Science of languageScience of language in the language of sciencein the language of science

Linguistics in the paradigm of empirical sciencesLinguistics in the paradigm of empirical sciences

Dorota ZielińskaDorota ZielińskaKraków, Kraków, PolandPoland

DorotaZielinska@yahoo.co.ukDorotaZielinska@yahoo.co.uk

PlanPlan

Part One: Part One: MethodologyMethodology: 3-stages; : 3-stages;

Part Two:Part Two:Major descriptive frameworksMajor descriptive frameworks

Part Three: Part Three: An applicationAn application

Part OnePart One

The three stages of scientific The three stages of scientific researchresearch

1.1 1.1 Description Description ((dependdependss on the on the purposepurpose))

1.21.2 Search for patternsSearch for patterns (phenomenological laws)(phenomenological laws)

1.3 1.3 Search for explanatory laws Search for explanatory laws (principles) implying the patterns (principles) implying the patterns observedobserved

Models and theoriesModels and theories According to Bunge (1972), theories describe According to Bunge (1972), theories describe

general assumptions concerning a certain general assumptions concerning a certain type of behaviour. They are not testable type of behaviour. They are not testable per per sese..

Theories are tested indirectly by applying Theories are tested indirectly by applying them to models, which are testable. Models, them to models, which are testable. Models, however, include approximating conditions however, include approximating conditions andand may alsomay also depend on additional laws.depend on additional laws.

Part Two: Part Two: BasicBasic descriptive descriptive frameworksframeworks

2.12.1 RductionismRductionism (ontological and (ontological and epistemic)epistemic)

2.22.2 (Holism)(Holism)

2.32.3 RelationalismRelationalism

2.42.4 Systemism cum Systemism cum EmergentismEmergentism

(ontological, but not epistemic reductionism)(ontological, but not epistemic reductionism)

Bunge, (2003)Bunge, (2003)

Relational descriptionRelational description

““All that we can know in nature are All that we can know in nature are relations and in the final analysis any relations and in the final analysis any kind of knowledge is just the kind of knowledge is just the knowledge of relations.”knowledge of relations.” I.Z. TsekhmistroI.Z. Tsekhmistro

” ”Thus, for instance, when investigating the Thus, for instance, when investigating the characteristics of elementary particles, all we can characteristics of elementary particles, all we can really establish is how they interact with the really establish is how they interact with the surroundings – the measuring device. In other surroundings – the measuring device. In other words, we may know their states only in relation to words, we may know their states only in relation to the measuring device and with the precision the measuring device and with the precision limited by possible experimental set-ups.” limited by possible experimental set-ups.”

Relational methodology in Relational methodology in linguisticslinguistics

““WWe know the word by the company it e know the word by the company it keeps”.keeps”. Firth (1934) Firth (1934)

Wittgenstein, in turn, brought to our Wittgenstein, in turn, brought to our attention the relational character of attention the relational character of meaning contained, e.g., in kin terms, and meaning contained, e.g., in kin terms, and in the names of chess piecesin the names of chess pieces (not to (not to mention mention pronounspronouns)). Still in a pre-computational era, . Still in a pre-computational era, Harris (1988) proposed to define the Harris (1988) proposed to define the meaning ofmeaning of a lexeme by syntagmatic a lexeme by syntagmatic relations it enters. relations it enters.

RM RM inin Quantitative corpus Quantitative corpus linguisticslinguistics

Corpus linguists study wide ranging collocations, Corpus linguists study wide ranging collocations, contextual properties of thematically organized contextual properties of thematically organized items, correlations between specific linguistic items, correlations between specific linguistic items and their position in texts, properties of items and their position in texts, properties of linguistic items acquired in social contexts. linguistic items acquired in social contexts.

AAs recent studies on priming in corpus linguistics s recent studies on priming in corpus linguistics indicate, virtually all items have specific indicate, virtually all items have specific environments, which they favour. Reversely, environments, which they favour. Reversely, these environments identify the meanings of these environments identify the meanings of the respective items. This fact has alreadythe respective items. This fact has already been been exploited, for instance, in spell checkerexploited, for instance, in spell checker software.software.

Systemism cum emergentism Systemism cum emergentism

SystemSystem: components combine and : components combine and interact as a whole with interact as a whole with a a new new environment, fulfilling a new function (an environment, fulfilling a new function (an interaction not active for the interaction not active for the components). This new interaction components). This new interaction influences the components.influences the components.

Atoms in water/ iceAtoms in water/ ice

a a bird bird inin a tree, could you open the window? a tree, could you open the window?

Material system descriptionMaterial system description

Bunge (2003)Bunge (2003): : First, First, defining defining the mechanism the mechanism which has created and which supports the which has created and which supports the observed behaviour of the given materialobserved behaviour of the given material system or the processsystem or the process in a given environment in a given environment - - its structure and componentsits structure and components.. SSecond, econd, defining defining the relevant environment, which will the relevant environment, which will restrict possible behaviour of the system restrict possible behaviour of the system considered. considered.

Bunge (2003: 20) defines a mechanism as “a Bunge (2003: 20) defines a mechanism as “a set of processes in a system, such that they set of processes in a system, such that they bring about or prevent some change – either bring about or prevent some change – either the emergence of a property or another the emergence of a property or another process – in the system as a whole.” process – in the system as a whole.”

Part Three: an applicationPart Three: an application

3.13.1 Search for patternsSearch for patterns:: The ordering of adjectives in The ordering of adjectives in English English AAN AAN

noun phrases (adjective adjective noun)noun phrases (adjective adjective noun)opinion, size, shape, age, colour, nationality, materialopinion, size, shape, age, colour, nationality, material

a pretty rectangular table, a comfortable wooden beda pretty rectangular table, a comfortable wooden bed

Gradable (descriptive) categorizingGradable (descriptive) categorizingEnglish, Polish, Hungarian, Chinese, German, Italian (in a reversed order)English, Polish, Hungarian, Chinese, German, Italian (in a reversed order)

Experimental resultsExperimental results WulfWulf (2003) (2003)

The independence from comparison index The independence from comparison index (IndComp) - the ratio of the number of occurrences (IndComp) - the ratio of the number of occurrences of a given adjective in non-comparative degree to of a given adjective in non-comparative degree to the number of all occurrences of the given the number of all occurrences of the given adjective in a given corpus. adjective in a given corpus.

The mean IndComp values for adjective1 and The mean IndComp values for adjective1 and adjective2 in her study differ highly significantly (p adjective2 in her study differ highly significantly (p < .001).< .001).

Wulf’s Wulf’s Semantic closeness of an adjective. Zipf’s Semantic closeness of an adjective. Zipf’s privilege of occurrence, Behaghel’sprivilege of occurrence, Behaghel’s Law Law . .

Polish - the ratio of postpositional uses of an adj. to its prepositional usesPolish - the ratio of postpositional uses of an adj. to its prepositional uses..

3.23.2 Search for principlesSearch for principles: : Linguistics as an empirical scienceLinguistics as an empirical science

””Languages do not develop or evolve by Languages do not develop or evolve by themselves and there are no mechanisms of themselves and there are no mechanisms of linguistic changes, in particular evolutionary linguistic changes, in particular evolutionary forces. Only concrete things, such as people can forces. Only concrete things, such as people can develop and evolve. And, of course, as they develop and evolve. And, of course, as they develop or evolve, they modify, introduce, jettison develop or evolve, they modify, introduce, jettison linguistic expressions. The history of mathematics linguistic expressions. The history of mathematics is parallel: mathematicians do come up with new is parallel: mathematicians do come up with new mathematical ideas, which are adopted or rejected mathematical ideas, which are adopted or rejected by the mathematical community, but mathematics by the mathematical community, but mathematics does not evolve by itselfdoes not evolve by itself.”.” Bunge Bunge

(2003: 62)(2003: 62)

Language is a bio-psycho-social Language is a bio-psycho-social phenomenon which can be presented phenomenon which can be presented within a within a ssystemism cum emergentismystemism cum emergentism frameworkframework

Language depends on the history of the Language depends on the history of the contingencies of its creation. Only contingencies of its creation. Only statistical relations can be postulated. statistical relations can be postulated. Analogy: Analogy: defining defining the relationship between the relationship between the the height height of a child and that of hisof a child and that of his/her /her parentsparents..Besides, we have access only to a sample of Besides, we have access only to a sample of „language”.„language”.

Statistical character of linguistic principlesStatistical character of linguistic principles

ObjectivityObjectivity of measurementof measurement

Degree of being Degree of being gradable gradable ((evaluatingevaluating)) = the = the number of tokens in comparative and number of tokens in comparative and superlative forms/the number of all tokenssuperlative forms/the number of all tokens

Degree of being categorizing in PolishDegree of being categorizing in Polish == the the number of post modifying usesnumber of post modifying uses of adjectivesof adjectives // the number of both postmodifying and the number of both postmodifying and premodifying usespremodifying uses

gradable gradable adj. + adj. + descriptivedescriptive adj. adj. + + categorizing adj. +categorizing adj. + noun noun

The basic mechanismsThe basic mechanisms (theory(theory)) of language use and formationof language use and formation

Mechanisms forming form-reference correlations Mechanisms forming form-reference correlations in the brain have been selected for by evolution. in the brain have been selected for by evolution. They lead to automatic local optimisation They lead to automatic local optimisation (regularization) of the semiotic system. (regularization) of the semiotic system. TThey arehey are approximatelyapproximately reductionist and bio-cognitive in reductionist and bio-cognitive in nature. nature.

NNonon--reductionist (systemic) bio-psycho-social reductionist (systemic) bio-psycho-social mechanisms driven by the natural selection like mechanisms driven by the natural selection like processes (depending on the function of processes (depending on the function of language) (Altmann 1978) lead to global language) (Altmann 1978) lead to global optimisation of the semiotic system (reflectedoptimisation of the semiotic system (reflected, , e.g., by implicational universals). These changes e.g., by implicational universals). These changes have been selected for because they allowed a have been selected for because they allowed a given community to dominate due to given community to dominate due to communicating more effectivelycommunicating more effectively..

A Model A Model of AAN orderingof AAN ordering

Principle: The oPrinciple: The orrdering observed makes language more efficientdering observed makes language more efficient Processing categorizing adjectives first, and gradableProcessing categorizing adjectives first, and gradable ones ones

second increases the precision of the information second increases the precision of the information conveyed. conveyed. długi drewniany most (długi drewniany most (a long wooden bridgea long wooden bridge)) vs. vs. długi długi kamienny most (kamienny most (a long sta long steeleel bridgebridge))

When categorizing adjectives are used first in AWhen categorizing adjectives are used first in A22AA11N N phrases, the resultant encoded content of categorizing phrases, the resultant encoded content of categorizing adjectives is more precise, while the encoded content ofadjectives is more precise, while the encoded content of evaluating adjectives is evaluating adjectives is not not affectedaffected..a big red bird, a red big birda big red bird, a red big bird**

With such an ordering, processing effort isWith such an ordering, processing effort is also also decreased decreased

Experimental results:Experimental results: Zielinska(2007) Zielinska(2007)

TThe division of the colour category into a he division of the colour category into a category of intuitively highly relative colour category of intuitively highly relative colour terms, such as light, pale, vivid, dark and terms, such as light, pale, vivid, dark and intuitively less relative ones such as red, blue, intuitively less relative ones such as red, blue, yellow, results in the category ‘relative colour’ yellow, results in the category ‘relative colour’ being statistically more likely to precede other being statistically more likely to precede other semantic categories than the category ‘non-semantic categories than the category ‘non-relative colour’relative colour’..

Similarly, the subdivision of a given category of Similarly, the subdivision of a given category of adjectives containing the information about age adjectives containing the information about age into a subcategory of the adjectives more and into a subcategory of the adjectives more and less categorizing, respectively, e.g. into {pre-less categorizing, respectively, e.g. into {pre-war, renaissance, baroque,war, renaissance, baroque, etc.} and such ones etc.} and such ones as {20as {20--year old, centenial,year old, centenial, etc.}, results in more etc.}, results in more categorizing subcategory following other categorizing subcategory following other selected categories statistically more frequently selected categories statistically more frequently than the other subset of the category ‘Age’ does.than the other subset of the category ‘Age’ does.

Future research on the order of Future research on the order of adjectivesadjectives

Checking the order „Opinion_size /// Checking the order „Opinion_size /// Shape_Age_Colour/// Origin_Material in several Shape_Age_Colour/// Origin_Material in several languageslanguages

Operationalizing categoriability and gradabilityOperationalizing categoriability and gradability

In PolishIn Polish::Categoriability =Categoriability = the number of Postpositional vsthe number of Postpositional vs.. prepositional usesprepositional uses= the number of separated postpositional usage = the number of separated postpositional usage to all uses (separated and not) to all uses (separated and not)

Ciepły barszcz czerwony, czerwony barszcz ciepłyCiepły barszcz czerwony, czerwony barszcz ciepłyMarta ma: długie, ciemne włosy: włosy długie, Marta ma: długie, ciemne włosy: włosy długie,

ciemne,ciemne włosy długie, długie włosy ciemne.ciemne,ciemne włosy długie, długie włosy ciemne.

BibliographyBibliography

Gabriel Altmann 1978 in: GlottometricsGabriel Altmann 1978 in: Glottometrics

Mario Bunge 1973 Matter, Model, Mario Bunge 1973 Matter, Model, Methodology 2003, Methodology 2003, Emergence and Emergence and convergenceconvergence

Stephane Wulf. 2003. Multifactorial Stephane Wulf. 2003. Multifactorial Analysis of the order of adjectives (Tom Analysis of the order of adjectives (Tom Grice)Grice)

Thank youThank you

Relational Relational approachapproach in physics in physics

Such reconstruction led to the development Such reconstruction led to the development of quantum mechanics, and a similar of quantum mechanics, and a similar reasoning underlies also the philosophy of reasoning underlies also the philosophy of Einstein’s general and particular theories of Einstein’s general and particular theories of relativity. It does not follow however, that relativity. It does not follow however, that quantum world does not exist independently quantum world does not exist independently of the measurements as was assumed by of the measurements as was assumed by Copenhagen interpretation of quantum Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, but merely that our knowledge of mechanics, but merely that our knowledge of it depends on the ways we can interact with it depends on the ways we can interact with it. it.