SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE: SOME RESEARCH AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

Sak Onkvisit John Shaw

Self-concept, despite its marketing relevance, has been overshadowed by other psychological concepts. The self-concept is, however, significant and relevant to the study of consumer behavior because many purchases made by consumers are directly influenced by the image an individual has of himself. A fundamental question involves the process of the formation of the self-concept. Several distinct qualities exist within the self-concept, and once the self-concept is established, these have a bearing upon the individual's behavior and his relationship with his objective, subjective, social, and ideal self. For marketers,

an understanding of the self-concept and self-image can provide the means for developing more effective marketing programs. Consistency and congruence also play an important part in establishing the relationship between the self-concept, the individual's image, and final pur­chase behavior. Other factors also play a part in the process and, in some situations, misunder­standings about their importance can result in less than effective marketing efforts. Careful research and analysis of the relevant factors affecting the self-concept and their effect on purchase behavior can make for more effective

Sak Onkvisit is an associate professor marketing in the College of Business Administration, San Jose State University. Dr. Onkvisit has published papers in the Columbia Journal of World Business, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business Education, and Business Horizons. His teaching interests involve consumer behavior, international business and marketing research, and he has taught at the Pennsylvania State University, The University of Kentucky, and Northeastern Illinois University.

Dr. Onkvisit is a member of Beta Gamma Sigma, the American Marketing Association, and the Academy of Marketing Science.

Dr. Onkvisit received his Doctor of Business Administration from The University of Kentucky. John J. Shaw is an associate professor of marketing at Providence College. His teaching interests involve the marketing

management, promotion, intenational marketing and consumer behavior areas within the marketing discipline. Dr. Shaw holds membership in the American Marketing Association, Southwestern Marketing Association, and the Academy of Marketing Science. Dr. Shaw's papers have been published in the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Business Horizons. Marketing News, and The Columbia Journal of World Business.

Dr. Shaw received his Doctor of Business Administration from the University of Oklahoma.

Vol. 4 No. 1 Winter 1987 13

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

market strategic planning. This article examines the various issues related to the marketing applicability of the self-concept and discusses its implications in terms of research and market strategic planning.

Sell-Concept: Significance and Neglect

When compared with its many psychological "cousins," the self-concept is a concept that has been underutilized in the area of marketing. With a few exceptions29,30 any treatment of this meaningful topic that does not appear in consumer behavior textbooks is either brief or implicit. Given the fact that marketing practitioners seem to be enthusiastic about self-concept, it is surprising that it has not received more wide­spread attention from marketing scholars. As a result, several important questions concerning its applicability within a market setting remain unanswered.

An understanding of the self-concept and self-image can provide the means for developing more effective marketing programs.

Self-concept is relevant to the study of con­sumer behavior because the image that a person has about himself frequently dictates specific behavior patterns. As a basis for behavior, self-perception may explain why and/ or how con­sumers are motivated by revealing how they view reference groups, salespeople, and com­peting brands, as well as how they choose to interact with these objects. A study of this nature could be useful in probing consumers' mental and covert states. From the marketing standpoint, understanding the influence of self-perception on behavior could provide an effective means of appealing to target markets effectively.

In this article we will examine the richness of the self-concept in terms of its marketing rele­vance and thereby justify its inclusion in the marketing plan. We will also discuss the research and strategic implications of the concept.

Self-Concept Formation An individual always examines objects in his

environment, and this examination includes an evaluation of himself as if he is just another object. Thus, the self-concept involves ideas and feelings that he has about himself in relation to others in a socially determined frame of reference. The formation of a child's self-concept begins rather slowly and is largely unconscious at the onset. The process picks up speed when he enters school, since it permits more opportunity for social interaction. He sees himself through the eyes of other people and takes into account their behavior, attitudes, and approval, among other things. As a result, his self-perception is based on an interplay between what he thinks of himself and what others think of him.

In the process of learning about himself, the young person chooses certain people to be his heroes or role models and will imitate them. As he grows older, he outgrows some of these fantasies because he learns about capabilities that he cannot achieve as well as skills he is capable of attaining. By determining the facts about himself, he realizes a set of available possibilities based on his strengths and short­comings. Subsequently, certain goals, after be­ing evaluated, are attained, while others are discarded.

The formation of the self-concept is a lifelong and evolving process. The modification of the person's ideas can be quite drastic when he is in his teens. During that time, the individual is often frustrated with attempts to establish his own identity, because he does not know exactly what he wants. As he matures and comes to terms with himself, the changes in his self-concept slow down, even though his experiences still result in a continuous change in his ideas about himself.

The Nature of The Self-Concept

The self-concept has several distinctive prop­erties, and the identification of such properties can be useful for an understanding of how the self-concept operates and how it influences consumer behavior.

First, self-concept is not innate — it has to be learned. This learning is a continuous, active process through which a person determines who he is and on what basis he should formulate his ideas and those of others.

14

SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE

Self-concept is stable and consistent. While it is true that self-perception is subject to change with time and experience, the self-concept tends to be relatively stable, especially during the entire decision-making process for a particular purchase. Any change will not be abrupt, and the gradual change explains why a consumer may be loyal to a particular brand for a long period of time.

The basic purpose of all human activity is the protection, the maintenance, and the enhancement, not of the self, but the self-concept, or symbolic self.

Self-concept is purposeful. It exists for the purpose of both protecting and enhancing a person's ego. When his self-image is threatened by others' criticisms, the individual becomes defensive and perhaps angered. Naturally, it is not a good idea for an advertisement or a salesperson to attack a person's beliefs directly.

Self-concept is unique, and it promotes individualism. Automation, computers, and iden­tification numbers contribute greatly to the movement of U.S. society toward depersonali­zation. People, however, resent being reduced to mere numbers. In order to counter deper­sonalization, consumers used branded products to promote their own self-concepts because distinctive brands can be used to represent "who they are and where they are at." Fragrances, like Cie, for example, provide for individualism by allowing the perfume smell to change from woman to woman.

The effect of self-concept can be either positive or negative. When people wear clothes that they do not like, they feel dull and inactive and will act that way, but when they wear attractive clothes, they feel and act attractive and active. This phenomenon is confirmed by a classic study involving an unpopular girl,14 whose behavior changed after she actively dated five men. Because of the increase in social activity and attention, she viewed herself as a more social and attractive person, and the effect on her life and attitude were significant. Evidently, self-concept can exert its influence on behavior in either direction: a negative self-concept affects behavior adversely, whereas a positive self-concept serves as a positive reinforcer.

Self-Enhancement "The basic purpose of all human activity is

the protection, the maintenance, and the en­hancement, not of the self, but the self-concept, or symbolic self."16 Since a person's self-concept is a valuable possession, he will actively promote it by directing his behavior toward the enhance­ment of this concept. In the marketing context, product and store provide two important means for self-enhancement. As was explained by one well-known marketing scientist, "a consumer may buy a product because, among other factors, he feels that the product enhances his own self-image. Similarly, a consumer may decide not to buy a product or not to shop at a particular store if he feels that these actions are not consistent with his own perceptions of himself."4

The consumer evaluates the appropriateness of a product or store for self-enhancement by developing some beliefs about its specific char­acteristics through some direct experience or second-hand information. He looks beyond the object's immediate utility, forms some perceptions about it, and intuitively, if not consciously, compares these perceptions with his own value system in order to estimate the likelihood that such characteristics will satisfy his needs.39

Apparently, he goes to a store to buy a product not only because of the product's primary functions, but also because of its personal and social meanings inferred by him.

One widely used explanation of self-enhance­ment states that an individual A examines a symbol X which may be a product, brand, or store. The individual next transfers the positive meanings of symbol X to himself for self-fulfill­ment. By assuming that symbol X is also socially meaningful to an audience B, he strives for more gratification by attempting to gain the audience's approval. Consequently, he enhances himself in two ways: first by his own transfer of the symbolic meanings to himself, and second by the transfer made by his reference group.10

Image As A Strategic Tool An image is "the total set of attitudes, the

halo of psychological meanings, the associations of feeling, the indelibly written esthetic messages over and above bare physical qualities." The image can be weak or strong, and it can also be either vague or clear. Like a person's self-concept,

15

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

corporations, products, and retailers have their own personalities or images. Such images will differ from person to person, product to product, and company to company. These images provide consumers with the psychological tools to en­hance their self-concept.

The self-concept is a concept that has been underutilized in the area of marketing.

It should be pointed out that there are two distinct types of product image. While brand image is the more obvious, a product category itself is also capable of assuming a unique personality. We may take the granola bar and candy bar as examples. In spite of the fact that these two product categories have become more physically alike and that most, if not all, granola bars are more or less candy bars in disguise, the granola product is still able to maintain its healthful and wholesome image.

Cigarettes, a product with a strong image, make a clear distinction in how two product levels can differ. High-tar cigarettes such as Winston and Camel are avoided by the intellectual type and attempt to attract rural smokers. Low-tar brands, in contrast, are more appealing to better educated and wealthier people. But such brands are not necessarily alike. The Now brand cigarettes use middle-aged models posing as wealthy horse breeders, while the Merit brand projects a flamboyant, young-in-spirit image. The extra-long cigarette is aimed at the fashion conscious. Furthermore, not all brands in the 120mm category have the same appeal. When compared with Max, which is a cosmetic product for women, More has a riverboat-gambler look for big-city sophisticates. Therefore, product image can vary from one product form to another as well as from brand to brand within the same product form.

Much like products, retail stores can have two types of image and each retail category can assume its own distinct personality. Thus, discount stores and department stores are perceived quite differently even though they carry similar merchandise. Department stores can be broken down further into two subcate­gories: regular department stores such as Macy's and Sakowitz are viewed as being different from

national chain department stores such as Sears and Montgomery Ward.

Images of individual stores of the same retail type tend to vary as well. One good example is the case of Abraham & Straus, Foley's, Bloom-ingdale's, Rich's, Sanger Harris, Burdine's, Filene's, I. Magnin, Bullock's, Shillito's, Gold­smith's, and Main Street. Each of these stores has its own image and local affiliation in spite of the fact that they are all department stores and that they are all owned and operated by Federated Department Stores.

Another example is the three prominent de­partment stores in Chicago: Marshall Field's, Carson Pirie Scott, and Wieboldt's. Field's, the one most likely to be associated with Chicago, is the prestigious one. As a result, Carsons has been using its "Carsons Chicago" campaign to shed its image as "that other Chicago department store." Wieboldt's, on the other hand, attracts a larger proportion of blue-collar workers. As far as consumer perceptions and stores' strategies are concerned, these three local department stores are significantly different from each other.

Image Congruence Figure 1 shows a conceptual model of the

relationship between a consumer's self-concept and his images of the manufacturer, product, and retailer. According to this model, the con­sumer will evaluate these images in terms of their symbolic meanings. When they are viewed as being highly credible and desirable, they provide an incentive for him to attain them. It should be noted that each kind of image is not viewed in isolation. Perception is a dynamic process, and there is a significant interaction among the different types of images, self-concept, and audience. The Gap retail stores, for instance, are often associated with Levi's apparel in the mind of many consumers.

The kind of behavior described in the model is the basis for the image congruence hypothesis, which states that a consumer tends to select products and stores that correspond to his self-concept. Theoretically, the hypothesis derives some of its support from cognitive dissonance theory. To minimize a dissonance associated with a purchase, the consumer must achieve a consistent self-image by buying the right products from the right manufacturers at the right stores. "The variety of goods available permits more

16

SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE

ways of living than was ever the case. Because of their symbolic nature, consumer goods can be chosen with less conflict or indecision than would otherwise be the case."22

Empirically, several studies covering such consumer products as beer, automobiles, ciga­rettes, bar soap, and toothpaste support the claim of the consistency between product image and self-concept.2,8,10,13,20In one study, 247 coeds were asked to rate themselves and "the kind of girl who would most prefer" to read six magazines or to own seven automobiles.28 The results showed a strong relationship between self-concept and brand preference because the "similarity between self-image and the user image of preferred brands was much greater than the similarity between self-image and user image of nonpreferred brands."

In another study, self-concepts were found to differ significantly between owners of the Volks­wagen 1200-1300 and those of the Pontiac GTO.12

Volkswagen owners rated themselves substan­tially lower than Pontiac owners on such traits as status consciousness, fashionableness, ad-venturousness, interest in the opposite sex, sporti-ness, style consciousness, and pleasure seeking. Overall, self- concepts tend to be similar among owners of the same product brand but will dif­fer across owners of the same product with dif­ferent brands.

Empirical studies indicate that congruence between product image and self-concept is a fairly common phenomenon. This is true regard­less of whether the self-concept is based on how consumers view themselves or whether it is related to the way they would like to be.32 The congruity subsequently affects product prefer­ence, purchase intention, product ownership, product usage, and product loyalty.

In addition to product image and self-concept congruence, several studies also support the contention that the selection of retail stores is significantly influenced by the self-concept. Consumers tend to patronize those stores whose characteristics are seen as congruent with their self-concepts, while staying away from stores that are perceived to be different from their self-perceptions. 24,26,30,34,35

Dimensions of Self-Concept Self-concept is a multidimensional concept.

At least four components have been identified: (1) real self (actual or objective self) —the way a person actually is, (2) self-image (subjective self) —the way a person sees himself, (3) ideal self (self-actualization) —the way he would like to be, and (4) looking-glass self (social self) — the way he thinks others regard him.8 While most people may not consciously make a distinc­tion among these four dimensions, such com­ponents do exist. Alcoholic beverage drinkers, for example, may not be aware of how they are sometimes rated by bartenders.6 The "magnificent seven" in order of tip generosity are those who drink Scotch (a sophisticated and steady drinker and tipper), cognac (a class act with a class tip), bourbon (a good strong drink with a good strong tip), vodka (no games here in what he drinks or tips), rum (a traveler and innovator with money to tip), beer (an old reliable), and wine (an exclusive sip-and- spend clientele). At another extreme are the "stiff seven" or those who drink sours, pink squirrels, grasshoppers, brandy alexanders, sloe gin fizzes, frozen drinks, and highballs. These drinkers are perceived to be inexperienced amateurs at both drinking and tipping.

Learning is a continuous, active pro­cess through which a person determines who he is.

Because of the multiplicity of self-concept, it should be apparent that the way a person actually is can differ significantly from the way he perceives himself and that this actual self in turn can also depart greatly from the way he would like to be or the way others regard him. These varying dimensions can all exist simul­taneously, but they are not mutually exclusive. They usually overlap at least partially, and the

17

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

extent of the overlap will vary from person to person.

Some scholars question the necessity and practicality of making a distinction among the aspects of self-concept. From the marketing standpoint, however, the differentiation can be justified if the person's behavior is affected differently by what he is, what he has been, and what he hopes to be (i.e., his past, present, and future self). Theoretically, since a product may be used as a means to represent his aspiration, if one takes upward mobility into account, ideal self may be the best predictor of buying behavior.17

The self-concept tends to be decision-making process for a par­ticular purchase.

Two studies addressing this issue showed that neither self- image nor ideal self was dominant in predicting brand preferences.8,21 The findings were interpreted by some scholars as evidence of a futile attempt to distinguish the self-concept components. However, the lack of evidence for the superiority of ideal self may be attributed to too crude a classification rather than too fine a distinction. The level of consumers' fantasy may explain why one self-component may or may not be superior to others in predicting purchasing behavior.

One researcher conducted a study38 which, although not dealing directly with the self-concept, provides some insights with regard to the effect of fantasy on self-perception. The study classified consumers as low-, middle-, and high-fantasy people and found that the middle-fantasy group was best in predicting product purchases. The relationship is logical. Low fantasy consumers are satisfied with their situations, and their real self and ideal self should be quite similar. In contrast, high-fantasy people are unhappy with their lives but are not realistic about their chances for improvement; in this case, real self and ideal self are simply too far apart, and ideal self cannot predict product purchases, because the desired products are not attainable. The middle-fantasy group are somewhat dissatisfied with their current self-image and want to do something about the image in a realistic way; it is thus possible that they use products as a means of improving their lifestyle or ideal self accordingly. Unfortunately,

a hypothesis regarding the impact of fantasy level on the extent of overlap of self-components has never been tested.

In conclusion, the term "self-image" is too often used as an all-inclusive term to include all kinds of self-concept. Future studies should explicitly specify which self-component is to be used and should take the extent of fantasy into account. Some studies8,21 confirmed the benefits of differentiation because they show that some purchase intentions are correlated with self-image while others are more related to ideal self. The question then is not whether the distinction is useful, but rather under what circumstances a particular aspect of self-concept is employed by consumers in their buying decisions. Consumers' fantasy level may provide an answer. Therefore, the differences among the varying dimensions of self-concept should be respected.

Perceived Instrumentality and Value Importance

Image congruence can be expected only when brands or stores are associated with the con­sumer's important values.15 As a result, not all products are capable of being tools for self-enhancement, and they must be examined in terms of their relevance and potency. Volkswagen, for instance, may imply thrift, sensibility, and practicality and is thus relevant for saying something about its owner. But these implied traits, instead of attracting buyers, may turn some of them away because they may not express the kind of image desired by these users. This may explain why Japanese cars are able to take away market share from Volkswagen; Japanese imports may imply innovativeness and prestige, which may be meaningful to young urban pro­fessionals, or the so-called yuppies.

The above discussion may explain the difficulty in improving a direct relationship between consumers' perceptions of themselves as inno­vative and their attitude toward small cars. Some studies,18 however, have shown an opposite relationship: consumers seeing themselves as conservative, when compared with their inno­vative counterparts, and expressing a more positive attitude toward small cars. This unex­pected finding may not be so illogical as it might first appear, for two reasons.

First, the small-car product form may simply

18

SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE

imply conservatism rather than an innovative image. Second, not all small cars are alike, and the attitude at the product form level may differ significantly from the more specific attitude at the brand level. Therefore, small cars as a group may be neither relevant nor potent enough as vehicles to deliver the innovative image, whereas imported small cars may be perceived as being more likely to do so.

A consumer tends to select products and stores that correspond to his self-concept.

To determine the relevance and potency of a product, researchers should take both the per­ceived instrumentality and the value importance of each product attribute into consideration. At the onset, it is necessary to investigate whether a particular object is perceived as being capable of helping an individual to attain his desired goal (i.e., image). Next, assuming that this goal can be achieved, it is still important to determine the importance of this goal or value in terms of its ability to provide the satisfaction expected.

The approach just mentioned should be helpful in isolating products that are appropriate for self-enhancement from those that are not. Let us take General Motors cars as an example. While automobiles are highly conspicuous prod­ucts without a doubt, some are more relevant than others in being image makers. A Chevette, designed for a mass market containing all types of people, does not stand for something strong, unique, or definite. A Camaro, on the other hand, has a more definite image, and it is more suitable as an image vehicle. It is thus not surprising that it attracts a disproportionate number of female buyers.

Relatively speaking, a Corvette or a Camaro, specifically designed to appeal to a particular type of buyer, does not have the Chevette's diffused image. Not only is the Corvette capable of making a strong statement (i.e., perceived instrumentality), but also that strong statement appeals to particular groups of people (i.e., value importance) such as those who view themselves as swingers or young-at-heart adventurers. Of course, for the more conservative type, this type of consumer is not interested in the Corvette no matter how instrumental it can be in delivering that image, since it is not their desired image in the first place.

Influence of Intervening Variables The self-concept does not operate in isolation;

other variables can moderate its impact. Price and income, for instance, may explain why image congruence does not always materialize. Some researchers believe that the predictive power of the congruity models is a function of product life cycle, consumer involvement, product utili­tarianism, and product value expressiveness.33

Another important intervening variable which can affect the final outcome is role. "A person's self-image can vary with the particular role being assumed at the moment. The significance of this phenomenon is that the interaction of the person's self-concept and role may exert some influence on his purchasing behavior."25 This point is well illustrated by National's rent-a-car commercial. One young man rents different kinds of cars according to his varying situations and roles. He chooses a Camaro when he has an important date, a big car when his sister-in-law's large family is in town, a Chevette when he visits his folks, and a Cadillac for his class reunion.

In order to counter depersonalization, consumers used branded products to promote their own self-concepts.

Since there is evidence that consumers change their self-image with different situations, it is desirable to determine these situations. One research technique advocates the use of the situational self-image which is the result of a person's repertoire of self-image and percep­tion of others in a specific situation.31 Likewise, a study of role and its impact may also shed some light on why self-concept varies from one situation to another. Finally, it may be useful to study how the influence of such situational variables may vary across products. The self-concept can be useful in the search for a dif­ferential advantage.

Implications for Marketing Practitioners

There are several aspects of the self-concept that marketing practitioners should consider in preparing their strategic plans. The application of the self-concept to marketing should include a consideration of the importance of a distinct

19

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

image, the part that image congruence plays in purchase behavior, and the effect of public and private product image on consumption behavior. Market planners should also be sensitive to the possibility that there may be sometimes erroneous assumptions made regarding the relationship between the consumer's self-concept and the product that image marketers are projecting.

Erroneous Assumptions A marketer should avoid making wrong as­

sumptions about his customers. It is often assumed that the self-concept is created mainly through interactions with other people and that an individual plays only a negligible role in shaping his self-concept. According to these assumptions, the individual is basically passive and simply accepts the ideas of other people. When being marketed to, this consumer is viewed as a puppet which can be easily aroused and controlled by business firms. These unfortunate assumptions often result in advertisements that degrade consumers.

Self-concepts tend to be similar among owners of the same product brand but will differ across owners of the same product with different brands.

According to some researchers, it is time to abandon an advertising style that is "exploitative, debasing, lacking in taste, and insulting to the dignity of man" based on a wrong assumption of a person as "a fundamentally irrational creature, helplessly pushed around on the one hand by guilt, anxiety, self-doubt, and other neurotic self-conceptions,"27 and as the unresisting victim of external stimuli such as products and ads on the other hand. Two products that have been heavily promoted provide good examples of this view. 'Body Odor, the old Lifebuoy ads shouted, and the psychologically insecure and inadequate be­came uncomfortable and apprehensive." In the other advertisement, women were urged to dream "of appearing in public without their blouses— an embarrassment from which a Maidenform Bra stands ready to rescue them with glory." It is interesting to note that Maidenform, after all these years, has finally decided to drop its controversial campaign theme. Apparently, there is a need to revise the advertiser's image of the consumer, because the underlying assump­tions of these advertisements are either in­

valid or negative. The lesson in these adver­tisements is that ads should reflect consumers' self-concepts in a more positive manner.

The Necessity of A Distinct Image Some products, such as salt, sugar, shoelaces,

and other commodity items, by their nature, have no significant meaning to consumers, and any advertising effort to create images for such products are likely to be futile and wasteful. Surprisingly, many products that can be differ­entiated do not have distinct images; Dodge (a division of Chrysler) is a prime example. A "diffused image" may be caused by (1) poor creative advertising, (2) frequent changes in a brand's advertising theme and/ or media pattern, (3) an attempt to be all things to all people, resulting in a constant switch in themes for diverse segments, and (4) a promotional effort to change a strong image, resulting in public confusion. In such cases, "the image is blurry and stands for nothing definite."3

Whenever possible, a strong and distinct image is essential. While manufacturers, products, and/ or stores may be similar, their images are not and can be shaped by marketers. As was demonstrated by the tobacco industry, smokers are self-image buyers. They buy the product not because of tobacco grade but rather because the product conveys an image with which they like to identify. Camel is for one-of-a-kind males, Virginia Slims for women who have "come a long way," and Eve for the feminine type. Marlboro was able to change its original feminine image by using ads featuring the most rugged-looking men and cowboys "who came up the hard way." This unique image of virile men and their he-man lives allows an individual to project himself through the cigarettes he smokes. It is this image that has kept Marlboro on top since 1976, when it replaced Winston, whose image was not as distinct nor strong. The Significance of Image Congruence

Product image can serve to explain why a purchase is not a random process. Because of a consumer's insistence on a differentiated brand, not all brands have an equal preference for being purchased. The consumer wants a product that gives the illusion that it was made exclusively for him, that it matches his personality, and that it responds to his needs.7"Rare indeed is the smoker who will accept any brand. He is emo­tionally attached to 'my brand.' Like a sparrow

20

SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE

fixing a nest, he pieces together various ra­tionalizations which permit him to justify fervently why he smokes 'my brand.'23

A person's self-image can vary with the particular role being assumed at the moment.

A purchase is not likely to take place when there is a lack of congruence between product image and self-concept. Any product information that is inconsistent with the consumer's self-concept is unlikely to gain his attention, accep­tance, and retention. Where incongruence exists and a purchase does take place, the consumer is unlikely to repeat such a purchase. Therefore, it is not enough just to have a distinct image for a product, but it must also be a desirable image which is capable of enhancing the consumer's self-concept. At the same time, the image should be distinctive from those of competitors in order to discourage any product/store switching. As is illustrated by the fragrance industry, while mass fragrances attempt to appeal to a large number of people, they are still positioned with a particular type of woman in mind— e.g., Charlie (independent woman), Enjoli (super woman who is all things to all people), Vanderbilt and Le Jardin (floral romantics), and Epris and Scoundrel (steamy and provocatives). The mission of Whisper or Musk, when compared with Scoun­drel's fantasy and overstatement, seems to be to attract the opposite kind of woman—those who want romance which is based on reality and those whose image of sex is being subtle, sophisticated, sizzling, slow, and sensitive.

A study of consumer perceptions of each brand can be useful in determining whether image congruence is likely. A perceptual map can also be generated for this purpose. In one study, two dimensions of fragrances were studied.19 One dimension identified was a playful realism-dreamy fantasy, and the other dimension was concerned with individual focus on couples. Enjoli, Cachet, and Cie are fragrances which fall under the playful realism/focus on individual category. This particular technique is especially useful because it allows the mapping of "ad images, brand images, and consumer preferences all onto a single map," enabling a firm to monitor its advertising impact on its brand image.

Audience, Visibility, and Public Consumption

There is evidence of the existence of higher congruence between the self-concept and images of socially consumed products in contrast to a lower consistency of congruence that exists be­tween the self-concept and images of privately consumed products such as soap.8,1 The fact that socially desirable products, when compared to those of low social desirability, are seen as being more similar to a person's self-concept is not surprising since the self-concept encourages public consumption. Automobiles and jeans, for example, have high visibility and are often used as a means of upgrading consumers' self-concepts.

Some products such as soap and men's under­wear are not publicly conspicuous or consumed. Consequently, consumers maynotbevery careful in their product selection. To remedy the situa­tion, a marketer should bring his product out into the open in order to create more visibility and image. One commercial by Hanes, for example, shows a well-dressed man on his motorcycle who is waylaid at a stop light by a young woman who unbuttons his shirt just to feel his under­shirt. By the same rationale, Joy makes its liquid detergent for dishes more conspicuous by claim­ing that it can "say something kind of nice about you" and that "your company may just sit up and notice how shiny your dishes are."

It should be noted that social desirability does not apply only to purchase and consumption. The behavior engaged in during the search and before the purchase is also another means of achieving a positive self-concept. This behavior includes the consumer's display of his self-confidence and negotiation skills to impress his "audience." Chivas Regal, long noted for its snob appeal, has one advertisement with a man in his tuxedo rehearsing in front of a mirror in how to order Chivas Regal to please himself and to show himself off to his "audience." The entire copy reads: "Chivas, please...Chivas Regal, please... I'll have a Chivas ...I'll have a Chivas... Chivas-on-the-rocks-please...Let me have a...." This advertisement demonstrates how the im­portance of the audience can be emphasized to the consumer.

21

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

Conclusion It is a misjudgment to assume that a consumer

is interested in a product because of some combination of basic ingredients. Far from this being the case, the consumer is seeking a great deal more: he also wants reputation, prestige, and other meaningful symbols. This need, derived from the desire to enhance himself, can be satisfied only by the social meanings associated with the image of the manufacturer, product, and retailer. A marketer can capitalize on this desire by creating a distinct product image that will fit the consumer's self-concept.

As one of the most fundamental concepts in the social sciences, self-concept offers a mean­ingful perspective to the understanding of consumer decision making. From the marketing standpoint, it is important to determine whether a product is relevant and significant to the self-concept enhancement and, if relevant, whether it expresses the kind of self-concept desired by the consumer. Any incongruence between product image and self-concept may unnecessarily pre­clude potential buyers by failing to motive them properly. A clear understanding of the influence of the self-concept on behavior can result in better marketing control and planning.

ENDNOTES 1. Belch, G. E., and E. L. Landon, Jr., "Discriminant Validity for a Product-Anchored Self-Concept

Measure," Journal of Marketing Research, 14 (May 1977), 252-256. 2. Birdwell, E. A., "Influence of Image Congruence on Consumer Choice." In Reflections on

Progress in Marketing, ed. L. G. Smith. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1964, pp. 290-303.

3. Brink, Edward L., and William T. Kelley, The Management of Promotion: Consumer Behavior and Demand Stimulation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963.

4. Britt, Steuart H., Consumer Behavior and the Behavioral Sciences: Theories and Applications. New York: John Wiley, 1966.

5. Burnkrant, Robert E., and Thomas J. Page, Jr., "On the Management of Self-Images in Social Situations: The Role of Public Self-Consciousness." In Advances in Consumer Research, ed. Andrew Mitchell. Ann Arbor, Mich: Association for Consumer Research, 1982, pg. 452-455.

6. Chicago Tribune,"Rating the Tippers." July 12, 1982. 7. Dichter, Ernest, Handbook of Consumer Motivations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964. 8. Dolich, I. J.,"Congruence Relationships Between Self-Images and Product Brands," Journal of

Marketing Research, 6 (February 1969), 80-84. 9. Douglas, John, George A. Field, and Lawrence X. Tarpey, Human Behavior in Marketing.

Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1967. 10. Grubb, Edward L.,"Consumer Perception of 'Self-Concept' and Its Relation to Brand Choice of

Selected Product Types." In Marketing and Economic Development, ed. P. D. Bennett. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1965, pp. 419-422.

11. and Harrison L. Grathwohl, "Consumer Self-Concept, Symbolism and Market Behavior: A Theoretical Approach," Journal of Marketing, 31 (October 1967), 22-27.

12. ______ and G. Hupp, "Perception of Self, Generalized Stereotypes and Brand Selection," Journal of Marketing Research, 5 (February 1968), 58-63.

13. and Bruce L. Stern, "Self-Concept and Significant Others," Journal of Marketing Research, 8, (August, 1971), 382-385.

14. Guthrie, E. R., The Psychology of Human Conflict. New York: Harper and Row, 1938. 15. Hansen, Flemming, Consumer Choice Behavior. New York: Free Press, 1972.

22

SELF-CONCEPT AND IMAGE CONGRUENCE

16. Hayakawa, S. I., Symbol, Status, and Personality. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1963. 17. Hughes, G. David, and Jose L. Guerrero, "Automobile Self-Congruity Models Re-examined,"

Journal of Marketing Research, 8, (February 1971), 125-127. 18. Jacobsen, Eugene, and Jerome Kossoff, "Self-Concept and Consumer Attitudes Toward Small

Cars," Journal of Applied Psychology, 47 (August 1963), 242-245. 19. Keon, John W., "Copy Testing Ads for Imagery Products," Journal of Advertising Research, 23

(December/ January 1984), 41-48. 20. Kernan, J.B., and M.S. Somers, "Dimensions of Product Perception," Southern Journal of

Business" (April 1967), 94-102. 21. Landon, E. Laird, Jr., "Self-Concept, Ideal Self-Concept and Consumer Purchase Intentions,"

Journal of Consumer Research, 1 (September 1974), 44-51. 22. Levy, Sidney J., "Symbols By Which We Buy." In Advancing Marketing Efficiency, ed. Lynn H.

Stockman. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1959, pp. 409-416. 23. Martineau, Pierre Motivation in Advertising. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957 24. Mason, Joseph B., and Morris L. Mayer, "The Problem of the Self-Concept in Store Studies,"

Journal of Marketing, 34 (April 1970, 67-69. 25. Onkvisit, Sak, and John J. Shaw, "Multiplicity of Roles, Role Conflict Resolution, and Marketing

Implications," Developments in Marketing Science, 3 (May 1984). 26. Rich, S.U., and B.D. Portis, "The "Imageries' of Department Stores," Journal of Marketing, 28

(April 1964), 10-15. 27. Rokeach, Milton, "The Consumer's Changing Image," Transaction, (July 1964), 7ff. 28. Ross, Ivan, "Self-Concept and Brand Preference," Journal of Business, 44 (January 1971),

38-50. 29. Runyon, Kenneth E., Consumer Behavior, 2nd ed. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1980. 30. Samli, A. Coskun, and M. Joseph Sirgy, "A Multi-Dimensional Approach to Analyzing Store

Loyalty: A Predictive Model." In The Changing Marketing Environment: New Theories and Applications, ed. Ken Bernhardt and Bill Kehoe. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1981, pp. 113-116.

31. Schenk, Carolyn T., and Rebecca H. Holman, "A Sociological Approach to Brand Choice: The Concept of Situational Self-image," Advances in Consumer Research, (1980), 610-614. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Association for Consumer Research.

32. Sirgy, M. Joseph, "Self-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review," Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (December 1982), 287-300.

33. and J.S. Johar, "Self-Image Congruence Models Versus Multiattribute Attitude Models: When to use What Model for Product Positioning," AMA Educators' Proceedings.Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1985, pp. 1-5.

34. Stern, Bruce L., Ronald F. Bush, and Joseph F. Hair, Jr., "The Self-image/ Store Image Matching Process," Journal of Business, 50 (January 1977), 63-69.

35. Tillman, Rollie, and C.A. Kirkpatrick, Promotion: Persuasive Communication in Marketing. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1968.

36. Wackman, Daniel E., "Theories of Interpersonal Perception." In Consumer Behavior: Theo­retical Sources, ed. Scott Ward and Thomas S. Robertson. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1973, pp. 200-229.

37. Wall Street Journal, February 29, 1980.

23