THE BEHEMOTH AND THE CYBORG --- SCIENTISTS AND CONTESTED TECHNOLOGY Craig K. Harris Food Safety Policy Center Department of Sociology Michigan State University

THE BEHEMOTH AND THE CYBORG

---SCIENTISTS AND CONTESTED

TECHNOLOGY

Craig K. Harris

Food Safety Policy Center

Department of Sociology

Michigan State University

Anheuser Busch Brewing Company

Anheuser-Busch was founded by immigrants searching for their American dream. In 1864, Adolphus Busch joined his father-in-law, Eberhard Anheuser, in guiding our company confidently into the future. For five generations, the Busch family and our employees have made Anheuser-Busch the premier brewer in the world.

Anheuser Busch Brewing Company

Attempting to replicate the beers of their native Bavaria, Anheuser and Busch seek out suppliers of quality grains – wheat, rice – and hops in the area around St. Louis.

To grow for Anheuser-Busch is a mark of distinction among farmers in Missouri and Arkansas.

THE AGRICULTURAL CORNUCOPIA

• Agriculture is the sector of the economy that derives the greatest benefit from ecosystem services



• Less than 25 percent of energy used in agriculture comes from fossil fuels




• Most of water is rainfed





• Pollination





• Pollination

• Biological nitrogen fixation





• Pollination

• Biological nitrogen fixation

• Beneficials contribute to pest management

THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED

• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans

THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans

• Main marketing problems are overproduction and oligopsonistic markets lower prices



• Farmers respond to lower prices by trying to increase production




• Government responds to lower prices by programs of price supports and acreage set-asides for corn, soybeans, rice, cotton, sugar, and tobacco




• Government responds to lower prices with price supports and acreage set-asides

• Main production problems are insect pests and weeds

THE CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED• Increasing reliance on corn and soybeans• Main marketing problems are

overproduction and oligopsonistic markets lower prices


• Government responds to lower prices with price supports and acreage set-asides

• Main production problems are insect pests and weeds

• Both insecticides and herbicides have environmental and human health issues

CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED - 2• 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) –

aggregate and cumulative effects, especially to most susceptible subpopulations



• Even low residues on staple crops can be hazardous




• Organic corn and soybean yields approach conventional yields




• Organic corn and soybean yields approach conventional yields

• One of main organic insecticides is the toxin produced by a common microbe, Bacillus thuringensis (Bt)

CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED• Recombinant genetic technologies


• Identification of toxin gene in Bacillus thuringensis (Bt)



• Bt corn and Bt cotton



• Bt corn and Bt cotton

• Substantial equivalence

CORNUCOPIA RECOVERED - 2• Contestation over Bt plant incorporated

protectorant


protectorant

• Better for environment . . . Natural . . . Same as organic


protectorant


• Hazardous to neutral and beneficial insects– The monarch butterfly controversy


protectorant



• Possible tumorigenicity– Arpad Pustzai


protectorant



• Possible tumorigenicity– Arpad Pustzai

• Resistance concerns–Mandatory refugia

CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN

• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.



• Increasing opposition to U.S. government support for tobacco




• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for export crops




• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for export crops

• Fiscal crisis of the state increasingly diminish ability to support subsidies




• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for export crops Fiscal crisis of the state increasingly diminish ability to support subsidies

• Relative ease of transforming tobacco via recombinant DNA techniques

CORNUCOPIA CHALLENGED AGAIN• Decreasing consumption of tobacco in U.S.


• Increasing WTO scrutiny of subsidies for export crops Fiscal crisis of the state increasingly diminish ability to support subsidies

• Relative ease of transforming tobacco via recombinant DNA techniques

• Look for new uses for land, machinery, and skills

THE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY• By 2000, Northwest

Missouri State University was experiencing the fiscal crisis of the state

THE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY• By 2000, Northwest Missouri

State University was experiencing the fiscal crisis of the state

• “In the 1980s, more than 70 percent of the University's operating budget income was derived from state appropriations. Currently, that figure hovers around 50 percent.”

THE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY• By 2000, Northwest Missouri

State University was experiencing the fiscal crisis of the state

• “In the 1980s, more than 70 percent of the University's operating budget income was derived from state appropriations. Currently, that figure hovers around 50 percent.”

• Not able to obtain funding for new science building

THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE

• The pharmaceutical industry has a somewhat distinctive product cycle



• Identify active substance that can be marketed for some health problem




• Develop process to synthesize the substance





• Testing and regulatory approvals






• Patent protection

THE PHARMACEUTICAL CYCLE• The pharmaceutical industry has a

somewhat distinctive product cycle




• Patent protection

• After patent expires, open competition generics low prices





• Testing and regulatory approvals• Patent protection• After patent expires, open competition

generics low prices• Compete by lowering cost of production

THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL BEHEMOTH

• Agricultural biotechnology takes off as an effort to maintain and extent proprietary control over glyphosate herbicide



• Main problem with glyphosate is phytotoxicity to main crops (corn, soybeans) triazine herbicides greater human health hazards




• Discovery of tolerance gene





• Discovery of recombinant techniques





• Discovery of recombinant techniques

• Round-Up Ready corn and soybeans




• Discovery of tolerance gene• Discovery of recombinant techniques• Round-Up Ready corn and soybeans• Substantial equivalence

THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL BEHEMOTH - 2

• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn and soybeans



• Better for environment (lower toxicity and lower persistence)




• Lower human health hazard





• Research challenges whether number of sprays reduced





• Research challenges whether number of sprays reduced

• Some evidence that glyphosate is a carcinogen




• Lower human health hazard• Research challenges whether number of

sprays reduced• Some evidence that glyphosate is a

carcinogen• Perception that only the corporation

benefits


• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn and soybeans - continued

• Public opinion surveys – not accept risks of new technology if only corporation benefits


• Contestation over herbicide tolerant corn and soybeans - continued

• Public opinion surveys – not accept risks of new technology if only corporation benefits

• Corporations look for second and third generation technologies

THE BIOTECHNOLOGICAL BENEFACTOR

• People in Southeast Asian countries where rice is a staple food have vision illnesses because of lack of sufficient Vitamin A



• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene




• Transform rice to express Vitamin A precursor – Golden rice





• Donate genome to public health





• Donate genome to public health

• Critics claim will be more expensive than afflicted people can afford



• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene• Transform rice to express Vitamin A

precursor – Golden rice• Donate genome to public health• Critics claim will be more expensive than

afflicted people can afford• Critics argue better remedy is to make leafy

greens more available and accessible



• Identify Vitamin A precursor gene• Transform rice to express Vitamin A precursor –

Golden rice• Donate genome to public health• Critics claim will be more expensive than afflicted

people can afford• Critics argue better remedy is to make leafy

greens more available and accessible• Critics claim danger of eating too much Vitamin A

Charles Arntzen and the Magic Banana

• Malaria is single largest cause of illness worldwide



• Malaria parasite is increasingly resistant to existing drugs




• Mosquito vector difficult to control without DDT (broad spectrum and persistent, but inexpensive) or less hazardous but more expensive alternatives (permethrin sleeping nets, Bt variants)




• Mosquito vector difficult to control without DDT or less hazardous but more expensive alternatives

• Identification of gene construct that causes production of antibodies that block action of parasite




• Mosquito vector difficult to control without DDT or less hazardous but more expensive alternatives

• Identification of gene construct that causes production of antibodies that block action of parasite

• Banana production overlaps malaria zone

Charles Arntzen and the Magic Banana - 2

• Arntzen propose to transform banana to deliver malaria vaccine



• Look for donor to support (e.g., Gates Foundation)



• Look for donor to support (e.g., Gates Foundation)

• Concerns about dosage and resistance

By 2002, the buzzword in the biotechnology industry was

“pharming”

By 2002, the buzzword in the biotechnology industry was

“pharming”

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2001 2002 2003 2004

References to “biopharming” in major u.s. newspapers

The Great Corn Controversy 2002

• Iowa state government adopts corn biopharming as growth strategy



• Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA) and other groups express concern




• USDA states lack of support for corn biopharming as a matter of policy




• USDA states lack of support for corn biopharming as a matter of policy

• Iowa representatives and politicians pressure the Administration to reverse policy

The Great Corn Controversy 2002• Iowa state government adopts corn

biopharming as growth strategy• Grocery Manufacturers of America (GMA)

and other groups express concern• USDA states lack of support for corn

biopharming as a matter of policy• Iowa representatives and politicians

pressure the Administration to reverse policy

• Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) agrees not to grow corn pharm crops in Corn Belt

The California Rice Rebellion

• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to grow pharmaceutical rice in California



• Initially California Rice Commission approves proposal for ten southern counties where rice not currently grown




• Some rice growers willing to move to new locations and grow high value crop





• Other rice growers oppose plan– Genetic escape and contamination

The California Rice Rebellion• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to

grow pharmaceutical rice in California



• Other rice growers oppose plan– Genetic escape and contamination– Only a small number of growers will benefit

The California Rice Rebellion• Ventria Bioscience Company proposes to

grow pharmaceutical rice in California



• Other rice growers oppose plan– Genetic escape and contamination– Only a small number of growers will benefit

• Commissioner of Agriculture rejects plan

Bearcat Biopharming

• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State University 22,000 square foot addition to science building in return for use of university farm fields

Bearcat Biopharming


• Majority of rice growers in Missouri oppose plan

Bearcat Biopharming



Bearcat Biopharming



• Anheuser Busch announces will not buy rice grown in Missouri if biopharming rice is approved

Bearcat Biopharming• Ventria offers Northwest Missouri State

University 22,000 square foot addition to science building in return for use of university farm fields

• Majority of Missouri rice growers oppose plan

• Anheuser Busch announces will not buy rice grown in Missouri if biopharming rice is approved

• Ventria announces it will use existing approvals to grow biopharm rice in North Carolina

Farmaceuticals As Cyborgs

• More than neoclassical political economy– Competition between different interests for

profit and power– Accumulation of wealth by different capitals


• More than neoclassical political economy– Competition between different interests for

profit and power– Accumulation of wealth by different capitals

• More than regulationist theory or conventions theory–Which government agencies will regulate them–What standards will be used to evaluate them


• Lack of clear classification opens space for various sorts of activism– Growers– Agrifood NGO’s


• Lack of clear classification opens space for various sorts of activism

• Lack of clear classification produces division in biotechnology science community

Documents

THE BEHEMOTH AND THE CYBORG --- SCIENTISTS AND CONTESTED TECHNOLOGY Craig K. Harris Food Safety Policy Center Department of Sociology Michigan State University