting school one hour later reported watching less television (12 minutes fewer) per week and spending more time (9 minutes more) on homework per day.

Students starting school one hour later reported fewer absences per year.

Positive

Hinrichs, P. (2011)60

Public high schools in Minneapolis and St. Paul (MN) and state-

level data from KS and VA

School start times in Minneapolis shifted from 7:15 a.m. to 8:40 a.m., while St. Paul school start times remained at 7:30 a.m.

Non-academic outcomes measured include attendance.

Delay in start times did not impact attendance.

Neutral

58

Danner and Phillips, Op. cit. 59


Hinrichs, Op. cit., p. 11.




Keller, P. et al. (2015)61

718 public elementary

schools in KY

School start times ranged from 7:00 a.m. to 9:10 a.m., with a mean school start time of 8:05 a.m.

Non-academic outcomes included attendance and in-grade retention.

Attendance rates were higher at schools with later start times.

A one-hour delay in school start time was associated with higher student retention.

Mixed*

Owens, J., K. Belon, and P. Moss (2010)

62

201 students enrolled at an independent high

school in RI

School start time shifted from 8:00 a.m. to 8:30 a.m.

Non-academic outcomes included mood, sleep duration, and attendance.

Students reported significant improvements in alertness, positive moods, and health.

Students reported an average increase of 29 minutes of sleep per night.

Class attendance improved.

Positive*

Paksarian, D. et al. (2015)

63

9,244 students from 81 middle and high

schools across the United States

School start time ranged from 7:05 a.m. to 9:22 a.m., with a mean school start time of 8:01 a.m.

Non-academic outcomes included sleep duration and sleep habits.

Each 30-minute delay in school start time prior to 8:01 a.m. was associated with an additional 11.36 minutes of sleep per night.

Each 30-minute delay in start time was associated with significantly higher odds of achieving adequate sleep (8.5 hours).

Positive*

61

Keller et al., Op. cit., pp. 237-238; 240-241. 62

Owens, Belon, and Moss, Op. cit. 63

Paksarian, et al., Op. cit., pp. 1352–1353.




Vorona, R. et. al. (2011)

64

Teen drivers aged 16- to 18 in Virginia Beach and Chesapeake, VA

Virginia Beach high schools started 75-80 minutes earlier than Chesapeake high schools.

Non-academic outcomes included car crashes.

Earlier school start times were associated with significantly higher weekday teen car crash rates.

Positive*

Vorona, R. et al. (2014)

65

Teen drivers aged 16- to 18 in Henrico and

Chesterfield Counties, VA

High school start times ranged from 7:20 a.m. in Chesterfield County to 8:45 a.m. in Henrico County.

Non-academic outcomes included car crashes.

Earlier start times were associated with significantly higher crash rates for female teens and non-significantly higher crash rates for male teens.

Positive*

Wahlstrom, K. et al. (2014)

66

Eight public high schools in five school

districts in three states (MN, CO, WY)

Schools pushed their start times back anywhere from 30 to 80 minutes. Resulting start times ranged from 8:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m.

Non-academic outcomes included attendance, tardiness, and car crashes.

Attendance increased in schools after pushing back school start times. However, the change in most schools was not statistically significant and attendance rates across schools and within schools were inconsistent.

Four out of the six schools reporting data experienced significant reduction in tardiness after the change in school start times.

Two of the four districts that provided car crash data experienced a 65 to 70 percent decline in car crashes among high school-aged drivers. One of the four districts experienced a 6 percent decline in such crashes and the fourth district experienced a 9 percent increase in crashes among high school-aged drivers.

Positive*

64

Vorona, R., et al. “Dissimilar Teen Crash Rates in Two Neighboring Southeastern Virginia Cities with Different High School Start Times.” Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 7:2, April 15, 2011. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077341/

65 Vorona, R., et al. “Adolescent Crash Rates and School Start Times in Two Central Virginia Counties, 2009-2011: A Follow-up Study to a Southeastern Virginia Study, 2007-

2008.” Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 10:11, November 15, 2014. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4224716/ 66

Wahlstrom et al., Op. cit., pp. 13; 39; 48; 52.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3077341/



Another study examined sleep duration and sleep-related side effects for 197 students at a coeducational New England boarding high school. To measure the impact of a 25-minute delay in school start times (from 8:00 a.m. to 8:25 a.m.), researchers administered pre- and post-test surveys to students.67 Following the 25-minute delay in school start time, students reported a significant increase in sleep duration of 29 minutes. The study also found that students’ bedtimes did not shift later and the percentage of students reporting eight or more hours of sleep per night increased from 18 percent to 44 percent. 68 Perhaps relatedly, students reported a significant decrease in sleepiness-related behaviors, as shown in Figure 2.2. However, even though most students reported a significant increase in sleep, only a very small percentage of students – 8.8 percent – achieved the recommended nine or more hours of sleep per weeknight.69

Figure 2.2: Change in Students Reporting Sleepiness Behaviors

SLEEPINESS-RELATED BEHAVIORS 8:00 A.M. 8:25 A.M.

Napped at least sometimes on school days 44% 33% (-)

Arrived late to class at least once in the past two weeks 25% 16% (-)

Struggled to stay awake and/or fell asleep during class 72% 55% (-)

Too tired to do schoolwork somewhat or most of the time 76% 61% (-)

Too tired to play sports somewhat or most of the time 45% 44% (-)

Too tired to socialize somewhat or much of the time 45% 38% (-) Source: Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics

70

Another similar study conducted with 201 students in Grades 9 to 12 at an independent high school in Rhode Island produced similar results. The study sought to gauge the impact of a 30-minute start time delay on adolescents’ sleep, mood, and behavior through a pre- and post-test survey. On the post-test survey, students reported that average sleep duration increased by 45 minutes and the percentage of students receiving at least eight hours of sleep each night increased from 16.4 percent to 54.7 percent. Moreover, students reported an increase in sleep satisfaction and a reduction in daytime sleepiness behaviors, such as fatigue and depressed moods. The student health center noted that fatigue-related complaints decreased and class attendance improved.71 Danner and Phillips also found that a one-hour school start time delay increased the percentage of students achieving at least eight hours of sleep per weeknight from 35.7 percent to 50 percent, with students reporting between 12 and 30 additional minutes of sleep per weeknight.72 Moreover, researchers at the University of Minnesota found that students enrolled in sampled high schools reported achieving more sleep, despite going to bed around the same time as before.73 They found that later high school start times increased the probability of students achieving at least eight hours of sleep per school night,

67

Boergers, Gable, and Owens, Op. cit., p. 13. 68

Ibid., p. 15. 69

Ibid., pp. 14–15. 70

Figure adapted from Ibid., p. 15. 71

Owens, Belon, and Moss, Op. cit. 72


Wahlstrom et al., Op. cit., p. 4.



noting that students who obtained less than the recommended eight hours of sleep per night reported various negative side effects, including increased caffeine use and increased instances of depressive symptoms.74

START TIME AND CAR ACCIDENTS

A number of research studies have focused on the relationship between school start times and motor vehicle accidents involving teenagers. Across multiple studies, the majority found a decrease in motor vehicle accidents when schools started later in the day. A 2011 study published by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine compared the teen crash rates of two Virginia cities: Chesapeake and Virginia Beach. The former began school about 75 minutes after the latter. Car accident data for 16 to 18 year-old drivers in 2007 and 2008 across the two cities suggest that Virginia Beach reported significantly higher teen crash rates on weekdays than Chesapeake. Even though Virginia Beach generally reported higher crash rates amongst all age groups than did Chesapeake, the difference in crash rates was especially pronounced for drivers aged 16 to 18 years (4.5 times higher).75 The 2011 study was corroborated by an additional 2014 study comparing teen crash rates of two Virginia counties: Henrico County and Chesterfield County. 76 High schools in Chesterfield County started at 7:20 a.m., while high schools in neighboring Henrico County started at 8:45 a.m. Again, researchers compared crash rates for teen drivers in the adjacent counties and found that Chesterfield County reported significantly higher teenager crash rates than did Henrico County. Indeed, “crash peaks occurred one hour earlier in the morning and two hours earlier in the afternoon in Chesterfield, consistent with commute times.”77 Figure 2.3 presents the difference in teen crash rates per 1,000 drivers in Chesterfield and Henrico counties between 2009 and 2011.

Figure 2.3: Average School Year Crash Rates per 1,000 Drivers

YEAR AGE CHESTERFIELD COUNTY HENRICO COUNTY

SEPTEMBER ‘09 – MAY ‘10 Teen (16-18 years old) 48.8 37.9

Teen (16-17 years old) 46.9 35.5

SEPTEMBER ‘10 – MAY ‘11 Teen (16-18 years old) 51.9 44.2

Teen (16-17 years old) 53.2 42.0 Source: Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine

78

A 2008 study of one school district in Kentucky found that a one-hour delay in high school start times resulted in a significant decrease (16.5 percent) in the number of teen car crashes, even while other districts in the state witnessed an increase in teen crash rates.79

Similarly, University of Minnesota researchers examined data from three communities in

74

Ibid., p. 1. 75

“Dissimilar Teen Crash Rates in Two Neighboring Southeastern Virginia Cities with Different High School Start Times,” Op. cit.

76 "Adolescent Crash Rates and School Start Times in Two Central Virginia Counties," Op. cit.

77 Ibid.

78 Figure adapted from Ibid.

79 Danner and Phillips, Op. cit.



Minnesota and one community in Wyoming. They reported that, in three of the four communities, teen car crash rates decreased as high schools delayed school start times. While the car crash rate decreased by as much as 70 percent in one district, St. Louis Park (MN) experienced a non-significant 9 percent increase in teen crash rates. Researchers attributed the increase to the busy metropolitan locale.80

START TIME AND ATTENDANCE

Multiple studies have examined the relationship between school start times, student attendance, and tardiness. However, empirical studies on this relationship yield mixed results, particularly with regard to student attendance. University of Minnesota researchers examined the relationship between school start times and high school attendance rates. While attendance at many of the school sites increased, the change in most schools was not statistically significant and attendance rate changes across schools and within schools were inconsistent.81 On the other hand, the majority of schools analyzed did report a reduction in overall tardiness. Notably, schools implementing greater delays in start time reported the most significant decreases in student tardiness.82 Hinrichs’ 2011 analysis of high schools in Minnesota also found no evidence of increased attendance in schools with later start times.83

However, Edwards’ study of middle schools in North Carolina noted fewer absences in schools with later start times. Edwards stated that students who started schools one hour later reported 1.3 fewer absences per school year.84 Similarly, the 2012 study of CPS high school students found that students were absent far more frequently during first period classes (four to seven more absences per year) than they were for classes at any other time of the day.85 Researchers postulate that absences play a key role in the relationship between later school start times and student achievement.86

START TIME AND EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

Despite concern among stakeholders, multiple studies suggest that later school start times do not negatively impact students’ ability to complete homework and participate in sports, music, or other after-school activities. In APS’ analysis of its start time change, the district found that the majority of high school students continued to participate in extracurricular activities at an equal and even increased rate. APS reported “65 percent of the students indicated that either there was no difference in their participation or that they were participating more in 2001-02,” the year schools began to operate with later start times.87

80

Wahlstrom et al., Op. cit., p. 48. 81

Ibid., p. 37. 82

Ibid., p. 39. 83

Hinrichs, Op. cit., p. 85. 84


Cortes, Bricker, and Rohlfs, Op. cit., p. 2. 86

[1] Edwards, Op. cit., p. 982. [2] Cortes, Bricker, and Rohlfs, Op. cit., p. 2. 87

Ibid., p. 23.



Likewise, middle school students reported that their participation in after-school activities did not change (24 percent) or that they participated more (42 percent) after their start time was moved earlier.88 Another study published in the Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics concluded that delayed school start times had little impact on the amount of time students spent on homework and other extracurricular activities, such as “school sports, organized community sports, music activities, volunteer work, or hanging out with friends.”89 In addition, a 2008 Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine study examined the amount of time students spent working, doing homework, and participating in extracurricular activities before and after a one-hour delay in start times. It found no significant change in the number of hours spent on each activity. 90

Edwards found that students who started school one hour later spent nine more minutes on homework per week than their peers and watched 12 minutes less of television per day. He hypothesized that the increase in homework and decrease in television results from additional parent supervision – when students get out of school later, they are home alone for a shorter period of time and are subject to greater parental supervision.91

88

Ibid., pp. 23–24. 89

Boergers, Gable, and Owens, Op. cit., p. 15. 90


Edwards, Op. cit., p. 982.


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