Sociology 1

SociologySociology is the study of society.[1] It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—whichuses various methods of empirical investigation[2] and critical analysis[3] to develop and refine a body of knowledgeabout human social activity, often with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of social welfare. Subjectmatter ranges from the micro level of agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and social structures.[4]

Sociology is both topically and methodologically a very broad discipline. Its traditional focuses have included socialstratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularisation, law, and deviance. As all spheres of humanactivity are sculpted by social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to furthersubjects, such as health, military and penal institutions, the Internet, and even the role of social activity in thedevelopment of scientific knowledge.The range of social scientific methods has also broadly expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety ofqualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led toincreasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches to the analysis of society. Conversely, recentdecades have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques, such asagent-based modelling and social network analysis.[5] [6]

History

Origins

Auguste Comte

Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline. Socialanalysis has origins in the common stock of Western knowledge andphilosophy, and has been carried out from at least as early as the time ofPlato. The origin of the survey can be traced back at least early as theDomesday Book in 1086,[7] [8] while ancient philosophers such as Confuciuswrote on the importance of social roles. There is evidence of early sociologyin medieval Islam. Some consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th century Arab Islamicscholar from North Africa, to have been the first sociologist; his Muqaddimahwas perhaps the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning on socialcohesion and social conflict.[9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

The word sociology (or "sociologie") is derived from the Latin: socius,"companion"; -ology, "the study of", and Greek λόγος, lógos, "word","knowledge". It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayistEmmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836) in an unpublished manuscript.[15]

Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher ofscience, Auguste Comte (1798–1857), in 1838.[16] Comte had earlier used the term "social physics", but that hadsubsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comteendeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the scientific understanding of the social realm.Writing shortly after the malaise of the French Revolution, he proposed that social ills could be remedied throughsociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842]and A General View of Positivism (1848). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, afterconjectural theological and metaphysical phases, in the progression of human understanding.[17] In observing thecircular dependence of theory and observation in science, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regardedas the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[18]

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Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the laterdecades of the nineteenth century. To say this is certainly not to claim that French sociologists such asDurkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. But by insisting on the irreducibility of eachof his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences which it presupposed in the hierarchy and byemphasising the nature of sociology as the scientific study of social phenomena Comte put sociology on themap. To be sure, [its] beginnings can be traced back well beyond Comte to Montesquieu, for example, and toCondorcet, not to speak of Saint-Simon, Comte's immediate precessor. But Comte's clear recognition ofsociology as a particular science, with a character of its own, justified Durkheim in regarding him as the fatheror founder of this science, in spite of the fact that Durkheim did not accept the idea of the three states andcriticised Comte's approach to sociology.

– Frederick Copleston A History of Philosophy: IX Modern Philosophy 1974, [19]

Karl Marx

Both Comte and Karl Marx (1818–1883) set out to develop scientificallyjustified systems in the wake of European industrialisation and secularisation,informed by various key movements in the philosophies of history andscience. Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop ascience of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder ofsociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may beregarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone canclaim the title."[20]

To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms tothose theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at thetime, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives withoutcreating obviously articifial links between the two, was the principle

achievement of Marx's theory ... The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comteand after him, Spencer and Taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only whenthe attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence morezealous and the attention to method more intense.

– Isaiah Berlin Karl Marx: His Life and Environment 1937, [21]

Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was one of the mostpopular and influential 19th century sociologists. It is estimated that he soldone million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at thetime. So strong was his influence that many other 19th century thinkers,including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’sDivision of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate withSpencer from whose sociology, many commentators now agree, Durkheimborrowed extensively.[22] Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term"survival of the fittest". Whilst Marxian ideas defined one strand ofsociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism as well as strong advocate for alassiez-faire style of government. His ideas were highly observed byconservative political circles, especially in the United States and England.[23]

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Foundations of the academic discipline

Émile Durkheim

Formal academic sociology was established by Émile Durkheim(1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical socialresearch. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at theUniversity of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the SociologicalMethod.[24] In 1896, he established the journal L'Année Sociologique.[24]

Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide ratesamongst Roman Catholic, Jewish and Protestant populations, distinguishedsociological analysis from psychology or philosophy. It also marked a majorcontribution to the theoretical concept of structural functionalism. Heendeavoured to apply sociological findings in the pursuit of political reformand social solidarity. For Durkheim, sociology could be described as the"science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning".[25]

The first college course entitled "Sociology" was taught in the United Statesat Yale in 1875 by William Graham Sumner.[26] In 1883 Lester F. Ward, thefirst president of the American Sociological Association, published Dynamic

Sociology—Or Applied social science as based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences and attackedthe laissez-faire sociology of Herbert Spencer and Sumner.[23] Ward's 1200 page book was used as core material inmany early American sociology courses. In 1890, the oldest continuing American course in the modern traditionbegan at the University of Kansas, lectured by Frank W. Blackmar.[27] The Department of Sociology at theUniversity of Chicago was established in 1892 by Albion Small.[28] George Herbert Mead and Charles Cooley, whohad met at the University of Michigan in 1891 (along with John Dewey), would move to Chicago in 1894.[29] Theirinfluence gave rise to social psychology and the symbolic interactionism of the modern Chicago School.[30] TheAmerican Journal of Sociology was founded in 1895, followed by the American Sociological Association (ASA) in1905.[28] The sociological "canon of classics" with Durkheim and Max Weber at the top owes in part to TalcottParsons, who is largely credited with introducing both to American audiences.[31] Parsons consolidated thesociological tradition and set the agenda for American sociology at the point of its fastest disciplinary growth.Sociology in the United States was less historically influenced by Marxism than its European counterpart, and to thisday broadly remains more statistical in its approach.[32]

Ferdinand Tönnies bust in Husum,Germany

The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom wasat the London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the BritishJournal of Sociology) in 1904.[33] Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse became alecturer in the discipline at the University of London in 1907.[34] In 1909 theDeutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (German Sociological Association) wasfounded by Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber, among others. Weberestablished the first department in Germany at the Ludwig MaximilianUniversity of Munich in 1919, having presented an influential newantipositivist sociology.[35] In 1920, Florian Znaniecki set up the firstdepartment in Poland. The Institute for Social Research at the University ofFrankfurt (later to become the Frankfurt School of critical theory) wasfounded in 1923.[36] International co-operation in sociology began in 1893,when René Worms founded the Institut International de Sociologie, aninstitution later eclipsed by the much larger International SociologicalAssociation (ISA), founded in 1949.[37]

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Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization,secularization, and a perceived process of enveloping rationalization.[38] The field predominated in continentalEurope, with British anthropology and statistics generally following on a separate trajectory. By the turn of the 20thcentury, however, many theorists were active in the Anglo-Saxon world. Few early sociologists were confinedstrictly to the subject, interacting also with economics, jurisprudence, psychology and philosophy, with theoriesbeing appropriated in a variety of different fields. Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, andframes of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.[4]

Durkheim, Marx and Weber are typically cited as the three principal architects of social science.[39] Herbert Spencer,William Graham Sumner, Lester F. Ward, Vilfredo Pareto, Alexis de Tocqueville, Werner Sombart, ThorsteinVeblen, Ferdinand Tönnies, Georg Simmel and Karl Mannheim are occasionally included on academic curricula asfounding theorists. Harriet Martineau, an English translator of Comte, has been cited as the first femalesociologist.[40] Each key figure is associated with a particular theoretical perspective and orientation.[41]

Marx and Engels associated the emergence of modern society above all with the development of capitalism;for Durkheim it was connected in particular with industrialization and the new social division of labour whichthis brought about; for Weber it had to do with the emergence of a distinctive way of thinking, the rationalcalculation which he associated with the Protestant Ethic (more or less what Marx and Engels speak of interms of those 'icy waves of egotistical calculation'). Together the works of these great classical sociologistssuggest what Giddens has recently described as 'a multidimensional view of institutions of modernity' andwhich emphasizes not only capitalism and industrialism as key institutions of modernity, but also 'surveillance'(meaning 'control of information and social supervision') and 'military power' (control of the means of violencein the context of the industrialization of war).

– John Harriss The Second Great Transformation? Capitalism at the End of the Twentieth Century 1992, [41]

Positivism and anti-positivism

PositivismThe overarching methodological principle of positivism is to conduct sociology in broadly the same manner asnatural science. An emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method is sought to provide a tested foundation forsociological research, based on the assumption that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and thatsuch knowledge can only arrive by positive affirmation through scientific methodology.

"Our main goal is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct... What has been called our positivism isbut a consequence of this rationalism."

– Émile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), [42]

In the original Comtean usage, "positivism" roughly meant the use of scientific methods to uncover the lawsaccording to which both physical and human events occur, while "sociology" was the overarching science that wouldsynthesize all such knowledge for the betterment of society:

"The most important thing to determine was the natural order in which the sciences stand — not how they can be made to stand, but how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes of any one....This Comte accomplished by taking as the criterion of the position of each the degree of what he called "positivity," which is simply the degree to which the phenomena can be exactly determined. This, as may be readily seen, is also a measure of their relative complexity, since the exactness of a science is in inverse proportion to its complexity. The degree of exactness or positivity is, moreover, that to which it can be subjected to mathematical demonstration, and therefore mathematics, which is not itself a concrete science, is the general gauge by which the position of every science is to be determined. Generalizing thus, Comte found that there were five great groups of phenomena of equal classificatory value but of successively decreasing positivity. To these he gave the names

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astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology."– Lester F. Ward, The Outlines of Sociology (1898), [42]

The term has long since ceased to carry this meaning; there are no fewer than twelve distinct epistemologies that arereferred to as positivism.[43] [44] Many of these approaches do not self-identify as "positivist", some because theythemselves arose in opposition to older forms of positivism, and some because the label has over time become a termof abuse[43] by being mistakenly linked with atheoretical empiricism. The extent of antipositivist criticism has alsodiverged, with many rejecting the scientifically driven social epistemology and others only seeking to amend it toreflect 20th century developments in the philosophy of science. However, positivism (broadly understood as ascientific approach to the study of society) remains dominant in contemporary sociology, especially in the UnitedStates.[43]

Loic Wacquant distinguishes three major strains of positivism: Durkheimian, Logical and Instrumental.[43] None ofthese are the same as that set forth by Comte, who was unique amongst sociologists in advocating a formulation withsuch a restrictive epistemology and grandiose teleology.[45] [46] While Émile Durkheim rejected much of the detail ofComte's philosophy, he retained and refined its method. Durkheim maintained that the social sciences are a logicalcontinuation of the natural ones into the realm of human activity, and insisted that they should retain the sameobjectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality.[43] He developed the notion of objective suis generis "socialfacts" to delineate a unique empirical object for the science of sociology to study.[43]

The variety of positivism that remains dominant today is termed instrumental positivism. This approach eschewsepistemological and metaphysical concerns (such as the nature of social facts) in favor of methodological debatesconcerning clarity, replicability, reliability and validity.[47] This positivism is more or less synonymous withquantitative research, and thus only resembles older positivist stances in practice: since it carries no explicitphilosophical commitment, its practitioners may have any of a variety of viewpoints, including postpositivism andantipositivism. The institutionalization of this kind of sociology is often credited to Paul Lazarsfeld,[43] whopioneered large-scale survey studies and developed statistical techniques for analyzing them. This approach lendsitself to what Robert K. Merton called middle-range theory: abstract statements that generalize from segregatedhypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a social whole.[48]

AntipositivismReactions against social empiricism began when German philosopher Hegel voiced opposition to both empiricism,which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic.[49] Karl Marx'smethodology borrowed from Hegelian dialecticism but also a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis,seeking to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions.[50] He maintained thatappearances need to be critiqued rather than simply documented. Early hermeneuticians such as Wilhelm Diltheypioneered the distinction between natural and social science ('Geisteswissenschaft'). Various neo-Kantianphilosophers, phenomenologists and human scientists further theorized how the analysis of the social world differs tothat of the natural world due to the irreducibly complex aspects of human society, culture, and being.[51]

At the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists formally introduced methodologicalantipositivism, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and socialprocesses viewed from a resolutely subjective perspective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be looselydescribed as a science as it is able to identify causal relationships of human "social action"—especially among "idealtypes", or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena.[52] As a nonpositivist, however, Weber soughtrelationships that are not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable"[53] as those pursued by natural scientists. FellowGerman sociologist, Ferdinand Tönnies, theorized on two crucial abstract concepts with his work on "Gemeinschaftand Gesellschaft" (lit. community and society). Tönnies marked a sharp line between the realm of concepts and thereality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ("pure sociology"), whereas thesecond empirically and inductively ("applied sociology").[54]

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[Sociology is ] ... the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of socialaction and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the actionproceeds and the effects which it produces. By 'action' in this definition is meantthe human behaviour when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it assubjectively meaningful ... the meaning to which we refer may be either (a) themeaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particularhistorical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in agiven set of cases, or (b) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents, as types,in a pure type constructed in the abstract. In neither case is the 'meaning' to bethought of as somehow objectively 'correct' or 'true' by some metaphysicalcriterion. This is the difference between the empirical sciences of action, such

as sociology and history, and any kind of priori discipline, such as jurisprudence, logic, ethics, or aestheticswhose aim is to extract from their subject-matter 'correct' or 'valid' meaning.

– Max Weber The Nature of Social Action 1922, [55]

Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the "Verstehen" (or 'interpretative') method in social science; a systematicprocess by which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on theirown terms and from their own point-of-view.[56] Through the work of Simmel, in particular, sociology acquired apossible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. Relativelyisolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses ofmodernity more reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential writers than of Comte or Durkheim, payingparticular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality.[57] His sociology engaged in aneo-Kantian enquiry into the limits of perception, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question'What is nature?'[58]

The deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual tomaintain the independence and individuality of his existence against thesovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage and theexternal culture and technique of life. The antagonism represents the mostmodern form of the conflict which primitive man must carry on with nature forhis own bodily existence. The eighteenth century may have called for liberationfrom all the ties which grew up historically in politics, in religion, in morality andin economics in order to permit the original natural virtue of man, which is equalin everyone, to develop without inhibition; the nineteenth century may havesought to promote, in addition to man's freedom, his individuality (which is

connected with the division of labor) and his achievements which make him unique and indispensable butwhich at the same time make him so much the more dependent on the complementary activity of others;Nietzsche may have seen the relentless struggle of the individual as the prerequisite for his full development,while socialism found the same thing in the suppression of all competition – but in each of these the samefundamental motive was at work, namely the resistance of the individual to being levelled, swallowed up inthe social-technological mechanism.

– Georg Simmel The Metropolis and Mental Life 1903, [59]

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Theoretical frameworks

Functionalism

Talcott Parsons

A broad paradigm in both sociology and anthropology, functionalismaddresses the social structure as a whole and in terms of the necessaryfunction of its constituent elements. A common analogy (popularized byHerbert Spencer) is to regard norms and institutions as 'organs' that worktoward the proper-functioning of the entire 'body' of society.[60] Theperspective was implicit in the original sociological positivism of Comte, butwas theorized in full by Durkheim, again with respect to observable,structural laws. Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the workof theorists such as Marcel Mauss, Bronisław Malinowski andRadcliffe-Brown. It is in Radcliffe-Brown's specific usage that the prefix'structural' emerged.[61] Classical functionalist theory is generally united byits tendency towards biological analogy and notions of social evolutionism.As Giddens states: "Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, has lookedparticularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and mostcompatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide aguide to conceptualizing the structure and the function of social systems andto analysing processes of evolution via mechanisms of adaptation ... functionalism strongly emphasises thepre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects)."[62]

Conflict theoryFunctionalism aims only toward a general perspective from which to conduct social science. Methodologically, itsprinciples generally contrast those approaches that emphasise the "micro", such as interpretivism or symbolicinteractionism. Its emphasis on "cohesive systems", however, also holds political ramifications. Functionalisttheories are often therefore contrasted with "conflict theories" which critique the overarching socio-political systemor emphasize the inequality of particular groups. The works of Durkheim and Marx epitomize the political, as wellas theoretical, disparities, between functionalist and conflict thought respectively:

To aim for a civilization beyond that made possible by the nexus of the surrounding environment will result inunloosing sickness into the very society we live in. Collective activity cannot be encouraged beyond the pointset by the condition of the social organism without undermining health.

– Émile Durkheim The Division of Labor in Society 1893, [63]

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician andplebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constantopposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each timeended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contendingclasses.

– Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto 1848, [64]

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Contemporary social theory

Anthony Giddens

The functionalist movement reached its crescendo in the 1940s and 1950s, and by the1960s was in rapid decline.[65] By the 1980s, functionalism in Europe had broadlybeen replaced by conflict-oriented approaches.[66] While some of the criticalapproaches also gained popularity in the United States, the mainstream of thediscipline instead shifted to a variety of empirically-oriented middle-range theorieswith no overarching theoretical orientation. To many in the discipline, functionalismis now considered "as dead as a dodo."[67]

As the influence of both functionalism and Marxism in the 1960s began to wane, thelinguistic and cultural turns led to myriad new movements in the social sciences:"According to Giddens, the orthodox consensus terminated in the late 1960s and1970s as the middle ground shared by otherwise competing perspectives gave wayand was replaced by a baffling variety of competing perspectives. This third 'generation' of social theory includesphenomenologically inspired approaches, critical theory, ethnomethodology, symbolic interactionism, structuralism,post-structuralism, and theories written in the tradition of hermeneutics and ordinary language philosophy."[68]

The structuralist movement originated from the linguistic theory of Ferdinand de Saussure and was later expanded tothe social sciences by theorists such Claude Lévi-Strauss. In this context, 'structure' refers not to 'social structure' butto the semiotic understanding of human culture as a system of signs. One may delineate four central tenets ofstructuralism: First, structure is what determines the position of each element of a whole. Second, structuralistsbelieve that every system has a structure. Third, structuralists are interested in 'structural' laws that deal withcoexistence rather than changes. Finally, structures are the 'real things' beneath the surface or the appearance ofmeaning.[69] Post-structuralist thought has tended to reject 'humanist' assumptions in the conduct of social theory.[70]

Michel Foucault provides a potent critique in his archaeology of the human sciences, though Habermas and Rortyhave both argued that Foucault merely replaces one such system of thought with another.[71] [72] The dialoguebetween these intellectuals highlights a trend in recent years for certain schools of sociology and philosophy tointersect. The anti-humanist position has been associated with "postmodernism"; a term used in specific contexts todescribe an era or phenomena, but occasionally construed as a method.

Structure and agencyStructure and agency forms an enduring ontological debate in social theory: "Do social structures determine anindividual's behaviour or does human agency?" In this context 'agency' refers to the capacity of individuals to actindependently and make free choices, whereas 'structure' refers to factors which limit or affect the choices andactions of individuals (such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, and so on). Discussions over the primacy ofeither structure and agency relate to the core of sociological epistemology ("What is the social world made of?","What is a cause in the social world, and what is an effect?").[73] A general outcome of incredulity toward structuralor agential thought has been the development of multidimensional theories, most notably the action theory of TalcottParsons and Anthony Giddens's theory of structuration.

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Research methodology

Paul Lazarsfeld has been called the "founderof modern empirical sociology"[74] for his

numerous contributions to methodology

Sociological research methods may be divided into two broad categories:• Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable

evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or acrossintentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid andreliable general claims

• Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomenathrough direct observation, communication with participants, or analysisof texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy overgenerality

Sociologists are divided into camps of support for particular researchtechniques. These disputes relate to the epistemological debates at thehistorical core of social theory. While very different in many aspects, bothqualitative and quantitative approaches involve a systematic interactionbetween theory and data.[75] Quantitative methodologies hold the dominantposition in sociology, especially in the United States.[43] In the discipline'stwo most cited journals, quantitative articles have historically outnumberedqualitative ones by a factor of two.[76] (Most articles published in the largest British journal, on the other hand, arequalitative.) Most textbooks on the methodology of social research are written from the quantitative perspective,[77]

and the very term "methodology" is often used synonymously with "statistics." Practically all sociology PhDprogram in the United States require training in statistical methods. The work produced by quantitative researchers isalso deemed more 'trustworthy' and 'unbiased' by the greater public,[78] though this judgment continues to bechallenged by antipositivists.[78]

The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher intends to investigate. For example, a researcherconcerned with drawing a statistical generalization across an entire population may administer a surveyquestionnaire to a representitive sample population. By contrast, a researcher who seeks full contextualunderstanding of an individuals' social actions may choose ethnographic participant observation or open-endedinterviews. Studies will commonly combine, or 'triangulate', quantitative and qualitative methods as part of a'multi-strategy' design. For instance, a quantitative study may be performed to gain statistical patterns or a targetsample, and then combined with a qualitative interview to determine the play of agency.[75]

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Sampling

The bean machine, designed by early social researchmethodologist Sir Francis Galton to demonstrate the

normal distribution, which is important to muchquantitative hypothesis testing.

Quantitative methods are often used to ask questions about apopulation that is very large, making a census or a completeenumeration of all the members in that population infeasible. A'sample' then forms a manageable subset of a population. Inquantitative research, statistics are used to draw inferences fromthis sample regarding the population as a whole. The process ofselecting a sample is referred to as 'sampling'. While it is usuallybest to sample randomly, concern with differences betweenspecific subpopulations sometimes calls for stratified sampling.Conversely, the impossibility of random sampling sometimesnecessitates nonprobability sampling, such as conveniencesampling or snowball sampling.[75]

Methods

The following list of research methods is neither exclusive nor exhaustive:

• Archival research or the Historical method: draws upon the secondary data located in historical archives andrecords, such as biographies, memoirs, journals, and so on.

• Content analysis: The content of interviews and other texts is systematically analysed. Often data is 'coded' as apart of the 'grounded theory' approach using qualitative data analysis (QDA) software, such as NVivo.[79]

• Experimental research: The researcher isolates a single social process and reproduces it in a laboratory (forexample, by creating a situation where unconscious sexist judgments are possible), seeking to determine whetheror not certain social variables can cause, or depend upon, other variables (for instance, seeing if people's feelingsabout traditional gender roles can be manipulated by the activation of contrasting gender stereotypes).[80]

Participants are randomly assigned to different groups which either serve as controls—acting as reference pointsbecause they are tested with regard to the dependent variable, albeit without having been exposed to anyindependent variables of interest—or receive one or more treatments. Randomization allows the researcher to besure that any resulting differences between groups are the result of the treatment.

• Survey research: The researcher gathers data using interviews, questionnaires, or similar feedback from a set ofpeople sampled from a particular population of interest. Survey items from an interview or questionnaire may beopen-ended or closed-ended. Data from surveys is usually analyzed statistically on a computer.

• Longitudinal study: An extensive examination of a specific person or group over a long period of time.• Observation: Using data from the senses, the researcher records information about social phenomenon or

behavior. Observation techniques may or may not feature participation. In participant observation, the researchergoes into the field (such as a community or a place of work), and participates in the activities of the field for aprolonged period of time in order acquire a deep understanding of it. Data acquired through these techniques maybe analyzed either quantitatively or qualitatively.

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Computational sociology

A social network diagram consisting of individuals (or'nodes') connected by one or more specific types of

interdependency.

Sociologists increasingly draw upon computationally intensivemethods to analyze and model social phenomena.[81] Usingcomputer simulations, artificial intelligence, complex statisticalmethods, and new analytic approaches like social networkanalysis, computational sociology develops and tests theories ofcomplex social processes through bottom-up modeling of socialinteractions.[82] Although the subject matter and methodologies insocial science differ from those in natural science or computerscience, several of the approaches used in contemporary socialsimulation originated from fields such as physics and artificialintelligence.[83] [84] By the same token, some of the approachesthat originated in computational sociology have been importedinto the natural sciences, such as measures of network centralityfrom the fields of social network analysis and network science. Inrelevant literature, computational sociology is often related to thestudy of social complexity.[85] Social complexity concepts such ascomplex systems, non-linear interconnection among macro andmicro process, and emergence, have entered the vocabulary ofcomputational sociology.[86] A practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model inthe form of an "artificial society", by which researchers can analyze the structure of a social system.[87] [88]

Practical applications of social researchSocial research informs politicians and policy makers, educators, planners, lawmakers, administrators, developers,business magnates, managers, social workers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit organizations, and peopleinterested in resolving social issues in general. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research,market research, and other statistical fields.

Scope and topics

Culture

Max Horkheimer (left, front), Theodor Adorno(right, front), and Jürgen Habermas (right, back)

1965.

For Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals throughthe agency of external forms which have been objectified in the courseof history".[57] Whilst early theorists such as Durkheim and Mausswere influential in cultural anthropology, sociologists of culture aregenerally distinguished by their concern for modern (rather thanprimitive or ancient) society. Cultural sociology is seldom empirical,preferring instead the hermeneutic analysis of words, artefacts andsymbols. The field is closely allied with critical theory in the vein ofTheodor W. Adorno, Walter Benjamin, and other members of theFrankfurt School. Loosely distinct to sociology is the field of culturalstudies. Birmingham School theorists such as Richard Hoggart andStuart Hall questioned the division between "producers" and

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"consumers" evident in earlier theory, emphasizing the reciprocity in the production of texts. Cultural Studies aims toexamine its subject matter in terms of cultural practices and their relation to power. For example, a study of asubculture (such as white working class youth in London) would consider the social practices of the group as theyrelate to the dominant class. The "cultural turn" of the 1960s ushered in structuralist and so-called postmodernapproaches to social science.

Criminality, deviance, law and punishmentCriminologists analyse the nature, causes, and control of criminal activity, drawing upon methods across sociology,psychology, and the behavioural sciences. The sociology of deviance focuses on actions or behaviors that violatenorms, including both formally enacted rules (e.g., crime) and informal violations of cultural norms. It is the remit ofsociologists to study why these norms exist; how they change over time; and how they are enforced. The concept ofdeviance is central in contemporary structural functionalism and systems theory. Robert K. Merton produced atypology of deviance, and also established the terms "role model", "unintended consequences", and "self-fulfillingprophecy".[89]

The study of law played a significant role in the formation of classical sociology. Durkheim famously described lawas the "visible symbol" of social solidarity.[90] The sociology of law refers to both a sub-discipline of sociology andan approach within the field of legal studies. Sociology of law is a diverse field of study which examines theinteraction of law with other aspects of society, such as the development of legal institutions and the effect of lawson social change and visa versa. For example, an influential recent work in the field relies on statistical analyses toargue that the increase in incarceration in the US over the last 30 years is due to changes in law and policing and notto an increase in crime; and that this increase significantly contributes to maintaining racial stratification.[91]

Economic sociologyThe term "economic sociology" was first used by William Stanley Jevons in 1879, later to be coined in the works ofDurkheim, Weber and Simmel between 1890 and 1920.[92] Economic sociology arose as a new approach to theanalysis of economic phenomena, emphasising class relations and modernity as a philosophical concept. Therelationship between capitalism and modernity is a salient issue, perhaps best demonstrated in Weber's TheProtestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) and Simmel's The Philosophy of Money (1900). Thecontemporary period of economic sociology, also known as new economic sociology, was consolidated by the 1985work of Mark Granovetter titled "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness". This workelaborated the concept of embeddedness, which states that economic relations between individuals or firms takeplace within existing social relations (and are thus structured by these relations as well as the greater social structuresof which those relations are a part). Social network analysis has been the primary methodology for studying thisphenomenon. Granovetter's theory of the strength of weak ties and Ronald Burt's concept of structural holes are twobest known theoretical contributions of this field.

EnvironmentEnvironmental sociology is the study of societal-environmental interactions, typically placing emphasis on the socialfactors that cause environmental problems, the impacts of these problems on society, and the efforts to resolve them.Attention is also paid to the processes by which environmental conditions become defined and known to a society.

EducationThe sociology of education is the study of how educational institutions determine social structures, experiences, and other outcomes. It is particularly concerned with the schooling systems of modern industrial societies.[93] A classic 1966 study in this field by James Coleman, known as the "Coleman Report", analyzed the performance of over 150,000 students and found that student background and socioeconomic status are much more important in

Sociology 13

determining educational outcomes than are measured differences in school resources (i.e. per pupil spending).[94]

The controversy over "school effects" ignited by that study has continued to this day. The study also found thatsocially disadvantaged black students profited from schooling in racially mixed classrooms, and thus served as acatalyst for desegregation busing in American public schools.

Family, gender, and sexuality

"Rosie the Riveter" was an iconic symbol of theAmerican homefront and a departure from gender roles

due to wartime necessity.

Family, gender and sexuality form a broad area of inquiry studiedin many subfields of sociology. The sociology of the familyexamines the family, as an institution and unit of socialisation,with special concern for the comparatively modern historicalemergence of the nuclear family and its distinct gender roles. Thenotion of "childhood" is also significant. As one of the more basicinstitutions to which one may apply sociological perspectives, thesociology of the family is a common component on introductoryacademic curricula. Feminist sociology, on the other hand, is anormative subfield that observes and critiques the culturalcategories of gender and sexuality, particularly with respect topower and inequality. The primary concern of feminist theory isthe patriarchy and the systematic oppression of women apparent inmany societies, both at the level of small-scale interaction and interms of the broader social structure. Social psychology of gender, on the other hand, uses experimental methods touncover the microprocesses of gender stratification. For example, one recent study has shown that resume evaluatorspenalize women for motherhood while giving a boost to men for fatherhood.[95] Another set of experiments showedthat men whose sexuality is threatened compensate by expressing a greater desire for military intervention and sportutility vehicles as well as a greater opposition to gay marriage.[96]

Health and illnessThe sociology of health and illness focuses on the social effects of, and public attitudes toward, illnesses, diseases,disabilities and the ageing process. Medical sociology, by contrast, focuses on the inner-workings of medicalorganizations and clinical institutions. In Britain, sociology was introduced into the medical curriculum followingthe Goodenough Report (1944).[97]

InternetThe Internet is of interest to sociologists in various ways; most practically as a tool for research and as a discussionplatform.[98] The sociology of the Internet in the broad sense regards the analysis of online communities (e.g.newsgroups, social networking sites) and virtual worlds. Online communities may be studied statistically throughnetwork analysis or interpreted qualitatively through virtual ethnography. Organizational change is catalysed throughnew media, thereby influencing social change at-large, perhaps forming the framework for a transformation from anindustrial to an informational society. One notable text is Manuel Castells' The Internet Galaxy—the title of whichforms an intertextual reference to Marshall McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy.[99]

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Knowledge and scienceThe sociology of knowledge is the study of the relationship between human thought and the social context withinwhich it arises, and of the effects prevailing ideas have on societies. The term first came into widespread use in the1920s, when a number of German-speaking theorists, most notably Max Scheler, and Karl Mannheim, wroteextensively on it. With the dominance of functionalism through the middle years of the 20th century, the sociologyof knowledge tended to remain on the periphery of mainstream sociological thought. It was largely reinvented andapplied much more closely to everyday life in the 1960s, particularly by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann inThe Social Construction of Reality (1966) and is still central for methods dealing with qualitative understanding ofhuman society (compare socially constructed reality). The "archaeological" and "genealogical" studies of MichelFoucault are of considerable contemporary influence.The sociology of science involves the study of science as a social activity, especially dealing "with the socialconditions and effects of science, and with the social structures and processes of scientific activity."[100] Importanttheorists in the sociology of science include Robert K. Merton and Bruno Latour. These branches of sociology havecontributed to the formation of science and technology studies.

MediaAs with cultural studies, media studies is a distinct discipline which owes to the convergence of sociology and othersocial sciences and humanities, in particular, literary criticism and critical theory. Though the production process orthe critique of aesthetic forms is not in the remit of sociologists, analyses of socialising factors, such as ideologicaleffects and audience reception, stem from sociological theory and method. Thus the 'sociology of the media' is not asubdiscipline per se, but the media is a common and often-indespensible topic.

MilitaryMilitary sociology aims toward the systematic study of the military as a social group rather than as an organization.It is a highly specialized subfield which examines issues related to service personnel as a distinct group with coercedcollective action based on shared interests linked to survival in vocation and combat, with purposes and values thatare more defined and narrow than within civil society. Military sociology also concerns civilian-military relationsand interactions between other groups or governmental agencies. Topics include the dominant assumptions held bythose in the military, changes in military members' willingness to fight, military unionization, militaryprofessionalism, the increased utilization of women, the military industrial-academic complex, the military'sdependence on research, and the institutional and organizational structure of military.[101]

Political sociology

Jürgen Habermas

Political sociology is the study of the relations between politicalorganization and society.[102] A typical research question in this areamight be: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?"[103]

Questions of political opinion formation brought about some of thepioneering uses of statistical survey research by Paul Lazarsfeld. Amajor subfield of political sociolgy draws on comparative history toanalyze socio-political trends. The field developed from the work ofMax Weber and Moisey Ostrogorsky,[104] whilst contemporarytheorists include Robert A. Dahl, Seymour Martin Lipset, ThedaSkocpol, Luc Boltanski and Nicos Poulantzas.

Some of the main areas of research focus in contemporary political sociology are : (1) The socio-political formation of the modern state; (2) "Who rules"? How social inequality between groups (class, race, gender, etc.) influences

Sociology 15

politics. (3) How public personalities, social movements and trends outside of the formal institutions of politicalpower affect politics, and (4) Power relationships within and between social groups (e.g. families, workplaces,bureaucracy, media, etc).[102]

Race and ethnic relationsThe sociology of race and of ethnic relations is the area of the discipline that studies the social, political, andeconomic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels of society. This area encompasses the study of racism,residential segregation, and other complex social processes between different racial and ethnic groups. This researchfrequently interacts with other areas of sociology such as stratification and social psychology, as well as withpostcolonial theory. At the level of political policy, ethnic relations is discussed in terms of either assimilationism ormulticulturalism. Anti-racism forms another style of policy, particularly popular in the 1960s and 70s.

ReligionThe sociology of religion concerns the practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and rolesof religion in society.[105] There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughoutrecorded history. The sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that sociologists donot set out to assess the validity of religious truth-claims, instead assuming what Peter L. Berger has described as aposition of "methodological atheism".[106] It may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology began withthe analysis of religion in Durkheim's 1897 study of suicide rates amongst Roman Catholic and Protestantpopulations. Max Weber published four major texts on religion in a context of economic sociology and hisrationalization thesis: The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), The Religion of China: Confucianismand Taoism (1915), The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (1915), and Ancient Judaism(1920). Contemporary debates often centre on topics such as secularisation, civil religion, and the role of religion ina context of globalisation and multiculturalism.

Social networks

Harrison White

A social network is a social structure composed of individuals (ororganizations) called "nodes", which are tied (connected) by one or morespecific types of interdependency, such as friendship, kinship, financialexchange, dislike, sexual relationships, or relationships of beliefs, knowledgeor prestige. Social networks operate on many levels, from families up to thelevel of nations, and play a critical role in determining the way problems aresolved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed inachieving their goals. Social network analysis makes no assumption thatgroups are the building blocks of society: the approach is open to studyingless-bounded social systems, from nonlocal communities to networks ofexchange. Rather than treating individuals (persons, organizations, states) asdiscrete units of analysis, it focuses on how the structure of ties affectsindividuals and their relationships. In contrast to analyses that assume thatsocialization into norms determines behavior, network analysis looks to seethe extent to which the structure and composition of ties affect norms. Unlikemost other areas of sociology, social network theory is usually defined in formal mathematics.

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Social psychologySociological social psychology focuses on micro-scale social actions. This area may be described as adhering to"sociological miniaturism", examining whole societies through the study of individual thoughts and emotions as wellas behavior of small groups.[107] Of special concern to psychological sociologists is how to explain a variety ofdemographic, social, and cultural facts in terms of human social interaction. Some of the major topics in this field aresocial inequality, group dynamics, prejudice, aggression, social perception, group behavior, social change, nonverbalbehavior, socialization, conformity, leadership, and social identity. Social psychology may be taught withpsychological emphasis.[108] In sociology, researchers in this field are the most prominent users of the experimentalmethod (however, unlike their psychological counterparts, they also frequently employ other methodologies). Socialpsychology looks at social influences, as well as social perception and social interaction.[108]

StratificationSocial stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes, and divisions within asociety. In modern Western societies stratification traditionally relates to cultural and economic classes comprisingof three main layers: upper class, middle class, and lower class, but each class may be further subdivided into smallerclasses (e.g. occupational).[109] Social stratification is interpreted in radically different ways within sociology.Proponents of structural functionalism suggest that, since the stratification of classes and castes is evident in allsocieties, hierarchy must be beneficial in stabilizing their existence. Conflict theorists, by contrast, critique theinaccessibility of resources and lack of social mobility in stratified societies.Karl Marx distinguished social classes by their connection to the means of production in the capitalist system: thebourgeoisie own the means, but this effectively includes the proletariat itself as the workers can only sell their ownlabour power (forming the material base of the cultural superstructure). Max Weber critiqued Marxist economicdeterminism, arguing that social stratification is not based purely on economic inequalities, but on other status andpower differentials (e.g. patriarchy). According to Weber, stratification may occur amongst at least three complexvariables: (1) Property (class), (2) Prestige (status), and (3) Power (political party). Pierre Bourdieu provides amodern example in the concepts of cultural and symbolic capital. Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf have noted thetendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies, particularly in relation to the necessity of aneducated work force in technological or service-based economies.[110] Perspectives concerning globalization, such asdependency theory, suggest this effect owes to the shift of workers to the Third World.[111]

Urban and rural sociologyUrban sociology involves the analysis of social life and human interaction in metropolitan areas. It is a normativediscipline, seeking to provide advice for planning and policy making. After the industrial revolution, works such asGeorg Simmel's The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903) focused on urbanization and the effect it had on alienationand anonymity. In the 1920s and 1930s The Chicago School produced a major body of theory on the nature of thecity, important to both urban sociology and criminology, utilising symbolic interactionism as a method of fieldresearch. Contemporary research is commonly placed in a context of globalization, for instance, in Saskia Sassen'sstudy of the "Global city".[112] Rural sociology, by contrast, is the analysis of non-metropolitan areas.

Work and industryThe sociology of work, or industrial sociology, examines "the direction and implications of trends in technologicalchange, globalization, labour markets, work organization, managerial practices and employment relations to theextent to which these trends are intimately related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to thechanging experiences of individuals and families the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their owncontributions to the patterning of work and shaping of work institutions."[113]

Sociology 17

Sociology and the other academic disciplinesSociology overlaps with a variety of disciplines that study society, in particular anthropology, political science,economics, and social philosophy. Many comparatively new fields such as communication studies, cultural studies,demographyand literary theory, draw upon methods that originated in sociology. The terms "social science" and"social research" have both gained a degree of autonomy since their origination in classical sociology. The distinctfield of social psychology emerged from the many intersections of sociological and psychological interests, and isfurther distinguished in terms of sociological or psychological emphasis.[114]

Social anthropology is the branch of anthropology that studies how contemporary living human beings behave insocial groups. Practitioners of social anthropology, like sociologists, investigate various facets of social organization.Traditionally, social anthropologists analysed non-industrial and non-Western societies, whereas sociologistsfocused on industrialized societies in the Western world. In recent years, however, social anthropology has expandedits focus to modern Western societies, meaning that the two disciplines increasingly converge.[115] [116]

Sociobiology is the study of how social behavior and organization have been influenced by evolution and otherbiological process. The field blends sociology with a number of other sciences, such as anthropology, biology, andzoology. Sociobiology has generated controversy within the sociological academy for allegedly giving too muchattention to gene expression over socialization and environmental factors in general (see 'nature versus nurture').Entomologist E. O. Wilson is credited as having originally developed and described Sociobiology.[117]

Irving Louis Horowitz, in his The Decomposition of Sociology (1994), has argued that the discipline, whilst arrivingfrom a "distinguished lineage and tradition", is in decline due to deeply ideological theory and a lack of relevance topolicy making: "The decomposition of sociology began when this great tradition became subject to ideologicalthinking, and an inferior tradition surfaced in the wake of totalitarian triumphs."[118] Furthermore: "A problem yetunmentioned is that sociology's malaise has left all the social sciences vulnerable to pure positivism—to anempiricism lacking any theoretical basis. Talented individuals who might, in an earlier time, have gone intosociology are seeking intellectual stimulation in business, law, the natural sciences, and even creative writing; thisdrains sociology of much needed potential."[118] Horowitz cites the lack of a 'core discipline' as exacerbating theproblem. Randall Collins, the Dorothy Swaine Thomas Professor in Sociology at the University of Pennsylvania anda member of the Advisory Editors Council of the Social Evolution & History Journal, has voiced similar sentiments:"we have lost all coherence as a discipline, we are breaking up into a conglomerate of specialities, each going on itsown way and with none too high regard for each other."[119]

In 2007, The Times Higher Education Guide published a list of 'The most cited authors of books in the Humanities'(including philosophy and psychology). Seven of the top ten are listed as sociologists: Michel Foucault (1), PierreBourdieu (2), Anthony Giddens (5), Erving Goffman (6), Jürgen Habermas (7), Max Weber (8), and Bruno Latour(10).[120]

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Further reading• Aby, Stephen H. Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources, 3rd edn. Littleton, Colorado,

Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1-56308-947-5 . OCLC 57475961.• Babbie, Earl R.. 2003. The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc., ISBN

0-534-62029-9 . OCLC 51917727.• Collins, Randall. 1994. Four Sociological Traditions. Oxford, Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-508208-7 .

OCLC 28411490.• Coser, Lewis A., Masters of Sociological Thought : Ideas in Historical and Social Context, New York, Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich, 1971. ISBN 0-15-555128-0.• Giddens, Anthony. 2006. Sociology (5th edition), Polity, Cambridge. ISBN 0-7456-3378-1 . OCLC 63186308.• Landis, Judson R (1989). Sociology: Concepts and Characteristics (7th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth.

ISBN 0-534-10158-5• Macionis, John J (1991). Sociology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-820358-X• Merton, Robert K.. 1959. Social Theory and Social Structure. Toward the codification of theory and research,

Glencoe: Ill. (Revised and enlarged edition) . OCLC 4536864.• Mills, C. Wright, The Sociological Imagination,1959 (http:/ / www. camden. rutgers. edu/ ~wood/

207socimagination. htm). OCLC 165883.• C. Wright Mills, Intellectual Craftsmanship Advices how to Work for young Sociologist (http:/ / ddl. uwinnipeg.

ca/ res_des/ files/ readings/ cwmills-intel_craft. pdf)• Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2007, originally published in 1968). A Hundred Years of Sociology: A Concise

History of the Major Figures, Ideas, and Schools of Sociological Thought. New Brunswick, New Jersey:Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-202-36168-0. OCLC 145146341.

• Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. The Sociological Tradition, London, Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN1-56000-667-6 . OCLC 26934810.

• Ritzer, George and Douglas J. Goodman. 2004. Sociological Theory, Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill. ISBN0-07-281718-6 . OCLC 52240022.

• Scott, John & Marshall, Gordon (eds) A Dictionary of Sociology (3rd Ed). Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN0-19-860986-8, . OCLC 60370982.

• Wallace, Ruth A. & Alison Wolf. 1995. Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classical Tradition,4th ed., Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-036245-X . OCLC 31604842.

• White, Harrison C.. 2008. Identity and Control. How Social Formations Emerge. (2nd ed., Completely rev. ed.)Princeton, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13714-8 . OCLC 174138884.

• Willis, Evan. 1996. The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life, New Brunswick, NewJersey, Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2367-2 . OCLC 34633406.

Sociology 22

External linksProfessional associations• African Sociological Association (AfSA) (http:/ / www. afsanet. org/ )• American Sociological Association (ASA) (http:/ / www. asanet. org/ )• Association for Humanist Sociology (AHS) (http:/ / uhaweb. hartford. edu/ doane/ ahsweb1. htm)• Australian Sociological Association (TASA) (http:/ / www. tasa. org. au/ )• British Sociological Association (BSA) (http:/ / www. britsoc. co. uk/ )• Canadian Sociological Association (CSA) (http:/ / www. csaa. ca/ )• Canadian Association of French-speaking Sociologists and Anthropologists (http:/ / www. acsalf. ca/ )• European Sociological Association (ESA) (http:/ / www. valt. helsinki. fi/ esa/ )• French Sociological Association (http:/ / www. afs-socio. fr)• German Sociological Association (DGS) (http:/ / www. soziologie. de)• Indian Sociological Society (Insoso) (http:/ / www. insoso. org/ )• International Institute of Sociology (IIS) (http:/ / www. iisoc. org/ )• International Sociological Association (ISA) (http:/ / www. ucm. es/ info/ isa/ )• Latin American Sociological Association (ALAS) (http:/ / www. alas. fsoc. uba. ar/ index. html)• Portuguese Sociological Association (APS) (http:/ / www. aps. pt/ )• Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI) (http:/ / www. sociology. ie/ )• South African Sociological Association (SASA) (http:/ / www. sasaonline. org. za/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 23

Article Sources and ContributorsSociology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418112390  Contributors: "alyosha", 165.121.110.xxx, 167.153.4.xxx, 199.174.163.xxx, 1Arethusa, 205.188.199.xxx, 3nacbc, AGeographer, A. B., A3RO, A8UDI, APH, AThing, Aaloklamsal1, Abasass, Adasinol, AdjustShift, Afgreif, Aircorn, Airumel, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex S, Alexf, AlexiusHoratius,AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Amanda.haynes, Amit56, AnOddName, Anaraug, Ancheta Wis, Andre Engels, Andreadb, Andreas Philopater, Andres, Andrew250, AndrewHowse, Andycjp, Angrycandy, Antandrus, Arakunem, Arunbalagopalan, Arunconcern, AvantVenger, Avenged Eightfold, BD2412, Backhome5, Banime, Barent, BarretBonden, Barreto, Barticus88, Bejideanelikesmuff,Beland, Bendroz, Bhadani, Bhikkhu Santi, Birdmessenger, Black Kat, Blanchardb, Bobblewik, Boneheadmx, Borislav, Br1z, Brion VIBBER, Britsoc, Brusk, Buyaguru, CRGreathouse, CalmerWaters, Canadiangurl, Canto2009, Capricorn42, Capt. James T. Kirk, Carl Logan, Carlsotr, Caromkidd, CaseyPenk, Cast, CathySc, Cbankst, Cdickerson01, Cedric Dwarf, Cenarium, Ceyockey,Charliehesk, CharlotteWebb, Chenzw, Chickensoda, Chickensofdoom, Chimin 07, Chinasociology, Chris 1127, Chris Roy, Chris the speller, Citicat, Civil Engineer III, Clausen, Cloooe x,Clubmarx, Coalpatch, Cobi, Colipon, Colonies Chris, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Conti, Conversion script, Cosmic Latte, Cpl Syx, Cretog8, Crusadeonilliteracy, Cst17, Cureden, Cyfal, D,D-Rock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DASonnenfeld, DCDuring, DYLAN LENNON, Dabomb87, Daedalus71, Damiens.rf, Danno uk, Danski14, Dar-Ape, Darigan, Dark Mage, Darker Dreams,Darkfelinanova, Darkmaster2004, DarwinPeacock, Darwindecks, Datta-ray, DavidPickett, Davidgauntlett, Davidwr, Davril2020, Ddon, Debresser, Deep1979, Defenestrate, Dekimasu, Delirium,Den fjättrade ankan, DennisDaniels, Deor, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Dffgd, Dialectric, Dillardjj, Discospinster, Dlrohrer2003, Docu, Donald Albury, Douglas R. White, Doulos Christos, Dowcet,Downcastrelic, Dralwik, Duckie, Dunning, Dureo, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, E to pi i is minus one, ESkog, Ed Poor, Edhubbard, Edusoc, Edward saint-ivan, El C, ElinorD, Elmindreda, Elpenmaster,Emmawors, Epbr123, Erebus555, Erolos, Esprit15d, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evilandi, Excirial, FLCL, FPWSN, FadulJA, Fashionologist, Featherfiend, Feedmymind, Fenice, Fixentries,Flatterworld, Fonzy, Fredbauder, Froes, Fubar Obfusco, GDudek, Gaius Cornelius, Ganemcometudo, Gary cunningham, Gavinshields, Gdarin, Geniac, George100, GhanaDa, Gilliam, Ginar,GlaucusAtlanticus, Glenn, Globalsolidarity, GoingBatty, Golgofrinchian, GraemeL, Greenlight01, Grrrlriot, Gsaup, Gsociology, Guerorocks, Gunderiffic, Guy Peters, Gwernol, H.W. Clihor,HD-POE, Hadal, Hagedis, Haipa Doragon, Haiti01, Halcionne, Hammard, Hanberke, HappyInGeneral, HarryHenryGebel, Hbdragon88, He Who Is, Hermes the Wise, Hetar, HexaChord,Hezarfenn, Hobartimus, Horton Pebes, Hughcharlesparker, Huzzah101, Hydrogen Iodide, IRP, Ibn khaldun78, Ikiroid, Infoman99, Instinct, Insvik, IntrigueBlue, Irishguy, Ixfd64, J Di, J.delanoy,J04n, JForget, JMK, JaGa, Jackol, Jacob Lundberg, Jade Knight, Jadesina, Jafro, Jagged 85, Jaymar520, Jazzwick, Jcdavis, Jecar, Jeff3000, JenLouise, Jennavecia, Jerry, JerryIsThePosterChild,Jerzy, Jf325403, Jiddisch, Jim182, Jmaass, Jni, JodyB, Jonnabuz, Jonty303, JorgeGG, Joshafina, Joshua P. Schroeder, Jpbowen, Jpers36, Juliapreston, Jumping cheese, Junglefever2009, Jusjih,JustAGal, KConWiki, KF, KJS77, Kakofonous, Kartano, Kbh3rd, Keith Tee, Kelly Ramsey, Ken Jubber, Kenny sh, Kerotan, Kessler, Khalid hassani, Khefri, KiLLaCRuSHs, Kikoromba,KillerChihuahua, Knight1993, Koavf, Kokiri, Kopaka649, Kroose, Kzollman, LCP, LOL, Ladril, Lambaldwin, LarryGilbert, Latka, Leafyplant, LeaveSleaves, Lee Daniel Crocker, LeszekJańczuk, Levineps, Littlefish597, Llort, Llull, Longsun, Lonniepoet, LordGulliverofGalben, Lordvolton, Lotje, Lucidish, Luckas Blade, Luk, Luna Santin, Lunchboxhero, Lunkwill, MBK004,MBisanz, MER-C, MONGO, Madcoverboy, Madhero88, Magister Mathematicae, Mahanga, Maikstrik, Malik Shabazz, Mandarax, Mani1, Marek69, MarioGuima, MarkNeville, Martin Jensen,MartinHarper, Masterpiece2000, Masterpjz9, Materialscientist, Matt Crypto, Matthew Yeager, Mausy5043, Mav, Maxamegalon2000, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Michael Hardy, MichaelSnow, MichaelExe, MihalOrela, Mikaey, Mike Restivo, Miriska, Miss Brittney Anne, Mlessard, Modernist, Modulatum, Molerner, Moskvax, MrArt, MrStalker, Msin10, Mspandana, Muff Potter,Musical Linguist, Mweymar, Mwsinclair, Mxn, Mydogategodshat, Nafile, Nakon, NaomiRG, Natalie Erin, Natl1, NawlinWiki, NellieBly, Nepenthes, Neptune99, Nerval, Netoholic, Newe1344,Ngeemalpo, Ni, Nick.patrick55, Nicolay, Nikai, Nilmerg, Nimh00, Ninabeck, Niteowlneils, Nivix, Nj301409, NoahK, Northernsoutherner, NpaK13, Nposs, Nua eire, Numbo3, NunquamDormio, Nurefsan, Obsidian Soul, Oda Mari, Ohnoitsjamie, Ojuice5001, Ok!, Olivier, Orion11M87, Orphan Wiki, Ot, Otets, Ottawa4ever, Owen, PHMegacorp, POKETNRJSH, PanchoS,Passw0rd, Patrick, Paulshanks, Peter Robinson Scott, PeterSymonds, Pgreenfinch, Phanerozoic, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pheel, Phgao, Philaweb, Pigman, Pigsonthewing, Pinethicket, Piotrus,Pjscience, Plastikspork, PoccilScript, Pomte, Possum, Postmodern Beatnik, Prodego, Proofreader77, Proper tea is theft, Pyrospirit, Qbert789, Quarryman, Quiddity, QuirkyAndSuch, QwertyBinary, RJaguar3, RTCearly, RainbowOfLight, Rainville, Ram-Man, Raul654, Raven1977, Raven4x4x, Reach Out to the Truth, Rebecca, Reconsider the static, RedHouse18, RedWolf, Remi0o,Res2216firestar, Reswik, Retired username, RexNL, Reyk, Reywas92, RichardF, RickK, Ricky1984, Rjwilmsi, Robinhw, Roland Kaufmann, Romanm, Ronald bolender, Ronhjones, Rudra 18,Rupe1014, Ryan Higgitt, S h i v a (Visnu), SJP, Sabikun, Sadi Carnot, Sailor1889, Samlyn.josfyn, Sander123, Sandman, Sciurinæ, Scottielad, Scubbo, Seanbrowning, Sebesta, Secretlondon,Sectryan, Serenity forest, Shanoman, Shell Kinney, ShereKhan8, Shlomke, Shoeofdeath, SiefkinDR, Sietse, Simmonsjd02, SimonP, Sionus, Siwangmu, Sjakkalle, Skyler13, Slightsmile,Slrubenstein, Smalljim, SmartM&M, Snoyes, Soccybrarian, Socgeek, Sociologist4life, Sodium, Sonicology, Sparkleiya, SpookyMulder, Ss87922p, Stefeyboy, SteinbDJ, Studymore, Sue Rangell,Suffusion of Yellow, SuperHamster, Supertouch, Sushiflinger, Svencb, Synchronism, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Taishan88, TakuyaMurata, Tannin, Tapir Terrific, TarrVetus, Tassedethe,Taw, Tcww20, Technite, Terryeo, Texture, Thatguyflint, The Anome, The Missing Piece, The Ogre, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Transhumanist (AWB),Theaterfreak64, Theda, Thegodfather115, TheoClarke, Theseven7, Thingg, Thiseye, Tide rolls, Tillwe, Tobby72, Tom Fararo, Tommaso.vitale, Tomos, Tomsega, Tonysdg14, Tpbradbury,Trafford09, Traroth, Trevinci, TutterMouse, Twang, Twinkie eater91, Twp, Ulric1313, Universalbuilder, VKokielov, Van helsing, Vanderdecken12, Vault, Veinor, Velella, Velho, Vera Cruz,Verpar, Verticalsearch, Veshhistory, Vindalf, Vir, WOSlinker, Watchdealer, Wavelength, We hope, West.andrew.g, Wetman, Whywhenwhohow, WikHead, WikiDao, WikiLeon, Wikidea,Wikiklrsc, Willdw79, Wimt, Wini9000, Wiwaxia, Woland37, Wolfdog, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, WordyGirl90, Wotnow, Ww2censor, Wwwwzzzz, X-factor, Xelgen, Yidisheryid, Ynhockey,YokaiKnight, Ytcracker, ZenmasterFlash, Zouhair, Zundark, Zzuuzz, Александър, €pa, 1616 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Auguste Comte.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Auguste_Comte.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aegis Maelstrom, Bastique, Dbenbenn, Fred J,Gabor, Kelson, Kilom691, Majorly, Piotrus, Plugwash, Porao, Svencb, 4 anonymous editsImage:Karl Marx.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karl_Marx.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John MayallImage:Herbert Spencer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chico, Piotrus, Speck-Made, Sven-steffenarndt, Thierry Caro, 1 anonymous editsImage:Emile Durkheim.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chico, Dittaeva, Gvf, Mu, Tets, Thierry Caro,Tony Rotondas, Vindicator, Wouterhagens, 3 anonymous editsFile:Ferdinand Toennies Bueste Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferdinand_Toennies_Bueste_Husum-Ausschnitt.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:VollwertBITImage:Max Weber 1894.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Max_Weber_1894.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: C.Löser, Kelson, Svencb, Thierry Caro, 2anonymous editsImage:Simmel 01.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simmel_01.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PiotrusFile:Talcott Parsons (photo).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Talcott_Parsons_(photo).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Beeblebrox, Jiuguang Wang, Mdd,WereweazelFile:Anthony Giddes at the Progressive Governance Converence, Budapest, Hungary, 2004 october.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anthony_Giddes_at_the_Progressive_Governance_Converence,_Budapest,_Hungary,_2004_october.jpg  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: Entheta, Saibo, Thierry CaroImage:Lazarsfeld.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lazarsfeld.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DarwinPeacock, We hopeImage:Planche de Galton.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Planche_de_Galton.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:AntoinetavImage:Sna large.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sna_large.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:DarwinPeacockFile:AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: Jeremy J. Shapiro. Original uploader was Jjshapiro at en.wikipediaFile:WomanFactory1940s.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WomanFactory1940s.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Hollem, Howard RFile:JuergenHabermas.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JuergenHabermas.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:ojsImage:Harrisonwhite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harrisonwhite.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Richardfabi

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