The Allies developed a more effective gas mask by 1918

The Germans did not because of a shortage of rubber

The Chaos and Fog of War of 1918: The Germans, on enemy territory, had poor human intelligence. The allies, by contrast,

had excellent human intelligence.

Raw materials shortages: Germany could not replace lost air assets.

This hindered effectiveness of German airpower in the critical moments of 1918

U-Boat Production StalledTraining of Crews Slowed

By the summer of 1918, the Allies changed tactics, using artillery not to obliterate but to

more accurately strike enemy positions

Artillery would aim to demolish wire entanglements & lay down fire behind the front,

blocking German reinforcements

By 1918, allied tanks were being deployed in much larger numbers

Early tanks still could move only at walking pace and ran out of petrol after only 16 miles

Tanks also broke down and could be destroyed by artillery fire

Germany fell behind on the construction of tanks, failing to produce enough by 1918.

The Allies also developed new tactical doctrines for the deployment of tanks

Tanks increasingly incited panic among German troops

The prospect of facing thousands of tanks in 1919 provided the Germans with a

justification for seeking an armistice in 1918.

Economies, Production, Supplies

The French continued to produce huge quantities of armaments, even supplying the American

Expeditionary Force with all it needed.

Economically, the Allies proved stronger than the combined output of

the Central Powers.

The US had by far the largest economy: US supplies of food & steel, in particular,

contributed to keeping the Allies sufficiently supplied

Germany diverted most of its resources to arms production, neglecting food production.

But malnourishment resulted in an enormous decline in German productivity.

Malnutrition killed 500,000 German civilians.

Germans did not starve in World War II as they had in WWI: millions of Europeans starved instead.

(Food shortages persuaded Hitler to conquer Europe’s “breadbasket” in the Ukraine)

The situation in 1918 grew unprecedentedly grim

Both sides were wearing down by 1918, but the Central Powers were wearing down at a faster rate

Conditions grew particularly dire for Austria-Hungary, its soldiers weak from hunger when the Italians launched their attack in 1918. Austrian

soldiers arrived at the front in their underwear and took uniforms from the bodies of the dead.

Malnutrition and disease affected the quality of troops in the final year.

Trench fever, typhus, gangrene plagued greater numbers of troops as the war dragged on

The German spring offensive resulted in catastrophic, unrecoverable, casualties.

In April 1918 alone, 50,000 German soldiers had been reported killed or missing,

& 500,000 were judged unfit to continue

By July 1918, the number of German forces in the field was nearly a

million fewer than in March 1918

Casualties Became Unsustainable

The Allies mobilized 42 million: Suffered casualties (killed, wounded,

missing) of more than 22 million, 52%

Russia led this ghastly category: mobilizing 12 million, suffering 9 million casualties, 76%

France had 8.4 million in arms and endured high losses, more than 6 million, or 73%, the

highest of any of the surviving states.

The British Empire mobilized 9 million and had more than 3 million

casualties, about 36 percent.

Italy suffered 2 million casualties among 5.5 million serving -- or 39% losses

The US mobilized 4.4 million and experienced losses of 360,000, a casualty rate of 8 percent.

Of 23 million mobilized, the Central Powers had 15 million casualties, 15% more than the Allies

Worst was Austria-Hungary: it mobilized 8 million, lost 7 million, an astonishing 90%

Germany suffered 7 million casualties of its 11 million combatants, 64 percent

The first major & distinctly US offensive: Reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient,

September 12-15 1918. (The war was already 49 months old – 4 years 1 month)

Reduction of the Saint Mihiel salient Sept. 12, 1918 (the war would be over in 53 days)

Revolutions in Germany, November 1918.Ludendorff began to fear that the army

would be needed for domestic repression; also sought to shift blame for defeat onto others

A Meeting at Compiegne

11th Hour of the 11th Month of the 11th Day

Wilson’s Fourteen Pointsv Address to Congress,

Wilson lists “14 Points”

v Self-determination of nations, free trade, disarmament, end to secret treaties, League for collective security

v Basis for his peace proposals at war’s end

Wilson secured peace only by accepting substantial amendments

from his fellow Allied leaders

The British and French demanded that their colonial empires be exempted from

the self-determination principle

Wilson rationalized that the final treaty was the best he could obtain,

given the circumstances

Wilson submits the Peace Treaty to the Senate for ratification on July 10, 1919.

Senate deliberation on the treaty will last longer than the Paris Conference itself.

An enormous gulf divided the senate. It would have required either feats of political genius and manifest good will, or surrender

by one side, to bridge that gulf.

Wilson’s Campaign for the TreatySept. 4, 1919: Against the advice of his doctors,

Wilson embarked on a nation-wide speaking tour to promote the Treaty and the League

Wilson’s Campaign for the Treaty

Wilson suffered a serious stroke in Wichita, October 2; immediately returned to Washington

Edwin Weinstein, a distinguished neurologist who was also trained as a psychiatrist

v Retrospective diagnosis of his health & its impact on his personality and actions

v His conduct suffered both from the physical debilities brought on by the stroke &its psychological effects:poor emotional control and impaired judgment

Votes on the Peace Treatyv Nov. 19, 1919: Treaty of

Versailles fails to achieve ratification in the Senate by a vote of 53-38

v March 19, 1920: Senate defeats a resubmitted version of the Treaty with reservations

Idealism? Realism? A Combination?Self-Determination

International Organizations (TR, Taft)Neither Looks So Unrealistic Today(George Kennan, Henry Kissinger)