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THE EFFECTS OF FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS,
(ACROSTICS) ON THE LEARNING
OF LOWER-SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILDREN
Thesis submitted towards the degree o f Ph D at the
U niversity o f Leicester.
STEPHEN D. BOOTH SEPTEMBER, 1991
UMI Number: U041034
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THE EFFECTS OF FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS, (ACROSTICS) ON THE LEARNING OF LOWER-SECONDARY SCHOOLCHILDREN
THESIS SUBMITTED BY STEPHEN D. BOOTH TOWARDS THE DEGREE OF Ph.D., AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER, SEPTEMBER, 1991.
A B S T F t A O T
In a series of e ig h t re la ted experim ents, the efficacy of f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics (acrostics) was tested against un instructed and rote learn ing conditions in time-matched learn ing situations. Normal, factua l c u rr ic u la r m aterial was used to assess and compare perform ances of around 250 ch ild ren drawn from two age-groups, (mode) 11.5 and 13.5. Gender differences were also compared.
AdditionaUy, a lim ited survey of teachers in seven state secondary schools was also undertaken to establish the range and extent to w hich mnemonics are used inform aUy in re g u la r teaching situations.
Results are discussed in terms of the s ign ificant efficacy of f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics over the a lte rn a tive learn ing methods studied, re la tiv e to classroom learn ing , perform ance and application.
C O N T E N T S
PAGE/S
General summary ........................................................ 6
In tro d u c tio n ................................................................ 9-19
Approach and methods o f research................... 20-23
SECTION 1
Summary o f Section 1 .............................................. 24
Memory: A View From Two Perspectives .... 25-32
Organisation, Meaning and Context ................. 33-38
Evidence o f M u ltip le Stores fromF orge tting .................................................................. 39-41
Medical Evidence Relating to thePossible S tru c tu re o f Memory ............................ 42-48
Modal Model .............................................................. 47-49
Levels o f Processing Approach ......................... 50-56
Metacognition, C ognitive S tra teg iesand Mnemonics ......................................................... 57-61
The C hild ’s A cqu is ition o f S tra teg ies ............ 61-64
Rehearsal ................................................................... 64-68
The Relationship Between Age and M etacognltlve processes ....................................... 69-76
Classroom Im plica tions Related toMetacog n Ition ............................................................ 77-80
SECTION 2
Summary o f Section 2 .............................................. 81
THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE .............................. 82-83
Knowledge, Learn ing and Assessment: a B rie f H is to ry ......................................................... 83-86
SECTION 2 (cont.)
Knowledge, O bjectives and C urricu lumDesign ...................................................................... 86-88
Knowledge and Examination Performance ... 88-90
Knowledge and the National C urricu lum .... 90-95
The S tategy-Know ledge andDomain-Knowledge Relationship ..................... 95-97
Knowledge, the National C urricu lum and Mnemonics .............................................................. 98-101
SECTION 3
Summary o f Section 3 ........................................... 102
Mnemonics: a B rie f H istorical Perspective ...103-105
Mnemonics in Contemporary Society ............ 106-109
Im agery and Mnemonics ...................................... 110-114
The B izarre Versus PlausibleIm agery Debate ............ 115-119
The Method o f Loci ............................................. 120-122
The ’Pegword’ Mnemonic ................................... 123-126
The Keyword Mnemonic ...................................... 127-135
SECTION Ar
Summary o f Section 4 ............................................ 136
F irs t-L e tte r Mnemonics ...................................... 137-140
Acronyms ................................................................. 141-143
F irs t-L e tte r Mnemonics - A Reviewo f Research ............................................................ 144-157
A Ju s tifica tion fo r Teaching C hildrento use F irs t-L e tte r Mnemnonics .................... 158-161
F irs t-L e tte r Mnemonics in the Clasroom .... 161-164
SECTION 5
Summary o f Section 5 ............................................... 165
Research Methodology ............................................ 166-174
P ilo t Experiments ..................................................... 174-187
Experiment Design .................................................... 188-199
SECTION 6
Summary o f Section 6 ................................................ 200
EXPERIMENTS 1-6, Accompanied by Results,Tables and Discussion ............................................ 201-257
Pupil Questionnaires, Accompanied byResults, Tables and Discussion ............................ 258-265
INTERVIEWS (Associated w ith Experim ent 6 -D e live ry Company) ...................................................... 266
In te rv ie w Methodology ............................................. 267-269
A Selection o f Pupil In te rv ie w s which are Related to Experim ent 6 (D e live ry Company) Accompanied by Results and Discussion .......... 270-275
Experiments in th e 7-SERIES,(Long-Term Recall) 7a, 7b, 7c, and 7d ............ 276-291
SECTION ~7
Summary o f Section 7 ................................................ 292
The S ta ff S u rvey Accompanied byResults and Discussion ........................................... 293-325
SECTION S
Summary o f Section 8 .......................................... 326
Conciusions and Discussion ................................. 327-330
Communicating about Research ............................ 335-337
Raising C h ild ren ’sM etacognltlve Awareness.......................................... 338-342
C ross -C u rricu la r Mnemonics ................................. 343-346
SECTION S (cont.)
Mnemnoic Management: Some Practical Considerations ......................................................... 347-348
Mnemonising Material ........................................... 349-351
Student-G enerated A crostics ............................ 352-354
Teacher-Generated A crostics ............................ 354-358
General Discussion - F u tu re Reasearch O pportun ities .......................................................... 358-360
Mnemonics in Schools: The F u tu re ..... 361-362
References ............................................................. 364-405
Table o f Appendic es ............................................... 406
S u M M A R Y
During the past two decades in p a rticu la r, empirical research related to learn ing s tra teg ies has demonstrated th a t ch ild ren Ins truc ted to use re la tive ly simple mnemonic techniques can learn and recall considerably more factua l in form ation than un ins truc ted ch ild ren . The application o f these mnemonic techn iques was based upon the h igh ly encouraging resu lts o f labora to ry experiments, ty p ic a lly using college studen ts as sub jec ts under a r t if ic ia l conditions.
Recent empirical work appears to have focused upon a ve ry narrow range o f the mnemonics po ten tia lly available to fa c ilita te learn ing , p a rtic u la r ly the so called Keyword method. Common sense suggests th a t more popular form s o f mnemonic are used In form ally by teachers, bu t the re Is l it t le o r no o b jec tive evidence suggesting th a t mnemonics do fa c ilita te chHdren*s lea rn ing , o r which types are In c u rre n t use.F u rthe r, the re appears to be no evidence as to w hether ch ild ren ins truc ted to use f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics learn and recall more than un ins truc ted o r ro te learners.
The resu lts o f th is s tudy suggest the fo llow ing :
1) A broad range o f mnemonics are used by a number o f p rac tis ing teachers, covering a wide va rie ty o f c u rr ic u la r areas.
2) C hildren ta u g h t to use simple mnemonic s k ills and techn iques demonstrate the a b ility to learn and recall considerably more mnemonlcally encoded c u rr ic u la r-re la te d a rb it ra ry Inform ation than non-users, even when matched fo r tim e-on-task.
3) C hildren as young as eleven are fu lly capable o f generating and app ly ing th e ir own f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics, a fte r lim ited Ins tru c tio n in how to mnemonise material.
4) C hildren Ins truc ted In the use o f simple mnemonics considerably ou t-p e rfo rm ch ild ren ta u g h t and Ins truc ted to use ro te -le a rn in g methods, even when matched fo r tim e-on-task.
KEYWORDS: MNEMONICS, STRATEGIES, CHILDREN, LEARNING.
To m y r wiTe son Ja.mes
a n d t h e
O Kl or" I sto r~s of Thu rmaston Par i sh
Ohurch, Laicastiar, 1 3©S—1 93©
AO KNOW LE DGE M ENTS I
Students com pleting research theses on a p a rt-tim e basis re ly heavily upon the help goodwill and su p p o rt o f many colleagues and fr ie n ds .
With th is In m ind, I would like to extend my most s incere thanks to the fo llow ing In s titu tio n s and people;
Roy K irk , a t Le icester School o f Education L ib ra ry , Northam ptonshire Education Department, th e Headteachers and s ta ff o f the fo llow ing N ortham ptonshire secondary schools:
D aventry School, (D aven try )Campion School, (Bugbrooke) especially Daphne F lavell, J. Blyncow and
C. CausebrookS ir C hris topher Hatton School, (W ellingborough) especially Rick Pemberton School, (Rushden)Beanfield School, (C orby)Montagu School, (K e tte rin g )
In add ition , Paul Cain my tire le ss techn ic ian and p r in te r , John Cox fo r permission to pub lish th e resu lts o f o u r recent co llabora tive s tu d y , John Wilson and Andrew Hope o f Leicester U n ive rs ity fo r th e ir valued help w ith s ta tis tica l analysis, Denis S traw fo r h is help In pub lish in g the g raphs, G loria Straw fo r encouraging me to e n te r the teaching profession.
My p a rtic u la r th anks to David Allan and David Evans, (S.& Q. p roo f reading d iv is io n ) fo r th e ir In te g r ity , v ig ilance and patience, the s ta ff o f Lodge Park School, Corby, fo r making o ve r fo r ty experim ents and the su rve y such a painless exercise. P rof. Brian A llison fo r h is help In commencing th is s tu d y , Rhona S ta ln tho rp fo r k in d ly o ffe r in g to act as an external examiner o f th is s tu d y and Neville Rumbelow, th ro u g h whose k ind perm ission the empirical aspects o f th is s tu d y were made possible.
F ina lly , my g ra titu d e to Roger M erry fo r h is Indespensable su p p o rt and guidance th ro u g h o u t the w r it in g o f th is s tu d y , to Jane and James fo r p u ttin g up w ith countless lonely n ig h ts and to my Mother, Beryl, and Father, Dennis, fo r always be liev ing th a t a fa iled 11+ kid could even tua lly make I t - one day!
I NT ROD U OTION
"It Is hard to think of any educational goal for which the ability to retain Information is unimportant; human memory Is crucial for acquiring the knowledge and skills we learn at school." (Howe and Ceci, 1979, P. 59)
I f i t is one o f the ch ie f and most earnest desires o f teachers, th a t
the factua l Inform ation they Im part is e ffe c tive ly remembered and
recalled by th e ir s tuden ts, how s trange It is, th a t a lthough we m ight
c lea rly spec ify what we requ ire s tuden ts to remember, we seldom te ll
them how to remember it!
P robably ou r own educational experiences suggest th a t teachers
la rge ly re ly upon th e ir s tuden ts ’ in tu it iv e responses to deal w ith the
many and varied recall demands placed before them. Teachers may
ca re fu lly plan and d e live r h igh ly s tim u la ting , ’educational’ lessons,
which enthuse th e ir ch ild ren , but, i f the teacher’s main In ten tion Is
th a t s tuden ts remember the factua l con ten t o f the lesson, the
remembering phase o f learn ing also needs to be ca re fu lly managed and
designed. Howe and Ceci, (1979) make the po in t clear:
" the degree of difficulty of many educational tasks Isclosely related to the burdens of remembering they Impose", adding, "...we have also found that Individual differences between people's achievements at a variety of skills are closely related to their ability to remember." (Ibid.)
10
U nfo rtuna te ly , o u r experiences m ight fu r th e r suggest th a t, a lthough
teachers are tra ined and experienced m otiva tors and im parte rs o f
factual in form ation, the re ten tion o r remembering phase o f learn ing Is
o ften le ft to chance.
Teachers necessarily re q u ire to know how much o f what has been ta u g h t
can be la te r recalled by th e ir ch ild ren . This in form ation h ig h lig h ts
areas o f learn ing Inadequacy and can be obtained th ro u gh period ic
formal o r Informal assessment. This feedback helps Id e n tify the range
and nature o f learn ing de fic its . A lthough teachers have a keen
in te res t in m inim ising these de fic its , the extent to which these can
be contro lled w ill ine v ita b ly be shaped by the teacher's knowledge o f
how the re ten tion o f factua l inform ation can be improved.
LEARNING PROBLEMS IN THE CLASSROOM
In a broad context, learn ing re lia b il ity can be improved th ro ugh the
acquis ition o f more general learn ing s tra teg ies such as the S Q 3 R
(S -u rvey , 0-uestion , Rbad, Rtecite, fteview) method, (see e.g. Morgan
and Deese, 1969; Rowntree, 1970). These learn ing methods appear to be
p a rtic u la r ly useful in learn ing certa in type s o f material, especially
th a t which has a m eaningfu i o r related s tru c tu re , (e.g. B ransford and
Johnson, 1973) bu t where a rb it ra ry material has to be learned, o the r
more ta sk -sp e c ific learn ing s tra teg ies are available and m ight be
use fu lly employed. M erry, (1980,) underlines the po int:
"If much of what we expect children to learn in school in fact appears highly arbitrary (Bower, 1973), then mnemonics, which are particularly useful in the learning of arbitrary material, might have an even wider role to play, and there is perhaps room for more research which tries to relate experimental findings to actual classroom materials and demands".
11
In schools ch ild re n are often faced w ith learn ing tasks which requ ire
them to remember lis ts o r names which are In h e ren tly unrelated and
a rb it ra ry in character. In th is s itua tion the learn ing demands are
fu r th e r complicated by the fa c t th a t o ften the same learn ing material
Is a rb it ra ry to the ch ild as they are unable to appreciate
connections. For example, whereas most adu lts m ight in tu it iv e ly
associate the In form ation: "S itua tion , b rie f, investiga tion,
solutions, best-so lu tion , model, w o rk in g -d raw in g , rea lisation and
appra isa l" w ith some aspect o f design ing, th e re Is no obvious
suggestion o f the o rd e r in which they should appear. In fa c t these
names, and the processes to which they re fe r, con s titu te an
organ isation o f approach upon which Technology examinations are
assessed. Given the task o f remembering th is lis t, most mature
learners ty p ic a lly adopt sophisticated stra teg ies, (e.g., see
Gruneberg, 1973) whereas ch ild re n are fa r less s tra te g ic and
"p ia n fu i" , having a ve ry lim ited vocabulary o f s tra teg ies at th e ir
disposal, (H arris , 1978).
I t is im portan t to sta te here th a t mnemonics in themselves do not
teach meaning [1 ]. The ir normal func tion is to fa c ilita te the
re ten tion and subsequent recall o f p re v io u s ly learned material by
p ro v id ing additional cues at the time o f learn ing , which are again
available d u rin g attempted recall o f the material.
1 One possible exception m ight be the keyword method, (reviewed la te r)
12
In the classroom the ch ild fre q u e n tly encounters many new
concepts and names, between which the re is no obvious connection o r
re la tionsh ip . And ye t i t is the ve ry re la tionsh ip and organ isation
between these items which often form im portan t i f not cruc ia l fea tures
o f each su b je c t’s knowiedge-base. Two examples m ight include: a
mathematical form ula from which o the r ca lcu la tions can be made, o r
convention in musical chord s tru c tu re s from which harmony can be
w ritte n .
In every c u rr ic u la r area, w ithou t exception, th e re is a need to
remember s im ilar types o f basic fact. These form the fa b r ic o f
syllabuses th ro u gh o u t the school cu rricu lum and are re flected in the
form o f G.C.S.E. (General C ertifica te o f Secondary Education)
assessment c r ite r ia . M orris and Cook, (1978) w rite :
"Learning Is easiest when the Information to be retained Is meaningful and can be easily assimilated into the existing knowledge structure of the learner".
For teachers the crucia l question is how can th is be
most e ffec tive ly and economically achieved?
APPLIED STUDIES USING MNEMONICS
There is now a grow ing body o f s c ie n tif ic evidence dem onstrating th a t
the use o f simple learn ing s tra teg ies o r mnemonics can considerably
help ch ild ren w ith re ten tion and recall tasks. In the s p ir i t o f
Hi g bee, (1977) and Bellezza, (1981), C arrie r, e t a/., (1983, P.235)
suggest: "Researchers and p ra c tition e rs now recognise th a t mnemonics
are an e ffec tive way to organize, encode and re tr ie ve in fo rm ation ,"
con fide n tly suggesting th a t "They do actua lly w ork," (Raw I es, (1978).
But how has th is affected educational p ractice and performance?
13
D uring the past decade o r so, research in the fie ld o f mnemonics
has focused almost exclus ive ly upon a spec ific typ e o f mnemonic system
known as the 'Keyword method’ [2 ]. Following encouraging labora to ry
tr ia ls , a number o f experimental s tud ies have successfu lly applied the
system to va rious aspects o f classroom learn ing , e.g., vocabu lary
In s tru c tio n , (e.g.. M erry, 1980b; Levin, e t al, 1982; McDaniel and
Pressley, 1989) and ass is ting the lea rn ing disabled, (McGlvern and
Levin, 1983; M astrop ieri, Scruggs and Levin, 1985b; Condus, Marshall
and M iller, 1986. For a fu l le r review , see the section marked "The
Keyword mnemonic" in th is s tudy , (p p .127-135) Given the apparent
success o f the keyword, i t seems reasonable to assess the e fficacy o f
o th e r types o f mnemonic more re g u la rly used in schools. In p a rticu la r
the acrostic , more commonly called a f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
2 A mnemonic system th a t employs in te ra c tive associative Imagery to learn material
14
FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS
"Throughout life, it will sometimes be necessary to learn apparently unconnected information and a knowledge of what techniques to apply to simplify the task should be one element of education", (Morris and Cook, 1978)
Common sense suggests th a t teachers are known to employ a va rie ty o f
mnemonics on an informal basis, (e.g., see the section marked "S ta ff
s u rve y " in th is s tu d y , pp.293-325) In B ritish Education th e re Is
something o f a tra d itio n to use f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics to help teach
certa in items o f a rb it ra ry inform ation. For example. In music
E.G.B.D.F., the s tave -line notation in the tre b le c le f Is o ften
’ta u g h t’ by the sentence "E -ve ry G-ood B-oy D-eserves F -u n " and the
sequential o rd e r o f the spectra l colours, {R-e6, O-range, Y-ellow, G-
reen, B-iue, I-n d ig o and V-iolet) is o ften associated w ith the
sentence:
"R -ichard 0 - f Y -o rk G-ained (sometimes G-ave Is used) B -a ttle I-n
V -a in ".
A lthough the e ffectiveness o f th is typ e o f mnemonic m ight at
f i r s t appear se if-e v id e n t, in th a t i t is by no means unusual to be
able to remember the associated inform ation even a fte r many decades
have passed, repeated attem pts to v e r ify the e fficacy o f the mnemonic
under expérimentai conditions have proved ia rge iy inconclusive.
Summarising th is position, M orris and Cook, (1978) w rite :
"While there Is no doubt about the popularity of these mnemonics the evidence for their effectiveness does raise doubts".
Following a f lu r r y o f s tud ies designed to te s t the e fficacy o f
acrostics d u rin g the 1970s and early ’80s, research a c tiv ity appears
to have la rge ly evaporated. The evidence avaiiabie presents such a
confusing p ic tu re (M cLaughlin Cook, 1989) th a t meaningful conclusions
cannot be drawn.
15
The samples used are genera lly h igh ly selective, ty p ic a lly
coliege-age students, tested under a rtif ic ia l conditions. The
materials used have been taken ou t o f context, (e.g., paired-associate
lea rn ing) and there has been lit t le re la tionsh ip between the
experiment and an in tr in s ic incentive , o th e r than ob ta in ing some form
o f accredita tion tow ards a related course.
In a recent review o f verbal mnemonics, McLaughlin Cook, (1989)
h ig h lig h ts the inadequacy o f previous research in th is area,
suggesting :
"No study has examined the spontaneous use of verbal mnemonics In schoolchildren "
Selective as previous research has been, i t has provided im portant
inform ation re la ting to the fo llow ing aspects o f f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonics:
1) The e ffects o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic o rig ina tion [3 ], (e.g., Boitwood and B lick, 1970; K ib le r and B iick, 1972; Nelson and A rcher, 1972; Pines and B lick, 1974; M orris and Cook, 1978)
2) The e ffectiveness o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics compared w ith a lte rna tive lea rn ing methods, (e.g., Perew iznyk and Blick,1978; M orris and Cook, 1978; Carlson, Zimmer and Glover, 1981)
3) What benefits the mnemonic may have in examination preparation, (e.g., B iick, BuonassissI and Boitwood, 1972; G runeberg, 1973).
4) The long-te rm e ffec ts o f the mnemonic, (e.g., K ib ie r and B iick, 1972; Pines and B lick, 1974; L ieu ry , 1980; Carlson,Zimmer and Glover, 1981)
None o f these stud ies has used ch ild ren as sub jects , none has
pos itive ly demonstrated the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics over
a lte rna tive learn ing methods, none has been successful In matching the
3 e.g., whether supplied by su b je c t o r experim enter
16
learn ing time o f each experimental condition , and none has used real
c u rr ic u la r learn ing material drawn from ch ild re n 's reg u la r syllabuses.
The p resen t s tudy addresses these Im portant Issues In an attem pt
to d iscover the e ffec ts o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics w ith in a regu la r
learn ing se tting .
17
EDUCATIONAL THEORY INTO PRACTICE ?
In 1979, Howe and Ceci wrote somewhat op tim is tica lly :
"We have progressed a considerable way, but not all the way, towards establishing that the findings of scientific investigations of human memory can have widespread practical applications for school learning."
Ten years la te r, even the dramatic learn ing improvements
demonstrated using the keyw ord have had l it t le impact on the English
school cu rricu lum ; i f indeed, any impact at ail. I t is ve ry su rp ris in g
and w o rry ing th a t the f r u i ts o f applied educational research have
fa iled to penetrate educational practice.
Accounting fo r th is position is d if f ic u lt and like ly to be the
sum o f many variab les. One conspicuous problem appears to be related
to the awkwardness w ith which the knowledge gained from experimental
stud ies is communicated to those in the most su itab le position to
de rive some practica l benefit, namely teachers and s tudents. There is
p resently no organised, consistent, o r sa tis fac to ry method o f
re po rtin g developments in research to teachers.
Even i f th is were achieved, a su itab le fram ework does not exist
whereby discussion o r in te rac tion between classroom teachers and
educational researchers could be used to system atica lly design and
appraise c u rr ic u la r innovation. The uneasy re la tionsh ip between
educational p ra c titio n e rs and th e o ris ts seems to be more prom inent in
B rita in than in America, where research p ro jec ts undertaken in schools
appear to be more accepted, commonplace and appreciated.
B ritish teachers ’ apprehension tow ards innovation is not w ithou t
foundation. Memories o f I.T.A., [4 ] and the d iscred ited reading te s t
designed by C yril B urt, (1963) have done lit t le to fo s te r the t ru s t
necessary fo r a more harmonious re la tionsh ip between research and
practice.
4 In itia l Teaching Alphabet
18
The gap between research and p ractice appears to be as large as
ever. A case in po in t is the h ig h ly acclaimed method o f teaching
language vocabu lary using the keyw ord method - h igh ly acclaimed, th a t
is, among the en thus ias tic researchers whose applied experimental
resu lts suggested noth ing less than an im portan t b reakthrough in
vocabulary learn ing.
In re a lity , common sense suggests th a t most language teachers are
ia rge iy unaware o f the technique, despite its somewhat ancient
pedigree [5 ]. A lthough the keyword method has been c ritic ise d as a
system which avoids the " tru e " trans la tion and comprehension o f
material, th is claim was never made fo r the keyword. One assumes th a t
those responsible fo r designing the lite ra tu re which accompanies
language courses and assists in s tru c tio n are prepared to fo rg o the
benefits the keyword m ight a ffo rd fo r the sake o f susta in ing
tra d ition a l practice.
Given th a t teachers may be ia rge iy unaware o f the benefits the
keyword m ight a ffo rd th e ir s tudents, th is is ha rd ly the case w ith
f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics. Teachers use these in fo rm a lly w ith l it t le
ob jec tive evidence to suggest they do in fa c t promote more e ffec tive
learn ing.
I t seems incongruous th a t stud ies a ttem pting to assess the
e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics should p rov ide such negative data.
In the w r ite r ’s experience, f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics learned both
separately o r in con junction w ith related learn ing material ty p ic a lly
lead to c. 100% learn ing improvements. Common sense suggests th a t o ther
professionals are equally convinced they work. Why else would they
waste valuable iesson-time teaching a mnemonic?
5 A tkinson, 1975; A tkinson and Raugh, 1975
19
This research was designed to assess the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonics when used w ith ch ild ren in a reg u la r context, by using
ob jec tive methods to e lic it new Inform ation re la ting to acrostics. The
methods used to obta in th is inform ation were:
1) An applied experimental s tu d y designed to compare the e fficacy o f mnemonlcally Ins truc ted learn ing w ith th a t o f ro te - in s tru c te d and un ins truc ted conditions. The performances o f ch ild ren in each experimental condition assigned to one o f two age-g roups (mode 11.5 and 13.5 years) were compared.
2) A questionna ire issued to each ch ild to e lic it the precise learn ing o f each ch ild fo llow ing a learn ing a c tiv ity .
3) Small-scale fo ilow -up in te rv iew s w ith the mnemonlcally in s tru c te d group.
4) A su rve y c ircu la ted to s ta ff to obta in inform ation about c u rre n t mnemonic p ractice in secondary schools.
20
APPROACH AND METHODS OF RESEARCH
Although considerable amounts o f time and resources are devoted to
educational research, the re appears to be a tra d itio n whereby its
fin d in g s remain unused and unrecognised as having practical
applications in the classroom.
I t is the hope o f the w r ite r th a t the fin d in g s o f th is s tudy will
demonstrate th a t educational research does have a positive practica l
co n tribu tio n to assist teachers in fa c ilita tin g and developing the
educational process.
Using mnemonics to assist learn ing has been rid icu led fo r many
decades. In the absence o f ob jec tive statements o f th e ir e fficacy o r
otherw ise, con jec tu re and supposition have condemned them as ’t r ic k s ’ ,
’memory c ru tches ’ o r worse. Over the last two decades in p a rticu la r,
mnemonics have once again a ttrac ted an in te res t not d iss im ilar to th a t
shown by the Greek philosophers who were fu lly aware o f the
considerable benefits mnemonics could p rov ide to human memory.
Despite th is rek ind led in te res t in a su b jec t o f great m ystique
and cu rio s ity , research has been lim ited by inadequate resources,
d isappo in ting labora to ry resu lts and lim ited empirical experimental
oppo rtun ities .
21
RESOURCES
Research g ran ts in the United Kingdom tend to p r io r it is e p ro je c ts
re lated to e ith e r government o r educational in itia tiv e s o r
a lte rn a tive ly those related to bachelors’ o r masters’ theses. In
subm itting an application fo r a pa rt-tim e award to assist th is
p ro jec t, the w r ite r was informed th a t research p ro jec ts beyond the
level o f a master’s degree "would not be considered".
This position is p a rtic u la r ly d isappo in ting fo r those teachers
who wish to develop research which they may have already undertaken as
p a rt o f an ea rlie r s tudy , and w ithou t aid fin d themselves unable to
continue.
Most education a u tho ritie s are w illing to encourage teachers to
undertake advanced s tudy up to master’s level. However If th is degree
Is, a t least in pa rt, preparation fo r fu r th e r research w ith a view to
positive , p ractica l, u tilisab le outcomes, then th is p o ss ib ility is
lost due to a lack o f the small p rov is ion th a t would be requ ired to
achieve th is ob jective .
LABORATORY RESULTS
With the exception o f one specific area, research in to mnemonics both
here and in the United States has produced such Inconclusive resu lts
th a t the momentum o f s tudy has declined ra p id ly . E ffo rts by American
researchers to demonstrate the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics in
labora to ry tr ia ls have been inconclusive. In assessing th is typ e o f
mnemonic, i t does not seem sa tis fac to ry to omit tes ting its e ffic iency
in the classroom. Given the informal tra d itio n among teachers to use
mnemonics to help th e ir ch ild ren acqu ire learn ing s tra teg ies , the
confused and inconclusive labora to ry resu lts seem incongruous.
22
Experimental research is o ften re s tric te d by the time resources
and o p po rtu n ities avaiiabie. A researcher who needs to te s t a
hypothesis which its e lf invo lves the period ic tes ting o f
schoolch ildren is faced w ith considerable d if f ic u lty . For example,
g iven the demands o f the National C urricu lum , w ith additional
co ns tra in ts on time and resources to meet c u rr ic u la r ta rge ts , the
researcher w ill have to be prepared to negotiate extensive ly to
achieve th is requirem ent. Empirical research in schools is not popu lar
among s ta ff. Iro n ica lly It Is teachers, those most able to negotiate
in th is s itua tion , who are often those least like ly to receive su p po rt
fo r educational research.
U ntil resources are made available by in s titu tio n s , education
au th o ritie s o r schools [6 ] to encourage and suppo rt h igher research,
i t is d if f ic u lt to envisage precise ly how fu r th e r empirical research
w ill be undertaken. Equally teachers need to know, and have a r ig h t to
know, how the resu lts o f such empirical research w ill help them in the
classroom.
C learly teachers have a respons ib ility to become se lf-in fo rm ed
th ro u gh reading c u rre n t jou rn a ls o r educational publications. In
add ition , educational in s titu tio n s which have access to and hold
po ten tia lly useful knowledge could also communicate th is to p ra c tis ing
teachers, v ia teacher o r education centres. I t would appear th a t one
o f the fa c to rs in h ib it in g the sharing o f knowledge between teachers
and research in s titu tio n s is ine ffec tive communication. Educational
in s titu tio n s can have a tendency to speak a d if fe re n t language from
th a t o f p rac tis ing teachers. Our own experience can suggest th a t
ine ffec tive communication o f the aims and purpose o f educational
6 e.g., under the Local Management o f Schools
23
research can lead to teachers ta k in g a somewhat sceptical view o f the
re la tionsh ip between educational th e o ry , research and practice.
24
SUMMARY OR SECTION 1
MEMORY: AN OUTLINE SKETCH OF TWO MODELS
What w ill be attempted f i r s t is a b r ie f chronological review o f some
approaches tow ards the s tu d y o f memory. This is followed by a more
spec ific review o f memory processes, which are linked w ith the
fu n c tio n in g o f mnemonics. Inc luded in th is d iscussion is the
re la tionsh ip between organ isa tion , meaning, and context in learn ing
and how the c h ild ’s Incremental acqu is ition o f m etacognitive processes
is related to knowledge acquis ition .
Before examining tw o sp e c ific models o f memory, evidence from
neurological, amnesiac and psychoanalytica l sources is explored.
Next, tw o d if fe re n t approaches to the s tu d y o f memory are
examined. The f i r s t is a dichotomous view, hypothesis ing more than one
processing and storage system; the second an approach which lin k s the
d u ra b ility o f memory w ith the depth a t which i t has been encoded.
In the in te res ts o f b re v ity , both examinations w ill be re s tric te d
to the main evidence related to each model.
A fu l le r review o f theore tica l developments d u rin g the 19th
ce n tu ry , can be found in ’Human Memory*. (Seamon, 1980) and also in
’Aspects o f Memory’ . (G runeberg and M orris, 1978). Two im portan t
contem porary review s have been made by Alan Baddeley:
’The Psychology o f Memory’ . (1985) and ’Memory ’ . (1990). The same
a u tho r has also w ritte n a p ractica l handbook, ’Memory: a User’s
Guide’ . (1982) w h ils t ’Applied Problems in Memory’ . (1979) edited by
Gruneberg and M orris, is a rguab ly one o f the most in flu e n tia l
d iscussions related to applications o f memory research.
25
BACKGROUND
"Memory is an abstraction. In everyday speech, we talk of having a good memory, of having a poor memory, of having a better memory forfaces than for names Yet It Is true, although alarming, to saythat there is no such thing as memory." (Hunter, 1957/64)
Attem pting to account fo r in tang ib le aspects o f th o u g h t and perception
was a fa vo u rite preoccupation o f Greek scholars, (e.g., see Yates,
1966, The A rt o f Memory). Empedocles, (495-435 B.C.) suggested th a t
s ig h t was an extension o f touch, and Democritus, (460-360 B.C.)
hypothesised th a t Images o f ob jec ts moulded the a ir as they trave lled
en rou te to the eyes, (e.g., see Marshall and F rye r, 1978).
Two o f the greatest w rite rs o f ancient times, A ris to tle , (In De
Memoria Reminiscentia) and Plato, (In the Tabula Rasatus), o ffe r
s im ila r analogies o f memory, th a t re la ting to stamping o r p r in t in g
upon matter. In A ris to tle ’s proposal especially, the Latin connection
w ith the modern term Is se lf-ev iden t.
Contemporary discussions on the su b je c t are based on more
o b je c tive Inform ation, employing sc ie n tif ic methodology and system atic
procedures, the reby avoid ing the sub jectiv ism demonstrated In many
e a rlie r publications, (e.g., Zedler’s Grosses Lexicon. 1732-1750).
Addressing the need fo r a more "s c ie n tif ic " approach, Estes, (1979)
w rites :
"What we hope fo r p rim a rily from models [o f memory] Is th a t they w ill b rin g ou t the re la tionsh ip between experim ents o r sets o f data th a t we would not o therw ise have perceived."
26
In flu e n tia l In promoting th is typ e o f approach, has been a series o f
experiments undertaken by Ebblnghaus, (1885) who established
many o f the p rinc ip le s followed by subsequent psychologists like
B a rtle tt, [1 ].
A lthough c ritic ise d fo r the type o f 'nonsense', o r a r t if ic ia l
material he used, [2] Ebblnghaus demonstrated the existence o f
d is t in c t fu nc tion s o f memory, once Independent variab les [3 ] were held
constant. Adopting mainly se ria l lea rn ing [4 ] techniques, he observed
the t r ip a r t ite re la tionsh ip between: learn ing time, the number o f
mental repe titions made o f learn ing material, and Its subsequent
d u ra b ility .
Ebblnghaus hypothesised th a t the e ffectiveness w ith which
material could be learned was d ire c t ly related to the exposure o f the
learn ing material to h igher cogn itive functions.
A lthough work by Glaze, (1928) had a lready h igh ligh ted
cogn ition 's capacity to create meaning where none n a tu ra lly exists,
B a rtle tt's (1932) Investiga tions were a de libera te attem pt to
Investiga te memory In a less a rtif ic ia l context, which emphasised
"....the centra l importance o f the su b je c t's active search fo r
meaning", (Baddeley, 1985).
1 Among B a rtle tt 's s tuden ts were Broad bent. Brown and Conrad. The In fluen tia l Nelsser, (e.g., 1967, p .10, also considers himself as a "d isc ip le " o f the B a rtle tt approach.)2 For example, consonant-vowel-consonant triagrammes such as 0 U F; H E Z, et al.3 Features re la ting to an experiment, which, unless manipulated, (con tro lled ) are Inclined to reduce the p u r ity o f resu lts .4 Where the o rd e r o f recall re fle c ts the o rd e r o f Items o r ig in a lly presented fo r learn ing.
27
Using a range o f materials, [5 ] B a rtle tt noted a d ire c t
re la tionsh ip In the delay between In itia l learn ing , re -te s t, and the
accuracy w ith which material could be remembered. He also observed a
linear re la tionsh ip between exposure time and q u an tity o f material
th a t could be recalled, ("to ta l time hypothes is").
Later labora to ry research, (e.g., BugelskI, 1962; Jung, 1964;
Zacks, 1969) and applied stud ies, (e.g.. Bloom, 1974) have
subsequently confirmed B a rtle tt’s fin d in g s , a lthough anomalies
re la ting to how sub jec ts d is tr ib u te learn ing time, (e.g., reviewed by
Cooper and Pantle, 1967) the re lia b il ity o f th e ir rep o rtin g and the
learn ing methods they sometimes use, (e.g., see Paivio, 1971 on
Imagery) are variab les often d if f ic u lt to con tro l, (e.g., see Kail,
1979).
Another Im portant fea tu re o f B a rtle tt’s work. In re la tion to th is
s tudy . Is th a t I f sub jec ts are unable to recall certa in deta ils o f a
s to ry they tend to fa b rica te material In an attem pt to re ta in the
Item’s essential s tru c tu re and meaning. This fin d in g emphasised the
centra l role o f meaning w ith in human memory, and Is the basis o f many
cogn itive and mnemonic learn ing stra teg ies, (see Alexander and Judy,
1988).
During the "a rid years" (R ichardson, 1980) o f the 1940s and ’50s,
the "s trang le hold" o f the behav iouris ts [6 ] proved almost "Impossible
to p ie rce", (Nilsson, 1979) la rge ly d e te rrin g work on memory which,
like Imagery, was considered a "d is re pu tab le " sub ject. In 1972,
Tu lv ing wrote:
"....the term "memory" has recen tly been perm itted to re tu rn from the Umbo Into which It was swept by the tid e o f behaviourism some th ir ty years ago."
5 This Included sto ries, prose, p ic tu res and p ic tu re w ritin g .6 Members o f the sc ie n tif ic community, who In te rp re ted cogn itive action w ith in stim ulus-response paradigms.
28
D uring the late 1950s, specific events once again re-established
cognitiv ism as a respectable sc ie n tif ic approach, where the s tu d y o f
memory, along w ith Its associative func tions , (e.g.. Imagery and meta
concepts) enjoyed a "renaissance".
W orking Independently, Brown, (1958) and the Petersons, (1959)
produced qu ite dramatic evidence th a t cognition was associated w ith
two separate storage systems, a long-te rm store, where re ten tion Is
affected by in te rfe rence , and a sh o rt-te rm sto re where re ten tion Is
affected by the decay o f the memory trace.
Facilita ting the "new approach", was Broad bent’s (1958) In te res t
In computer processing. Using com puter processing as an analogy. It
was plausible to view human memory In term s o f in form ation flow
between a series o f subsystems.
Although the c re d ib ility o f a u n ita ry memory-system was s til l
ac tive ly maintained, (e.g., Melton, 1963) "In form ation processing"
approaches provided the Impetus to Id e n tify more approp ria te models o f
memory. Adopting such Ideas were proponents o f various "dup lex"
models, (Brown, Ib id ; Peterson and Peterson, Ib id .) a lthough a
p le thora o f assorted proposals followed.
Norman’s (1970) collection o f essays on human memory, lis t in g
th irte e n d if fe re n t memory models, (Inc lud ing some tw e n ty - f iv e
categories o f memory) was a more general demonstration o f the "new
era", (Nilsson, 1979) bu t In associated fie ld s such as Imagery
research, the "ve rita b le explosion" (Ib id .) o f research was also
evident, (see M erry, 1980b fo r a review).
29
A ttra c tive as the A tkinson and S h lffr in model was, Its appeal
faded as evidence from a range o f sources could not easily be
accommodated w ith in Its proposed fram ework. (These Issues are
discussed In g rea te r detail below).
In 1972, Cralk and Lockhart presented a completely new approach
which avoided many problems associated w ith a m u lti-s to re view, (see
Melton 1963).
A lthough the leve ls o f processing approach was d ire c tly indebted
to Broad bent’s (1958) proposals, C ralk and Lockhart avoided storage
problems associated w ith dichotomous views o f memory by suggesting
th a t It Is the depth a t which material Is processed th a t determ ines
Its d u ra b ility ra th e r than the store to which i t Is adm itted. (This
approach Is examined In g rea te r detail below).
Like e a rlie r models the levels approach fa iled to accommodate
some Im portant research find ings , and expectations th a t It m ight form
the basis o f a more general fram ework o f s tudy remain la rge ly
u n fu lfille d .
In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch supported claims (e.g., Posner and
Rossman, 1965; A tkinson and S h lffr in , 1968; Hunter, 1957; Newell and
Simon, 1972) fo r what Is a rguab ly the on ly d if fe re n t contem porary STM
model, w ork ing memory.
As th is p a rticu la r model Is not discussed In detail elsewhere I
will ou tline Its main fea tu res here.
30
The diagram on the fo llow ing page depicts the cen tra l executive
which, In addition to fu n c tio n in g as a sh o rt-te rm processor, assumes a
range o f h ighe r cogn itive func tions Inc lud ing prob lem -solv ing and
reasoning, (e.g., Baddeley, (e.g., 1974; 1985; 1990). The centra l
executive Is responsib le fo r what o th e r w orkers have termed
m etacognitive func tions , (e.g., Flavell, 1971; Brown, 1978; Brown and
DeLoache, 1983; Brown, e t al., 1983) In addition to acting as a
p rim ary store.
31
The ro le o f th e "cen tra l executive" as proposed by Alan Baddeley,
(1986) in : W orking Memory. C larendon Press: Oxford.
V isuo-spa iia l sketch (sc ra tch ) pad
1C e n t r a l
e x e c u t i v e
A rtic u la to ryloop
This model supposes th a t the "cen tra l executive" is resposib le fo r
both v isua l and phonetic processing.
32
Baddeley and H itch, (1974) adopted Cralk and Lockhart’s notion o f
"p rim a ry memory" as a means o f exp lo ring the re la tionsh ip between:
reasoning and mathematics, (e.g.. H itch, 1977); reasoning and reading,
(e.g., Baddeley, 1978); reasoning and sh o rt-te rm processing, (H itch
and Baddeley, 1976). These stud ies re in forced the need to assume an
In tegrated re la tionsh ip between sh o rt-te rm processing and h igher
cogn itive func tions . There was also an accumulation o f evidence, from
stud ies related to Imagery, (e.g., Shepard and Chlpman, 1970; Shepard
and Metzler, 1971; Palvio, (e.g., Palvio, 1969; Palvio, 1971; Palvio,
1972; Palvio, 1975) and acoustic storage, (e.g., Conrad and Hull,
1964; HIntzman, 1967; W Ickelgren, 1969) which suggested Independent
phonic and visual processing components w ith in cognition.
Baddeley himself Is the f i r s t to adm it th a t a lthough the re is
abundant phonological evidence to su p p o rt the loop the o ry , less Is
known about the operation o f the sketchpad and even less about th e ir
p a rticu la r re la tionsh ip w ith the centra l executive. Nonetheless, the
Idea Is a new d irec tion and a lthough a " te n ta tive " (Baddeley, 1990)
model. Is helping tow ards a g rea te r understand ing o f the na tu re o f
sh o rt-te rm processing.
U nfo rtuna te ly the po ss ib ility o f estab lish ing a model o f memory
which both accommodates the evidence available and Is acceptable to
the sc ie n tif ic community In general, seems as remote as ever. In 1979,
Nilsson wrote: "....we do not know ve ry much more about memory now
than we knew years ago". The deeper Investiga tions probe the m ystery
o f memory, the more complex It appears to be. But the complexity o f
memory Itse lf o ffe rs s tuden ts o f psychology a challenge, and probab ly
we ough t to use T u lv ln g ’s (1979) words, "....have the courage...to
re je c t Ideas and hypotheses th a t are a t variance w ith the data" In an
attem pt to know more.
33
ORGANISATION WITHIN COGNITION, MEANING, CONTEXT AND MEMORY
"One of the motivating sources of modern cognitive psychology of memory is the concept of organization." (Mandler, 1979). "When we think of organization processes in memory, we are naturally reminded of an earlier revolution launched under the banner of Gestalt," (Postman, 1972).
A specific measure adopted by C ogn ltiv is ts to improve the d e fin itio n
o f statements related to fu nc tions o f memory, Is to Id e n tify w ith
g rea te r precision and c la r ity , how memory Is organised.
This type o f approach enabled T u lv ing (1972) to herald the
a rr iv a l o f a "new k ind " o f memory, (which he a ttr ib u te s to Q uillian,
e.g., 1967 [7 ]) Semantic memory).
In a powerfu l and In fluen tia l paper, T u lv ing , (1972) attempted to
e lucidate the na tu re o f semantic memory, claim ing th a t the term had
been used "In a p p ro p ria te ly " by successive authors, (e.g., Rumelhart,
L indsay and Norman, 1972; KIntsch, 1972). T u lv ln g ’s proposal suggested
th a t memory was comprised o f two u n de rly ing storage "ca tego ries":
Episodic and Semantic, a lthough remaining adamant th a t these should
not be a ttr ib u te d to independent sho rt, and long-te rm storage systems.
T u lv ing , (1972) describes Episodic memory as: "....memory fo r
personal experiences and th e ir temporal re la tions", and Semantic
memory as: "a system fo r rece iv ing, re ta in ing , and tra n sm ittin g
Inform ation about meaning o f words, concepts, and c lass ifica tion o f
concepts".
7 A lthough the re la tionsh ip between meaning and memory had much e a rlie r been stud ied by Cattell, (1887).
34
A succession o f subsequent stud ies (e.g., Schulman, 1971/74;
Kolers and O stry , 1974; Smith, e t al., 1978; ) confirm s the power o f
episodic experiences as p ro v id ing a con text fo r re ten tion .
Each o f us has probab ly experienced the e ffec ts o f context on
subsequent recall. C erta in ly Beethoven d id . W hilst r id in g In a coach,
Beethoven dreamt o f a piece o f music which he almost immediately
fo rg o t R iding In the same coach the fo llow ing day, he suddenly
recalled the musical canon and wrote It down, (D re lstad t, 1971).
Baddeley, (1985) describes an In te res ting s tudy designed to te s t
th is specific e ffect. Deep sea d ive rs were given Inform ation to learn
In two contexts, on shore and underw ater. Godden and Baddeley, (1975)
found th a t Inform ation learned In the underw ater context was b e tte r
recalled In th a t context, and v ice -ve rsa , (see also Smith, 1988).
Both the above descrip tions o f con text-dependent memory would,
using Gestalt the o ry , be In te rp re ted w ith in "organisational
fram ew orks". That Is cognition has a "na tu ra l p ropens ity " to lin k
cogn itive and environm ental events In such a dynamic way, th a t
reca lling specific cogn itive data can o n ly re su lt In the reca lling o f
traces (memories) which were laid down sim ultaneously w ith, and In
association to, the ta rg e t trace, [8].
"Environm ental re instatem ent e ffec ts " a lthough well supported by
both theoretica l (e.g.. Smith, 1988) and empirical fin d in g s (e.g.,
Canas and Nelson, 1986) should be In te rp re ted cautiously, as
additional contem porary research Is a t some variance w ith the fin d in g s
o f Baddeley and his associates. Two recent (labo ra to ry ) stud ies
related to learn ing/exam ination context e ffects, (Saufley, e t al.,
1985; Fernandez and Glen berg, 1985) re p o rt l it t le context e ffect.
8 e.g., the trace o f the Item th a t Is being recalled.
35
con trad ic ting M eilgren’s (1984) data, bu t as Chen (1984) po in ts out,
s tuden ts norm ally s tudy outside th e ir regu la r classroom environm ent.
The present discussion Is Im portant to some theoretica l and
practica l aspects o f th is s tudy.
One o f the main func tion s o f mnemonics In general, and f i r s t -
le tte r mnemonics In p a rticu la r. Is to elaborate o r attach additional
meaning to learn ing material. Given the preceding discussion It would
be reasonable to hypothesise th a t d if fe re n t environm ental cues m ight
In te rfe re w ith the mnemonic material itse lf. This Is not found to be
the case, as the "o u tsh in in g hypothesis" p red ic ts th a t s tro n g e r cues
have the e ffe c t o f masking weaker ones, (see Elch, 1980; Nixon and
Kanak, 1981).
I f a mnemonic provides b e tte r and more "d is tin c tiv e " cues than
those w ith in the Immediate context o f the learn ing material, (e.g.,
see Jacoby and Cralk, 1979) i t w iil be the cues the mnemonic p rov ides
th a t w iii dominate those less salient, (e.g., Gelselman and B jo rk ,
1980, and see Smith, 1988 fo r a review). As M orris, (1979) po in ts out:
"The centra l problem fo r a memory system Is to lay down a t the In itia l
acquis ition stage a record In a form which can be re trieved when
re trieva l Is a pp rop ria te ". T u lv ing , (T u lv ing and Osier, 1968)
addressed th is Issue In more detail th ro u gh the proposal o f his
"encoding sp e c ific ity hypothesis", where;
"....spec ific re tr ie va l cues fa c ilita te recall I f and on ly I f the inform ation about them and about th e ir re la tion to the to -b e - remembered words Is stored a t the same time as th e In form ation about the membership o f the to-be-rem em bered words In a g iven lis t ," (T u lv ing and Osier, 1968, p.599).
36
In the case o f reduction systems such as acronyms, th is is achieved by
s tr ip p in g away all bu t the most essential cues o f each word, e.g., the
f i r s t le tte rs . These, In tu rn , can be de libera te ly organised to form a
recognisable word, the reby crea ting both context, (e.g.. Smith, 1988)
and meaning, (T u lv ing , 1972) where none "n a tu ra lly ex is ts", (Baddeley,
1985).
Acrostics [9] also func tion to s treng then f i r s t - le t te r cueing by
generating additional meaning In a d if fe re n t way. Here the f i r s t
le tte rs (and sometimes additional ones) o f each to -be -lea rned word are
used to p rov ide the f i r s t le tte rs o f more memorable words. These are
organised to p rov ide a statement, sentence o r phrase which Is
ty p ic a lly more memorable than the o rig ina l learn ing material. To de
code the acrostic, the Ind iv idua l uses the cues provided by the f i r s t
le tte rs to prom pt the learned words, ( fo r a more detailed discussion,
see the sections In th is s tudy marked "Mnemonics, a b r ie f h is to rica l
pe rspective", pp .103-105; "Mnemonics In contem porary soc ie ty", pp .106-
109 and "F irs t - le t te r mnemonics", pp.137-140.
Adopting T u lv ln g ’s hypothesis, the e laborative na ture o f
mnemonics cause associated material to be processed at a deeper level
w ith in memory s tru c tu re , which has a powerfu l capacity to categorise
and organise at the level o f meaning, (Baddeley, 1966; Baddeley and
Levey, 1971). When material Is o f an a rb it ra ry nature, and a rb it ra ry
re la tionsh ips exist between Items com prising the learn ing material.
Its memorability Is considerably reduced.
How many readers have experienced anxiety and fru s tra tio n d u ring
attem pts to remember a telephone number, de livered v ia a p re -reco rded
B ritish Telecom (BT) taped message?
9 For example, "R ichard Of York Gained Battle In Vain" (more commonly called a " f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic") Is sometimes used In the learn ing o f the sequential o rd e r o f the spectra l colours.
37
Whilst I am sure BT have the In te rests o f the h a rd -o f-h e a rin g at
heart, when they decided to present telephone numbers In an
a r tif ic ia l, dissociated, ’automatic’ way, su re ly th e ir advisers would
have known th a t th is typ e o f presentation Is a t variance w ith o u r
p resent knowledge o f how memory operates.
Even w rite rs w ith in the fie ld o f mnemonics m ight be fo rg ive n fo r
fa llin g to remember a simple s ix -d lg it number transm itted by a
’syn thesised ’ voice reco rde r which fa lls both to group the numbers,
and also to o ffe r any meaningful association between the d ig its ,
(e.g.. In the form o f rhym e) which m ight make numbers more memorable -
su re ly the point?
The mechanically de livered number o ffe rs rec ip ien ts l it t le
o p p o rtu n ity to apply cogn itive s tra teg ies w ith in th e ir normal
re p e rto ry (see Cavanaugh and P erlm utter, 1982), as the ve ry
Inform ation which Is to be remembered Is In a form th a t makes i t ieast
memorable, (e.g., see Wallace and Rubin, 1988).
Baddeley, (1990) Illu s tra te s the re la tionsh ip between
organisation and meaning n icely. I paraphrase:
I f presented w ith a randomly arranged sequence o f mixed
consonants and vowels, eg., G D O I A L A Z N R A E N E N R , most
learners would fin d It d if f ic u lt to remember the sequence, unless
given s u ffic ie n t o p p o rtu n ity to rehearse o r re-code the material.
The same le tte rs arranged so th a t the vowels occur In positions
th a t suggest nonsense syllables,
e.g., N A R E L A D E N I Z A G R O N I s more memorable, bu t "O R G A
N I Z E A N D L E A R N", demands l it t le re ten tion e ffo r t at all.
Adopting a m u lti-s to re view o f memory the learner could tra n s fe r
th is material to a secondary o r long-te rm store In a t least two ways:
38
Through lay ing down successive traces o f the material w ith in
sh o rt-te rm sto re (STS) "maintenance rehearsa l", (the action o f
continuous vocal o r sub vocal repe tition o f the material, Cralk and
Lockhart, 1972) o r by associating the material w ith Items already
secure w ith in the Incred ib ly durab le semantic long-te rm sto re (LTS).
A lthough the d ig it sequence presented above Is beyond the
Immediate span o f normal sub jects , (e.g.. M iller, 1956; Ericsson and
Chase, 1982) material can be grouped, (e.g., Ebblnghaus, 1885)
"chunked" (e.g, WIckelgren, 1964) o r recoded, (e.g, Slak, 1970) In
o rd e r to fa c ilita te Its tra n s fe r to a more durab le LTS w ith an
"enormous" capacity, (e.g., Baddeley, 1990).
For a range o f reasons, based on evidence from a number o f
sources (discussed In more detail la te r), models o f memory which
fa iled to d iffe re n tia te between sh o rt-te rm and long-te rm components,
(despite th e ir p la u s ib ility , e.g., Melton, 1963) and those which
Inadequately addressed Issues like storage capacity and Inform ation
tra n s fe r, (e.g., T u lv ing , 1972) lost th e ir appeal.
Contemporary knowledge makes It d if f ic u lt to susta in e ith e r a
u n ita ry o r dichotomous model o f memory. Evidence suggesting how memory
Is organised will be reviewed next.
39
EVIDENCE OF MULTIPLE MEMORY STORES FROM FORGETTING
"While the nature of forgetting is no longer regarded as an Important argument in favor (sic) of a dichotomy, it remains an Interesting question in its own right and provides a useful framework for exploring STM {s h o rt- te rm memory) in greater detail." (Baddeley, 1985)
During the early post-w ar years, a succession o f labora to ry work,
using animals, produced h ig h ly co n flic tin g evidence about how sh o rt
term memory m ight fu nc tio n , (see Mayes, 1983 fo r a review). The
stim u lus-response associationaiists were almost solely preoccupied by
the fun c tio n s o f memory per se, ra th e r than becoming Involved In
dichotomy Issues. In te rac tion between these two fie ld s o f s tu dy was
stagnant.
I t may be remembered tha t. In the late 1950s, two pieces of
research once again b rough t the dichotomy Issue In to sharp focus.
Independently Brown, (1958) and the Petersons, (1959) demonstrated
th a t I f sub jec ts were prevented from rehearsing between learn ing
tr ia ls , (e.g., by loading cognition w ith an a c tiv ity re q u ir in g
a tten tlona l and analytica l demands) the ta rg e t material would be
ra p id ly fo rgo tten . (See also, Nelsser, 1982; Baddeley, e t al., 1984).
T yp ica lly Items at the beginn ing o f a l is t (hypothesised as
having been tra n s fe rre d to a "deeper level" o r more durab le store,
e.g., C ralk and Lockhart, 1972) and those at the end, d isp lay ing the
"recency e ffec t", [10] (e.g.. Postman and P h illips, 1965; Glanzer and
Cunltz, 1966) are remembered b e tte r than In te rven ing items. The
available evidence led many psycholog ists Into reasoning th a t memory
was at least a "dup lex" system, [11] (e.g., see K latzky, 1980).
10 Where It has been proposed th a t more recently presented Items are s til l c ircu la tin g w ith in an Immediate, p rim ary , o r tem porary memory store.11 e.g., com prising sh o rt and long-te rm memory systems.
40
Given the knowledge th a t cognition has the potential to sto re
"massive" (Baddeley, 1990) amounts o f Inform ation re la ting to a wide
range o f perceptual experiences. I f the re were bu t one u nde rly in g
memory-system, why should It not be possible fo r normal Ind iv idua ls to
possess a "span o f apprehension" (Galton, 1883) g rea te r than six o r
seven? (Hamilton, 1859, see Watkins, 1977) "s ix simple Impressions"?
(e.g., Wundt, 1887/1905) o r a s tr in g o f d ig its few er than nine?
(Jacobs, 1887; M iller, 1956).
And, why Is it, th a t unless Ind iv idua ls make some e ffo r t to
remember, say a telephone number. It w ill normally be fo rgo tten?
(e.g., see B a rtle tt, 1932; Broad bent, 1958; Brown, 1958; and la te r,
Watkins, 1977). The dichotomy Issue was fu r th e r s trengthened by
evidence th a t recall e rro rs , associated w ith LTM were ty p ic a lly
related to semantic encoding, w h ils t e rro rs associated w ith STM were
related to acoustic encoding, (e.g., Baddeley and Dale, 1966).
The Issue o f fo rg e ttin g was ac tive ly pursued using both
in te rfe ren ce and trace decay paradigms.
Developed along the lines proposed by the B ritish
associationaiists, Hobbes and Locke, associative in te rfe ren ce th e o ry
was used In an attem pt to explain the phenomenon o f fo rg e ttin g . Muller
and P llzecker, (1900) adapted the theo ry to fa c ilita te empirical tes ts
o f Its e fficacy and at Its he ight. It was claimed to be "one o f the
most successful and established theories In psycho logy", (K Intsch,
1970).
Subsequently c ritic ise d fo r Its lim ited capacity to account fo r
more recent knowledge about how memory func tions , (e.g., see Baddeley,
1985, pp. 76-99, fo r a d iscussion) the theo ry has nonetheless b rough t
ce rta in aspects o f fo rg e ttin g In to sha rpe r focus.
41
Two d is tin c t types o f in te rfe rence were claimed to be responsible
fo r "un le a rn in g ", "ex tinc tio n " (e.g., Melton and Irw in , 1940;
Underwood, 1948) o r, more In form ally , fo rg e ttin g . A lthough Proactive
in te rfe rence , [12] (e.g., Greenberg and Underwood, 1950) and
re tro a c tive in te rfe rence , [13] (e.g., B riggs, 1954) were assumed to
be responsible fo r once-learned material being p rogress ive ly eroded
w ith in memory, stud ies on long-te rm memory, (e.g., McGeoch and
McDonald, 1931) have shown th a t by the carefu l manipulation o f
material In recall tasks. In te rfe rence e ffec ts can be minimised.
The Petersons proposed th a t sh o rt-te rm fo rg e ttin g was the re su lt
o f trace decay, and assumed th a t long -te rm fo rg e ttin g was the re su lt
o f In te rference. Such an admission generated a good deal o f In e rtia
w ith in the dichotomy discussion.
A series o f Investiga tions followed, (e.g., Keppel and Underwood,
1962; WIckens, et al, 1963) who d isputed the Petersons’ In te rp re ta tio n
o f data, and Melton, (1963) who published a classic paper which
supported the p rin c ip le o f a u n ita ry view o f memory.
The premise o f Melton’s argum ent was th a t so many fea tu res o f
proposed sh o rt-te rm and long-te rm memory fu nc tio ns have s im ila r
a ttr ib u te s , th a t to assume an u n de rly ing dichotomous system w h ils t
’conven ient’ . Is a m isrepresentation and overs im p lifica tion o f how
memory Is organised. S trong evidence from both neuropsychological,
amnesic and psychoanalytica l sources, contend w ith Melton’s proposal.
12 When p rev ious ly learned material confuses the learn ing o f preceding material.13 When subsequently learned material confuses the learn ing o f th a t p rev ious ly learned.
42
FREUD AND PENFIELD
"A normal man, is he not an a cq u ire r o f In form ation, a c re a tu re who fo rg e ts a host o f th in g s and a t once those hundred thousand precepts per second he has no need to reg is te r? " (M ichaux, 1966)
A lthough the procedure has been d isputed, (e.g., see Shor and Orne,
1965) studen ts o f the psychoanalytica l school have now adequately
demonstrated th a t under hypnosis, [14] normal Ind iv idua ls are capable
o f reca lling vast amounts o f Inform ation th a t In th e ir conscious sta te
they would fin d qu ite Irre tr ie va b le . A lthough scholars themselves
disagree about what hypnosis m ight be, (e.g.. Barber, 1969; Barber and
Ham, 1974; H llgard, 1977) It has been used successfu lly to tre a t
various form s o f anxie ty, (e.g., Freud, 1892/3) and to fa c ilita te the
recall o f "accurate knowledge" (Oakley, 1983) re la ting to unattended
[15] events, (e.g., see also H llgard, 1977).
Typ ica lly memories recalled under hypnosis are accurate, v iv id
and reliable, (e.g.. Bower, 1981) suggesting th a t cognition has the
unattended capacity to record complete events In considerable deta il,
w ithou t the In d iv id u a l’s conscious awareness o f th is o ccu rrin g , (see
also Gardiner, 1989). Under normal circum stances much o f the f in e r
deta ils re la ting to events Is un recallable. However, fo r some reason
unclear as yet, they are p o te n tia lly available, (see also Hart, 1965;
Brown and McNeil, 1966; Reason and Lucas, 1984; Salame’ and Baddeley,
1987; 1989).
In flam boyant s ty le Reason and Lucas, (1984) hypothesised th a t
once cognition activates a search schema, "The unrequ ited schema, like
H eathcllff, continues to scan both the Inner and o u te r w orlds u n til
the ta rg e t Is found" u n til It "pops up" (H unter, 1964) sometime la te r.
14 An Induced state designed to "w iden the fie ld o f consciousness", (e.g., Puysegur, cited In Erdelyl,1985) from the Greek, "hypnos" meaning sleep.15 Events recorded w ithou t conscious awareness o r a tten tion .
43
There is im portant additional evidence suppo rting the Idea th a t
cognition contains a complete autobiographica l "experientia l reco rd ",
(Oakley, 1983) "extra-m arg ina l and outs ide o f p rim ary consciousness
a ltoge the r". (James, 1902) D uring cortex examinations o f several
patien ts, Penfleld, (1969) discovered th a t when a probe was Introduced
to specific areas o f conscious pa tien ts ’ temporal lobes, they reported
past events In rich and v iv id deta il, (see also Penfleld and Per ro t,
1963) being "aware o f all th a t was In [ th e ir ] mind d u rin g an e a rlie r
s tr ip o f tim e" as though "the stream o f e a rlie r consciousness [was]
flow ing again". (Penfleld 1969, p .152).
Freudians would argue th a t the In a b ility to recall such detailed
Inform ation d u rin g periods o f normal consciousness. Is caused by
cognition de libera te ly rep ress ing (m asking) material to avoid becoming
saturated by a p le thora o f sensory stim uli and Irre le va n t Inform ation,
(e.g., Freud, 1856-1939).
Theorists a rgu ing from the Gestalt tra d itio n [16] would contend
th a t If rehearsal o r o th e r co gn itive o r mnemonic s tra teg ies are
prevented, the trace com prising the ta rg e t material a n d /o r s tra teg ies
would p rogress ive ly decay to a po in t where the o rig ina l sensory Inpu t
Is Irre tr ie va b le . In simple term s, th is assumes the fad ing o r complete
loss o f a stim ulus " p r in t" as the re su lt o f a breakdown o f the
synthesised p ro te ins and neurons o f a once consolidated trace, (see
Baron des, 1970 fo r a more detailed d iscussion)
Given the natura l problems associated w ith tra n s la tin g the
re su lts o f hypno tic and contextual stim ulation stud ies In to ob jec tive
data, the next section reviews some o f the more tang ib le evidence
re la ting to the dichotomy hypothesis.
16 Founded In Germany, (e.g., Kohler, Wertheimer, e t a l.) p a rtic u la r ly In fluen tia l between the 1920s and ’30s .
44
MEDICAL EVIDENCE
"We do not yet know much about the physiological bases of retaining. But we have no reason to doubt that retaining is accomplished by modifications of the nervous system and, furthermore, that these modifications are of a structural kind whenever retaining persists for longer than a few minutes." (Hunter, 1957/64)
In v ir tu a lly all d iscussions re la ting to the dichotomy Issue, memory-
impaired pa tien ts and the e ffects o f d ru gs and amnesics are used to
Illu s tra te claims suppo rting mu I t ip I e -s to re hypotheses.
DRUGS
Barondes, (1970) describes how chemicals (e.g., acetoxycyclohexim lde)
known to a ffec t the syn thesis o f p ro te ins requ ired fo r long-te rm
storage, can be manipulated to In h ib it long-te rm re ten tion [17]. By
m anipulating the tim ing du rin g which the d rug was adm inistered,
Barondes was able to demonstrate the existence o f tw o memory
func tions , one w ith a dura tion o f around fo u r-a n d -a -h a lf hours, and a
second, more durab le component, which was not a ffected If the d rug was
In jected th ir ty m inutes post tr ia l.
S im ilar experiments (e.g., Greenough and McGaugh, 1965) using
cen tra l nervous stim ulants (e.g., s try ch n in e su lphate) suggest th a t
s tim u lan ts can fa c ilita te learn ing I f they are Introduced soon a fte r
In itia l learn ing has taken place. Such fin d in g s are conducive w ith a
trace decay th eo ry associated w ith sh o rt-te rm fo rg e ttin g .
17 The work was undertaken w ith rats.
45
AMNESIC AND NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Amnesics, [18] temporai iobe su rg e ry , (e.g., W hitt y and Zangwlll,
1966) s u ffe re rs from cog no-degenera tive diseases, e.g., H un ting ton ’s
chorea, (e.g., Meudell, e t al., 1978) Alzheimer’s disease, (M ille r,
1977) and aetioiogies associated w ith alcohoiism, are o th e r useful
sources o f data In the memory s tru c tu re debate, (see e.g., Barblzet,
1970 fo r a review )
For example, alcoholics su ffe rin g from K orsakoff’s syndrome, are
known to have considerably Impaired LTM (long -te rm memory) functions,
w h ils t o ften dem onstrating normal Immediate memory [19] , (e.g.,
Schneider, 1912; Moscovitch, 1982; see also, Mayes and Meudell, 1983).
Barblzet, (1970) w rites:
“Sometimes the disorder Is iess than totai affecting oniy certain of the mental capabilities: the patient may have difficulty only in retaining a spoken or written message, or In finding his way about in a new locality, yet wiii retain (although doubtless in an impoverished way) the ability to remember new experiences."
A s im ila r type o f Korsakoff e ffec t has been noted by Zangwlll,
(1946) and Drachman and A rb it, (1966) who found th a t s im ila r patien ts
are ty p ic a lly unable to recall Inform ation learned p r io r to th e ir
alcoholism, and also more obvious facts, such as the present month, o r
the name o f the present Prime M inister. When tested on immediate
memory tasks, th e ir performance appeared unimpaired.
S u ffe re rs from Korsakoff’s syndrome c lea rly demonstrate the
a b ility to recall from LTS, bu t appear la rge ly unable to process o r
tra n s fe r new Inform ation between ST and LT stores. Each sto re has the
capacity to func tion separateiy, bu t sub jec ts have lit t le o r no
18 Amnesia has been described In psychological terms, as an abnorm ality where Ind iv idua ls s u ffe r from the Inab llty to form cogn itive lin ks between separate events, (e.g., W elskrantz, 1982).19 "...the maximum amount o f Inform ation th a t a pa tien t can re ta in and sim ultaneously and repeat Immediately a fte r having grasped It." (Barb lzet, 1970, p .13).
46
a b ility to tra n s fe r material between stores In o rd e r to make material
more durable.
A lthough the data re la ting to amnesics Is both Im portant and
In te res ting , sometimes sample sizes are ve ry small. However, th e re are
two patien ts who can be quoted as examples.
The f ir s t , famous as ’ K.F.’ , was an amnesic w ith a grossly
Impaired span o f one Item bu t w ith normal long-te rm learn ing and
recall, (stud ied by Shalllce and W arrington, 1970). The second, known
as ’H.M.’ was a pa tien t whose temporal lobes were su rg ica lly lanced to
tre a t his ch ron ic epilepsy, (described by M ilner, 1970). I t seems
somewhat Inappropria te to generalise fin d in g s obtained from
Ind iv idua ls and apply them to broader populations, especially as
"memory d e fic its are seldom p u re ", (Mayes and Meudell; 1983 Baddeley,
1990).
Despite "c u rre n t uncerta in ties" (Mayes and Meudell, 1983) taken
as a whole, the evidence from a v a r ie ty o f sources appears to su ppo rt
a memory system which accommodates two o r more d is tin c t stores: at
least one responsib le fo r m anipulating material ra p id ly , and another,
responsible fo r long-te rm storage, from which inform ation is accessed
more slow ly.
47
MODAL MODEL
"By the late 1960s, the w eight o f op in ion was coming to accept the need to d is tin g u ish two types o f memory." (Alan Baddeley, 1985).
Reflecting developments In ST processing o r ig in a lly proposed by
Broad bent (1958), A tkinson and S h lffr in (1968) proposed th e ir h igh ly
In fluen tia l ''m odal" model o f memory which was able to accommodate most
o f the research data, (see diagram overlea f)
Sensory Inform ation Is received by sensory "b u ffe rs " o r
" re g is te rs " which act as a f i l te r fo r fu r th e r processing. Material
selected fo r th is purpose en ters an "Immediate", (e.g., Jacobs, 1887)
"p rim a ry ", (e.g., James, 1902; C ralk, 1968) "sh o rt-te rm " (e.g., Estes,
1979) o r "tem porary w orking memory" (e.g., A tkinson and S h lffr in ,
1968) store.
For A tkinson and S h lffr in rehearsal and coding are among the most
Im portant "contro l processes" o f STS enabling the tra n s fe r o f material
from ST to LTS. Adopting a Gestalt approach, a ttend ing to o r focusing
upon material tem porarily w ith in the STM e ffe c tive ly lays down
subsequent memory traces, the reby consolidating the Inform ation along
w ith associated traces and enabling tra n s fe r to a more durab le LTS.
Like Baddeley’s hypothesis o f a w orking memory, A tkinson and
S h lffr in conceive the STS to be considerably more than a repos ito ry o f
lim ited capacity. The STS Is also seen as a processor o f "th ou g h ts and
In fo rm ation", an executive decision component synchronised w ith the
LTS w ith which It constan tly In te racts.
A lthough the modal model o ffe red an a ttra c tive a lte rna tive to
th a t proposed by the u n ita ry theo ris ts . It too contained
inconsistencies Incompatible w ith the evidence.
4-8
THE MODAL MODEL - Based on Atkinson and Shlffrin , (1968).
E N V I R O N M E N T A L
I N R U T
S E N S O R Y R E G I S T E R S
V I S U A L
A U D I T O R Y
H A R T I C
SHORT-TERMSTORE
C S T S )
TEMPORARY WORKING MEMORY
CONTROL PROCESSES:REHEARSAL - CODING - RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES
LONG-TERM STORE
C L T S )
PERMANENT MEMORY STORE
RESPONSEOUTPUT
49
Assumptions th a t rehearsal is a "su ffic ie n t" (Seamon, 1980)
p re re qu is ite fo r material to be tra n s fe rre d to LTS, (e.g., B jo rk and
Jongeward, 1975; Dark and Loftus, 1976) conflic ted s tro n g ly w ith
evidence from o the r sources, (e.g., Jacoby and Bartz, 1972; C raik and
Watkins, 1973).
The hypothesis th a t LTS categories are sim ultaneously accessed at
the po in t o f stim ulus reception, and the view th a t STS is the sole
"a rb itra to r" in tra n s fe rr in g material between ST and LT stores, could
not be em pirica lly supported.
For example, a lthough we do not consciously attend to much th a t
is happening around us, under hypnosis obscure aspects o f events (th a t
would not appear to w arran t long-te rm processing) can be recalled in
considerable detail. Whereas th is knowledge is not to ta lly
incompatible w ith the modal model, th is evidence does a t least suggest
th a t material is stored in a ve ry durab le form w ithou t conscious
processing o r awareness, (see also, G ardiner, 1989).
Given the evidence i t was becoming increas ing ly clear th a t some
form o f model was requ ired which was free o f storage complications.
50
LEVELS OF PROCESSING
In 1972, memory research made a radical departu re from dichotomy
models. Craik and Lockhart proposed the idea th a t It was the depth at
which material (traces) was encoded th a t affected its subsequent
d u ra b ility and not the tra n s fe r from one type o f memory sto re to
another, (see diagram overleaf).
As an a lte rna tive to "s tru c tu ra l theories" (C raik and Lockhart,
1972) o f memory, the model had ins ta n t appeal. I t could accommodate
awkward issues like the d isp a rity between neuropsychological evidence
and m u lti-s to re hypotheses. I t was also a ttra c tiv e to u n ita ry
theo ris ts , (e.g.. Postman, 1975) who stressed com patib ility between
the levels o f processing approach and one-type processing models.
In the levels o f processing approach, th ree types o f encoding are
viewed as leading to qu a lita tive ly d if fe re n t levels o f processing, the
most superfic ia l being mere sensory processing at the level o f
reception. A t the interm ediate level, phonological [20] processing
leads to deeper processing depth, w h ils t semantic processing, (where
material is embellished, associated w ith existing memories o r made
meaningful by deeper s tru c tu r in g /re s tru c tu r in g o f the m ateria l)
processes material at the ve ry deepest level, (e.g., see F isher and
C raik, 1977).
Craik and T u lv ing (1975) supp ly a nice example o f how meaning can
a ffec t processing, by comparing the sentence:
"The wizened old man hobbled across the castle courtyard and dropped the gold watch down the well."
with
"The man dropped the watch".
20 Material th a t is processed in re la tion to its acoustic s tru c tu re .
51
The Enœ ding Theory associated w ith Craik and L ockha rt's , (1972)
Levels o f Processing approach to memory.
SENSORY PROCESSING
T TPHONOLOGICAL
PROCESSING
SEMANTICPROCESSING
D u ra b ility o f inform ation increases p ro g ress ive ly w ith depth o f encoding.
Sensory processing occu rs a t a su pe rfic ia l level and is th e least duable form o f processing.
Phonological processing fa c ilita te s deeper more du rab le processing.
The deepest and most du rab le processing is semantic processing.
52
C raik and Lockhart view rehearsal as p lay ing a fundamental ro le in
trace consolidation, bu t mere repe tition is not considered s u ffic ie n t
to process material to deeper levels, (e.g., C raik and Watkins, 1973).
Moreover, i t does have the e ffe c t o f susta in ing material fo r
s u ffic ie n t time to enable deeper processing to be undertaken, (e.g.,
Woodward, et al., 1973).
Two d is tin c t types o f rehearsal are iden tifie d : maintenance
rehearsal, which susta ins the memory trace w ith in a p rim ary processing
subsystem and e iaborative rehearsal, which func tio ns in te rdependen tly
w ith semantic associations, the reby processing the material In a more
in tegra ted form a t a g rea te r depth.
Note th a t Craik and Lockhart’s suggestion o f a p rim ary processing
u n it has given rise to suggestions th a t the ieve is approach conceals
the id e n tity o f two unde rly ing memory systems, (e.g., see Baddeley,
1985) and even C raik has subsequently adopted a more flex ib le
in te rp re ta tio n o f the ieve is approach, (e.g., Craik and Levy, 1977)
Levels o f processing do not necessarily imply separate ST/LT
storage, more a holding system which is an in tegra l p a rt o f a complex
inform ation and reasoning processor. The p rim ary ’s to re ’ (processor)
is also seen as being responsible fo r executive decision-m aking,
p roblem -solv ing and reasoning, (e.g., Craik and Levy, 1977)
53
IMPLICATIONS FOR MNEMONICS
Adopting the leve ls approach, mnemonics m ight be seen as a means o f
processing material to deeper levels, as "....w ords fo r which
meaningful decisions are made show h ighe r ieveis o f re ten tion ".
(Jacoby and Craik, 1979) This can be achieved in a number o f ways
dependent on the type o f mnemonic used. For example, material
associated w ith reduction mnemonics, such as acronyms, fa c ilita te
s tro n g e r (deeper) traces th rough the action o f de-coding and
subsequent re -cod ing. This a c tiv ity has the e ffec t o f lay ing down
additional traces at the time o f association and d u rin g each recall
attempt. Acronyms also generate separate, bu t associated traces by the
conversion o f a rb it ra ry o r unrelated material to a more memorable
form , e.g., ty p ic a lly , a s tro n g e r trace is laid down by the word
"LASER", than "L ig h t Am plification (by the ) Stimulated Emission (o f)
Radiation".
Acrostics, w h ils t fu n c tio n a lly s im ilar, (e.g., see Mulvenna,
1982) fa c ilita te deep processing, because o f the additional meaning
they generate th rough association w ith learn ing material, especially
i f they are accompanied by rhyme, (e.g., Wallace and Rubin, 1988). The
leve ls approach suggests th a t proactive and re troac tive in te rfe rence
between items is minimised because the semantic associations (traces)
formed are s u ffic ie n tly " r ic h " , (e.g., Klein and Saltz, 1976) o r
"d is tin c tiv e " (e.g., see Craik and Jacoby, 1979) to p reven t
in te rfe rence . This hypothesis has subsequently been supported a t both
v isua l, (e.g., E instein, McDaniel and Lackey, 1989) and au d ito ry ,
(e.g., Moscovitch and Craik, 1976) ieveis o f inform ation reception.
54
Addressing the issue from an in te rfe rence perspective, Baddeley,
(1990) suggests:
"....there Is abundant evidence In support of the general Interference tenet that degree of forgetting is a function of the similarity between the material that Is to be remembered and the Interfering material."
PROBLEMS WITH THE LEVELS HYPOTHESIS
There are at least fo u r main problems in assuming th a t memory is
processed th rough h ierarch ica l levels, related to encoding depth.
F irs t, w ith in the levels hypothesis, i t should be antic ipated
th a t visual o r verbal traces, once processed to comparable depths o f
encoding, would re su lt in the generation o f independent traces o f
equal s tre n g th . (Hyde and Jenkins, 1969; Johnston and Jenkins, 1971)
U nfo rtuna te ly , the evidence to su p po rt th is hypothesis cannot be
accurate ly obtained, as the re is no ob jec tive measure o f encoding
depth, (e.g., see Winograd, 1976) and stud ies related to maintenance
rehearsal suggest th a t material can be semantically encoded, in the
absence o f processing depth, (e.g.. Nelson, 1977; Graf and Mandier,
1984)
The second problem relates to the f i r s t . A ttra c tive as the idea
o f h ie ra rch ica lly s tru c tu re d encoding levels is, the levels themselves
lack specification. This makes i t problem atic to ask reasonable
questions like : "How many levels are the re?" Have adu lts more levels
than ch ild ren? " Are the levels d if fe re n t between ad u lt populations?"
"How is inform ation re trieved from each level?" (e.g., see M orris,
B ransford and Franks, 1977). In successive attem pts to address these
55
issues w ith g rea ter precision, Craik and his associates, (e.g., Craik
and Jacoby, 1975; Craik and Tu iv ing , 1975; Lockhart, C raik and Jacoby,
1976) have modified a number o f hypotheses contained in th e ir o rig ina l
proposals, bu t these developments s t il l present a confused p ic tu re ,
(see Baddeley, 1990).
T h ird , a lthough devotees o f the levels theo ry have presented
medical evidence suppo rting the hypothesis, (e.g., see Cermak, 1979)
evidence re la ting to amnesic stud ies have la rge ly fa iled to
demonstrate the "encoding depth hypothesis", (e.g., see Baddeley,
1978) The processing capacity o f amnesics would be re flected in th e ir
in a b ility to process material to deeper ieveis, (e.g., Cermak, B u tte rs
and Morelnes, 1974). This hypothesis has not been substan tia ted .
(e.g., Mayes, Meudell and P ickering , 1985)
Fourth , a rguab ly the most d if f ic u lt evidence to accommodate w ith
the leve ls approach, is th a t related to psychoanalytica l and co rtex -
stim ulation studies. For some reason th is evidence is l it t le
emphasised in discussions re la ting to memory. One possible reason fo r
th is is th a t few theories are capable o f dealing w ith the fa c t th a t
detailed unattended inform ation can be coded and subsequently qu ite
e ffo rtle ss ly recalled under hypnosis.
Equally d if f ic u lt to accommodate is Penfie id ’s data. I f Cortical
stim ulation can demonstrably promote the recall o f any episodic [21]
material w ith in memory, like the evidence from hypnosis, th is suggests
some form o f autonomic [22] memory system which stores all perceptual
material regard less o f processing o r encoding depth.
More awkward is the fa c t th a t th is knowledge is la rge ly
incompatible w ith e ith e r the trace-decay o r In te rfe rence theo ry .
21 That aspect o f memory which is hypothesised to be responsib le fo r record ing t i mescal e -even t re la tionsh ips, (e.g., see T u lv ing , 1972).22 e.g., a system which operates w ithou t the in d iv id u a l’s conscious perception.
56
In what amounts to a scath ing a ttack on Craik and Lockwood’s
levels theo ry , an in flue n tia l paper by Michael Eysenck, (1978, pp .157-
169) iden tified a number o f related problems. Eysenck’s ob jections may
be summarised as follows:
1) Concerns related to the o b jec tive "index ing " and specifica tion o f the ieveis proposed.
2) O bjective measures which m ight id e n tify the specific re la tionsh ip between encoding depth and s tra te g ic encoding.
3) That to assume th a t mere encoding depth is a m ajor determ inant o f subsequent recall is a gross overs im p lifica tion o f how memory functions.
The main th ru s t o f Lockhart and C ra ik ’s (1978, pp .171-175) rep ly to
these critic ism s re late to acknowledging the many lim ita tions
associated w ith the levels theo ry , w h ils t pe rs is ten tly a ffirm ing th a t
the theo ry its e lf is under constant " re v is io n " and evo lu tion, (e.g.,
C raik and T u lv ing , 1975; Lockhart, e t ai. 1976; F isher and C raik,
1977)
Despite the overa ll fin d in g th a t i t is inadequate to describe
memory in term s o f levels synchron ised w ith encoding depth, the model
has promoted more c u rre n t in te res t in the re la tionsh ip between meaning
and encoding, (e.g., Baddeley, 1985). As evidence accumulated from a
range o f sources, i t became increas ing ly clear th a t a model o f memory
was requ ired which not on ly adequately accounted fo r medically
associated evidence, bu t which could accommodate the re la tionsh ip
between sensory processing and h ighe r o rd e r reasoning functions.
A lthough progress in id e n tify in g the na ture o f memory has been
both slow and ambiguous, associated fie ld s o f s tudy have revealed some
in te res tin g inform ation. From an educational perspective, p robab ly one
o f the most in te re s tin g developments in memory research has been th a t
d irected toward developmental aspects o f the re la tionsh ip between
memory and h ighe r cogn itive functions.
57
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES AND MNEMONICS
"Developmental trends Indicate that strategy use increases with age, generalising to a wider range of contexts as the individual becomes older". (Andreassen and Waters, 1989)
Reaching an understand ing o f precise ly how the grow ing ch ild comes to
adopt cogn itive and mnemonic s tra teg ies is a complex issue, (e.g.,
Cavenaugh and P erim utter, 1982). On the o th e r hand as the volume o f
research increases, p rev ious ly unexplored re la tionsh ips between
c h ild re n ’s cogn itive m aturation and s tra te g ic th in k in g can be more fu lly
understood.
Knowledge about the p a rtic u la r re la tionsh ip between cogn itive
m aturation and the young c h ild ’s use o f cogn itive and mnemonic
s tra teg ies is im portant to th is s tudy fo r the fo llow ing reasons:
1) When requested to remember inform ation, ve ry young co g n itive ly m ature ch ild ren have been observed to use unsophisticated s tra teg ies such as po in ting o r touch ing to assist them w ith learn ing tasks, (e.g., DeLoache and Brown, 1984; DeLoache, Cassidy and Brown, 1985) Even th is typ e o f simple s tra te g ic behaviour enables more s tra te g ic th in k e rs to make more accurate and e ffe c tive use o f th e ir memory.
2) The spontaneous use o f more sophisticated s tra teg ies such as rehearsal, (e.g., O rnstein and Naus, 1978; O rnste in, e t ai., 1985a) attention, (e.g., V liestra , 1982) and the organ isa tion o f learn ing material, (e.g., Moely and Je ffre y , 1974; has also been shown to be related to cogn itive m aturation, (see e.g., S ta in thorp , 1989) Again, ch ild ren who active ly engage these types o f s tra te g ic behaviour d u rin g learn ing ou tperfo rm those who do not. (see Kali, 1979 fo r a review )
A number o f stud ies related to a range o f s tra te g ic behaviours have now demonstrated th a t ch ild ren can obtain lasting educational benefits from both s tra te g y , (e.g.,Keeney, et al., 1967) and mnemonic, (e.g., A tkinson, 1975; in s tru c tion .
S tudy o f how and under what circum stances ch ild ren engage cogn itive s tra teg ies to promote learn ing, may illum inate the circum stances in which more sophisticated s tra teg ies such as mnemonics may be used by the ch ild .
58
3) I t has been demonstrated th a t ch ild ren can be in s tru c te d both how and under what circum stances to use cogn itive s tra teg ies, such as rehearsal, w ith beneficial resu lts , (e.g., Weinstein and Mayer, 1986). In s tru c te d use o f the "keyw ord " mnemonic has ai so proved a h igh ly successful aid to normal, (e.g.. M erry, 1980b; Levin, e t al., 1982) and less able c h ild re n ’s learn ing , (e.g.. Con dus, et al., 1986; Scruggs, et al., 1987).
This evidence suggests th a t even qu ite sophisticated mnemonic s tra teg ies can be ta u g h t to young ch ild re n , even those disadvantaged by metacog ni t iv e im m aturity , w ith immediate beneficial e ffects upon learn ing, (e.g.,M astrop ieri, e t al., 1985b; Condus, et. al., 1986. The c h ild ’s spontaneous s tra te g ic use o f mnemonic s tra teg ies, appears to be inseparably linked w ith some form o f regu la tive executive contro l mechanism o f cognition which has been termed metacognition. Recent research has demonstrated th a t the metacog ni tiv e processes responsib le fo r s tra te g y deployment can also be manipulated and fa c iiita ted by approp ria te in s tru c tio n , (e.g., Lodico, et ai., 1983; Pressley and Ghataia, 1989) provided the teacher o r in s tru c to r appreciates the specific re la tionsh ip between developmental aspects o f s tra te g y acquis ition and the metacog ni t iv e ab ilities o f th e ir ch ild ren , (e.g., Howe and Ceci, 1979).
59
DEFINITIONS
The term "s tra teg ies" is a concept which has been im precisely defined
and lacks "s p e c ific ity " , (A lexander and Judy, 1988) and has been used
somewhat ind iscrim ina te ly to describe a va rie ty o f cogn itive a c tiv it ie s
such as: S tra teg ic tim e-m onitoring, (e.g.. Ceci and B ronfenbrenner,
1985) rehearsal, (e.g., O rnste in, e t ai., 1985b) the use o f mnemonic
mediators, (e.g., McDaniel and Pressley, 1989) the elaboration o f
learn ing material, (e.g., Pressley, 1982) labelling, (e.g., DeLoache, et
al., 1985) and rev is ion techniques, (Beal, et al., 1990).
A probable cause o f th is " fu zzy " (Wellman, 1983) a rticu la tio n o f
the term is the fa c t th a t i t is unclear how s tra teg ies are related to
each o the r (Swanson, 1990), o r how to separate cogn itive learn ing sk ills
from metacog ni tiv e operations, (e.g., Cavanaugh and P erim utter, 1982;
Jacobs and Paris, 1987; Garner and Alexander, 1989).
Ann Brown’s in fluen tia l co n trib u tio n to th is discussion has been to
c la r ify precise ly what is meant by metacognition, (e.g.. Brown, 1975;
1977; Brown and Paiincsar, 1982; Brown and DeLoache, 1983). She
separates metacognition in to two components: "knowledge about cogn ition"
and "regu la tion o f cogn ition ". Brown he rse lf acknowledges the problem o f
d iffe re n tia tin g between these two in te rre la ted aspects o f h igher
reasoning, (Brown, 1982) wondering i f the con s tru c t o f metacognition
merely describes a range o f cogn itive fu nc tions "elevated and d ign ified
w ith a new t it le ." (Brown, 1978, p .7)
60
A DEFINITION FOR THIS STUDY
Subsequently, cogn itive s tra teg ies w ill re fe r to cogn itive ac tiv itie s ,
engaged in by ind iv idua ls , w ith a view to fa c ilita te learn ing. Typ ica lly
these a c tiv it ie s w ill invo lve the lea rner in making some form o f
de libera te e ffo r t to make learn ing material more memorable,
(e.g. rehearsal o r g roup ing s tra teg ies) bu t w ill not re fe r to cogn itive
a c tiv it ie s which elaborate (v isua lly o r phone tica lly ) o r re s tru c tu re
(extending o r reducing) learn ing material. The de libera te elaboration
a n d /o r re s tru c tu r in g o f learn ing material w ill subsequently be re fe rred
to as a mnemonic s tra tegy , (see Baddeley, 1985).
The lite ra tu re suggests the existence o f a th ird type o f
"executive" s tra tegy , those related to the regu la tive se if-m on ito ring o f
cognition itse lf. An example o f th is is the capacity to re fle c t
accurate ly upon the lim ita tions o f one’s own memory capab ilities
{metamemorial s tra teg ies) enabling cognition to select and regula te the
most e ffe c tive ta sk -a p p ro p ria te learn ing m ethod/stra teg ies available,
{metacog n i tiv e s tra teg ies), (see Cavanaugh and Perim utter, 1982, fo r a
review).
61
STRATEGIES AND LEARNING
I t has been recognised th a t cogn itive and mnemonic sk ills , (s tra teg ies)
piay a crucia l role in learn ing, (e.g., Socrates, d. 399 B.C. - Pokay and
Blumenfeld, 1990). As ch ild ren develop, th e ir mastery ove r a broadening
re p e rto ry o f cogn itive s k ills enables them to select ta sk -a p p ro p ria te
options w ith improved competency and precision, (e.g., Brown, e t al.,
1983; Andreassen and Waters, 1989; S tipek and M aclver, 1989). Typ ica lly ,
young ch ild ren are less "s tra te g ic " and "p la n fu i" (F iave ll, 1971) in
m onitoring th e ir own s tra te g ic needs, (e.g., Ceci and B ron fenbrenner,
1985) and inaccurate in selecting ta sk -a p p ro p ria te s tra te g y options.
(S tipek and M aclver, 1989) They often approach learn ing events w ith
lit t le knowledge o r understand ing o f how to organise material to
fa c ilita te subsequent recall, (e.g., B jo rk iund and Zeman, 1982).
The acquis ition o f cogn itive s tra teg ies has been shown to be a
powerfu l ind ica to r o f cogn itive performance and ap titude in a broad
range o f s itua tions, e.g., rehearsal, (e.g., Weinstein and Mayer, 1986)
labe lling , (e.g., V liestra , 1982) organ isation, (e.g., B jo rk iund and
Marchena, 1984) persistence a t task, (Corno, 1986) a tten tion , (e.g.,
S ch iff, and Knopf, 1985) m otivation, (e.g., G o ttfried , 1990;) and
re tr ie va l, (O rnste in, et ai., (1985).
THE CHILD’S ACQUISITION OF STRATEGIES
"...s tra te g y awareness In it ia lly arises a fte r re flec tion o f one’s own s tra te g ic behaviour, and on ly la te r does s tra te g y use re s u lt from p lan fu l, p re task a c tiv it ie s ". (Andreassen and Waters, 1989).
62
There is now a grow ing body o f evidence which suggests th a t cogn itive
m aturation is more closely related to the c h ild ’s incremental
acquis ition o f cogn itive s tra teg ies and metacog ni t iv e development,
(e.g.. Waters and Andreassen, 1983; Brown and DeLoache, 1983; O rnste in,
et al., 1985; Cross and Paris, 1988; K urtz and Weinert, 1989; Andreassen
and Waters, 1989) than to ch ild re n ’s "d iffe re n tia l rates o f un iversa l
development" (e.g., Piaget and Inhe lde r, 1968; B runer, 1964/71;
Vygotsky, 1934/62; Case, 1985, - see Keil, 1986 fo r a review).
"The early competencies th a t serve as bu ild ing blocks fo r
subsequent mnemonic a c tiv ity " , (F iaveii, 1979) emerge in it ia lly as
labe lling (e.g., DeLoache, Cassidy and Brown, 1985) and rehearsal
s tra teg ies, (e.g., F iaveii, et. al., 1966; Keeney, et. al., 1967). In
the young ch ild "s tra te g y -lik e behaviours are im perfectly tuned to task
demands", (DeLoache, Cassidy and Brown, 1985) and because young ch ild ren
are inexperienced and "nonde llbera te" mémorisera, (e.g., P erim utte r and
Myers, 1979) they ty p ic a lly underestim ate the need to engage some form
o f s tra te gy to help them remember, (e.g., Andreassen and Waters, 1989).
The o lder ch ild not on ly approaches learn ing w ith a broader re p e rto ry o f
learn ing stra teg ies, bu t is more "p ia n fu i" (H arris , 1978) in
o rch es tra ting learn ing , in o rd e r to ease the demands upon memory,
(O rnste in, et. ai., 1985b). Despite d iffe rences in the sophistica tion o f
s tra te g ic th in k in g o f younger and o lde r ch ild ren , the somewhat r ig id
developmental 1st approach (e.g., Piaget) o f memory and s tra te g y
acquis ition has requ ired some revis ion , (e.g., see Meadows, 1987).
63
I t has been demonstrated th a t ch ild ren less than one year old are
capable o f perform ing memory-related tasks, (Cohen and Gebier, 1975;
M eltzoff, 1988) and th a t ch ild ren between fo u r and e igh t months will
search fo r a complete ob jec t i f a p a rt is d isplayed. At e igh t to tw elve
months, ch ild ren will search fo r a concealed ob ject, (DeLoache, Cassidy
and Brown, 1985) w h ils t e ighteen-m onth-o ids are able to d isp lay accurate
memory fo r the location o f ob jec ts even a fte r p ro trac ted d isplay
in te rva ls , (e.g., DeLoache and Brown, 1979; 1983; 1984) F u rth e r the re is
now im portan t evidence suggesting th a t even ve ry young ch ild ren d isp lay
nearly all aspects o f "m ature causa! knowledge", (Bullock, Gel man and
Baillargeon, 1982) "num ber conservation", (Geiman and Gaiiistei, 1978)
and "concre te opera tional th o u g h t', (Rosch, e t al., 1976) and Chi,
(e.g., 1978) has been pe rs is ten t in suggesting th a t the re appear to be
no s tru c tu ra l d iffe rences between the cognition o f ch ild ren and adults,
(see also. Mills and Funnell, 1983).
C ognitive developm entalists now appear to su p po rt the view th a t
w h ils t cogn itive m aturation fo llow s a s im ila r schema In normal ch ild ren ,
q u a lita tive d iffe rences between the th in k in g o f ch ild ren are la rge ly the
p ro du c t o f how e ffec tive each ch ild is in analysing and regu la ting his
o r her own reasoning, (e.g., Keil, 1986).
F u rth e r, the re appears to be an inseparable re la tionsh ip between
the acqu is ition o f more sophisticated metacog ni t iv e reasoning and access
to q u a lita tive ly sup e rio r s tra te g y acquis ition and task-m atch ing
judgem ent, (e.g., DeLoache and Brown, 1983).
64
Time does not perm it the discussion o f a broad range o f cogn itive
s tra teg ies in th is thesis. However, in the next section, rehearsal has
been selected as a p a rtic u la r ly su itab le sub jec t fo r discussion. This is
because an examination o f its development in the young ch ild , the
benefits i t a ffo rd s learn ing and its tra n s fe r th rough ins truc tion a l
programmes have been well documented. Moreover, these aspects o f
rehearsal are not a typ ical o f o th e r cogn itive stra teg ies.
REHEARSAL
Although Thomas Aquinas advised us to "mediate fre q u e n tly " , i t was not
u n til the f i r s t ob jec tive stud ies o f memory, undertaken by Ebbinghaus,
(1885) and the w rit in g o f James, (1902) th a t the im portant re la tionsh ip
between rehearsal and learn ing was f i r s t fo rm ally established.
Rehearsal, "p rim a ry rehearsal ", (B jo rk and Jongeward, 1975)
"echo ing", (Dariey and Glass, 1975) o r "m em orising", (H unter, 1957)
p r in c ip a lly invo lves the a c tiv ity o f re -c irc u ia tin g learn ing material
w ith in a tem porary o r sho rt-te rm memory store using e ith e r o v e rt
(aud ib le ) o r cove rt (s ilen t) repe tition , (e.g., Rundus, 1971).
According to tw in sto re [1] theo ris ts , (e.g., A tkinson and
S h lffr in , 1971) rehearsal is a conscious cogn itive act engaged by the
ind iv id u a l to sustain the life o f inform ation held w ith in a "lab ile "
"p r im a ry " (e.g., Waugh and Norman, 1965) "w o rk ing memory", (e.g.,
Baddeley and H itch, 1974) o r "s h o rt- te rm " memory store, (e.g., A tkinson
and S h lffr in , 1971). This sto re has been shown to have a lim ited
capacity o f holding around six "simple im pressions" (Wundt, 1874), o r
seven items o r "chunks" o f inform ation (M ille r, 1956) at any one time.
1 Psychologists who advocate two memory stores, one w ith a lim ited processing capacity o f around seven chunks o r items, the o the r, capable o f hold ing "massive" (Baddeley, 1990) amounts o f in form ation.
65
I f the ind iv idua l makes no e ffo r t to keep a live the memory trace, [2 ] i t
is normal th a t the inform ation w ill be unprocessed by cognition and
subsequently fo rgo tten , (M urdock, 1967).
Rehearsal is an im portant method o f tra n s fe rr in g inform ation from
the prim ary to the secondary, o r long-te rm store, (e.g., Modigliani,
1978) and prov ides time fo r o the r cogn itive processes which are known to
fa c ilita te recall to operate selective re ten tion , (G runeberg, 1983). But
th e re is now s u ffic ie n t evidence to suggest th a t mere repe tition o f
material alone cannot accomplish th is process, (e.g., Jacoby and Bartz,
1972; Craik and Watkins, 1973; Modigliani, 1976) In fa c t sub jec ts in a
s tu d y by Glanzer and Meinzer, (1967), who were asked to f i l l the
in te rva l between word presentation and recall w ith rehearsal recalled
few er words than u n ins truc ted sub jects!
Glanzer and Meinzer’s resu lts have led to a reappraisal o f the type
o f rehearsal which leads to tra n s fe r from a sto re o f lim ited capacity,
to the long-te rm store. I t is now genera lly agreed th a t e ffo r t fu lly
"a tte n d in g " (Dariey and Glass, 1975) the learn ing material, o r
"e labora ting " ( ib id .) e ith e r its context o r content, are fea tu res o f
learn ing which generate s tro n g e r semantic lin ks (K intsch, 1972; T u lv ing ,
1972) and tend to lead to deeper, more durab le processing, (C raik and
Lockhart, 1972).
Evidence from the Psychoanalytical School [3] suggests th a t once
inform ation is reg istered in the secondary o r long-te rm store, i t is
permanently reta ined, bu t period ic "maintenance rehearsa l" has been
shown to fa c ilita te access to material held in the long-te rm store,
(G runeberg, 1983).
2 The momentary a fter-im age o r a fte r-sound th a t fo llow s the presentation o f a stim ulus.3 Under hypnosis d is ta n t events can be recalled in v iv id deta il, suggesting th a t ine ffe c tive recall is a defect associated w ith the recall system ra th e r than the encoding system.
66
A leve ls o f processing analysis o f th is a c tiv ity (e.g., C raik and
Lockhart, 1972), would suggest th a t the act o f rehearsal processes
material th ro u gh deeper levels o f cognition , the reby s tre ng then in g the
m ateria l’s s tru c tu re and making i t more "d is tin c tive " (e.g., Jacoby and
Craik, 1979) among the milieu o f memory events w ith in cognition . Such a
view is not d iss im ila r from th a t proposed by trace theo ris ts , (e.g..
Brown, 1958; Peterson and Peterson 1959) who would suggest th a t
rehearsal has the e ffec t o f laying down successive identica l traces, one
on top o f the o ther. The ind iv idua l is able to repeat successively th is
process th rou gh subsequent acts o f rehearsal, successively trans fo rm ing
the material from a weak trace a fte r a s ing le repe tition to a ve ry
durab le trace fo llow ing subsequent repetitions. U ltim ately the material
is processed at the optimum level requ ired fo r recaii o f complete
competence, 100% accuracy.
AGE AND REHEARSAL
Given the task o f remembering the names o f common ob jects, F iaveii, et
al., (1966) noted th a t the approach o f ten and fiv e -y e a r-o ld s were
m arkedly d iffe re n t. Seventeen o f the tw en ty te n -ye a r-o ld s in h is s tudy
used e ith e r o v e rt o r cove rt rehearsal to fa c ilita te the re ten tion o f the
position o f ob jects, whereas on ly two o f the tw en ty fiv e -y e a r-o ld s
employed rehearsal. Fiavell found a pos itive co rre la tion between the use
o f rehearsal and memory performance.
67
Keeney, e t al., (1967) extended Fiavell, et a l’s fin d in g s by
observ ing the lip movements o f ch ild ren asked to learn items in lis t
form . Those who fa iled to rehearse, o r were "p roduction de fic ien t",
(F iaveii, 1970) received rehearsal in s tru c tio n and th e re a fte r 75%
reached the learn ing competence o f the spontaneous rehearsers. F u rthe r,
Keeney’s team noted th a t ch ild ren who In itia lly benefited from rehearsal
in s tru c tio n would subsequently neglect to adopt the s tra te g y unless
prompted to do so, (see also H arris, 1978).
Keeney, e t a l’s fin d in g s have more recently been challenged by
Digby and Lewis, (1986) who conclude:
" ....th a t rehearsal tra in in g led to lasting increases in the use o f rehearsal, and g rea te r expressed knowledge o f metamnemonic awareness. Im proved recall was p a rtic u la r ly ev iden t among those s ix -yea r-o id s who did not spontaneously rehearse."
W hilst i t is tru e th a t "ch ild ren can easily be ta u g h t to rehearse
w ith immediate beneficial e ffects on th e ir perform ance," (Kail, 1979;
Fivush and Hamend, 1989) unless they are cons is ten tly encouraged to
apply the s tra tegy to ta sk -a p p ro p ria te learn ing s itua tions by way o f
"maintenance rehearsal ", the ind ications are th a t the ins truc ted
rehearser may re v e rt to non rehearser sta tus, u n til becoming a natural
spontaneous rehearser at some fu tu re date, (e.g., O rnstein and Baker-
Ward, 1983).
These d iffe rences between the reasoning and cogn itive m aturation o f
younger and o lde r ch ild ren have now been confirmed in a number o f more
general areas, such as a tten tion , (e.g., S ch iff and Knopf, 1985)
m otivation, (e.g.. Booth, 1981) and recall, (e.g., Perim utte r and Myers,
1979). I t has also been demonstrated in areas spec ifica lly related to
learn ing s tra teg ies, such as rehearsal, (e.g., O rnstein, e t al., 1985)
cueing, (e.g., Yuill & Joscelyne, 1988) c lus te ring , (e.g., Mandier and
Stephens, 1967) organ isation o f material, (e.g., B jo rk iund and Marchena,
68
1984) problem -solv ing, (e.g., Swanson, 1990) labe lling , (e.g.,
V lie ts tra , 1982) and tim e-m on ito ring , (e.g., Ceci and B ronfenbrenner,
1985).
I w ill fin ish th is section w ith a personal anecdote. I recently
asked my fiv e year old son James, to remember the th ree d ig it number,
405. A fte r about tw en ty seconds had passed, he was unsuccessful in
a ttem pting to recaii the number. Enter the rehearsal in s tru c to r! Having
asked him to repeat the number over and ove r to himself a few times, I
was pleasantly su rp rised he could recall the number accurate ly several
m inutes later. Upon ge tting up the next day, he asked my wife, "Why did
Dad want me to remember 405 yesterday?!"
69
COGNITION’S REGULATION OF STRATEGIES
Although i t is unclear precise ly how the acqu is ition o f cogn itive s k ills
is related to cogn itive m a tu rity , (e.g.. Brown, 1978) o r how they are
selected and regulated by cognition , (e.g., Andreasson and Waters, 1989)
once acquired, th e ir e ffec t upon the c h ild ’s reasoning appears to have a
cruc ia l bearing on learn ing outcomes, (e.g., P erim utte r and Myers,
1979).
AGE, METAMEMORY, METACOGNITION AND STRATEGY ACQUISITION
"There is l i t t le doubt th a t most o f the a c tiv it ie s th a t go under the general headings "s tra te g ie s" and "metamemorial processes" can be acquired th ro u gh learn ing . I t fo llow s th a t the memory improvements th a t are due to improved s tra teg ies and metamemory processes can be induced, by approp ria te tra in in g ." (Howe and Ceci, 1979)
The terms "Metamemorial processes" and "metamemory" (e.g., Fiavell,
1971; 1978; 1981) re fe r to the in d iv id u a l’s "knowledge about how the
memory system operates", (Andreassen and Waters, 1989) and along w ith
the more general concept o f metacognition, [4 ] have become sub jec ts o f
renewed in te re s t and research. C h ild ren ’s metamemorial processes have
now been evaluated in a va rie ty o f se ttings , e.g., g iftedness,
(Jackson & B u tte rfie ld , 1986; K urtz & Weinert, 1989) age, (S tipek and
M aclver, 1989; Andreassen and Waters, 1989) s tra te g y generalisation,
(Borkowski, 1985; Pressley, e t al., 1984) reading, (Cross & Paris, 1988;
Byrd & G hoi son, 1985) et ai.
4 In tro sp e c tive knowledge about one’s own cognition : I ts s tre n g th s , lim ita tions and its p ro jected accuracy in dealing w ith a broad range o f cogn itive actions.
70
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Knowing about how we know what we know and know ing about know ing has
interested psycholog ists fo r a number o f years, (e.g., Ach, 1905;
Kuhimann, 1907; Baldwin, 1909) bu t these early stud ies inves tiga tin g an
"awareness o f an awareness" [5] tended to define the sub jec t-a rea w ith a
lack o f precision, (e.g.. Boring, 1937). Some c ritiq u e s went fu r th e r ,
suggesting the phenomenon did not ex ist at aii, (e.g., Duniap, 1912) and
reviews as late as 1982 (Cavanaugh and P erim utte r) had concluded th a t
metamemory in p a rticu la r, requ ired "considerable de fin itiona l
c la rifica tio n " ( ib id ) "to have fu tu re u t i l i ty " , (S life , Weiss and Bell,
1985) as it was a "fuzzy concept", (Wellman, 1983) im precisely defined.
A ttitudes tow ards the p o ss ib ility o f a "s e if-re g u la tiv e ", se lf
in te rac tive and "s e if- in te rro g a tiv e " component o f cognition , (e.g.,
Brown and DeLoache, 1983) responsible fo r spec ify ing and assign ing ta s k -
approp ria te cogn itive judgem ents, gained momentum fo llow ing the
publication o f work by Hart, (1965) and Brown and McNeiii, (1966). The
sub jec t o f both publications was in te rre la ted , though approached from a
somewhat d if fe re n t perspective. Hart, ( ib id .) addressed the t ip o f the
tongue phenomenon by inves tiga ting a range o f circum stances in which
sub jec ts expressed a positive fee iing o f knowing related to the
character o f words, omitted from s c r ip ts viewed on a second occasion.
Hart noted th a t the re was a h igh ly pos itive co rre la tion between the
s tre n g th w ith which sub jec ts fe lt they knew (b u t could not reca ll)
in form ation, and subsequent recogn ition. Hart in te rp re te d his fin d in g s
to suggest a memory m onitoring system, capable o f s e lf- in te ra c tiv e
judgem ent, (e.g., G ardiner, 1989) an hypothesis compatible w ith ea rlie r
work by Broad bent, (1958) on a ud ito ry memory, and by S perling , (1960) on
5 A descrip tion o f metacognition, o ffe red in 1982 by Cavanaugh and Perim utter.
71
visual memory, and sim ila r to the term "unattended memory" o r "memory
w ithou t awareness", a concept re c u rr in g in the work o f Ceci, (e.g.. Ceci
and Howe, 1982; Ceci, 1983; Ceci, 1984; Ceci and B ronfenbrenner, 1985).
Brown and McNeill, ( ib id ) induced th e ir sub jec ts in to a fee ling o f
knowing sta te by asking them to recaii de fin itio ns o f un fam ilia r words.
Sub jects reported th a t Inform ation sought was "on the t ip o f the tongue"
(TOT). In a TOT state, sub jec ts were ty p ic a lly able to remember ce rta in
fea tu res o f words, such as f i r s t o r last le tte rs o r the number o f
sy llab les com prising the word, tem porarily beyond recall. Again, th is
typ e o f "awareness o f an awareness" suggests some form o f unattended [6]
m onitoring system regulated by cognition . For example, by remembering
the f i r s t le tte r, number o f syllab les, o r certa in consonants o f a word
the "fo rg o tte n " word could be re-cued o r recalled.
Realising the importance metamemory m ight have as an explanation o f
memory processing Tu lv ing and Madigan (1970) wrote:
"We cannot help but feel that if there Is going to be a breakthrough In the psychological study of memory...it will, among other things, relate the knowledge stored In the Individual’s memory to his knowledge of that knowledge." (P.477)
A range o f subsequent fin d in g s supported the view th a t the
"s tra te g ic " and "spontaneous" use o f memory s tra teg ies was s tro n g ly
related to cogn itive performance, bu t not necessarily to any p re
p rescribed developmental stages, (see Brown, 1975 and Fiavell 1977 fo r
reviews). F u rth e r, i t was noted th a t ch ild ren who fa iled to adopt
p a rtic u la r s tra teg ies, were nonetheless able to use them successfu lly
fo llow ing approp ria te in s tru c tion . These observations "led to a search
fo r the c r itic a l va riab le (s) th a t u nde rly spontaneous s tra te g y use",
(Cavanaugh and Perim utter, 1982) as It was fe lt th a t the re was a s trong
re la tionsh ip between metamemory, metacognition, and s tra te g y
6 Rational cogn itive a c tiv ity which occurs in the absence o f one’s conscious in tention .
72
generalisation, (e.g., Campione and Brown, 1978; Pressiey, et. ai.,
1984: Borkowski, 1985). A number o f s tud ies have emphasised the concept
o f ch ild re n ’s "readiness" in association w ith s tra tegy acqu is ition ,
(e.g.. Kail, 1979) bu t i t should be noted th a t w h ils t cogn itive
m aturation is an im portant aspect o f spontaneous s tra tegy
generalisation, the "p la n fu l" manipulation o f to -be -lea rned material is
o ften crude and unrefined u n til post adolescence.
METACOGNITION
"Children who are higher in metacognltlve knowledge learn new strategies more quickly and generalise them more readily than their metacognitively poorer peers". (Kurtz and Weinert, 1989)
I t is unclear whether m etacognltlve fu nc tions are indeed separate fun c tio n s o f cognition , (e.g., S life , Weiss and Bell, 1985; Jacobs and Paris, 1987; Garner and Alexander, 1989). Even Brown herse lf de liberates the po in t (Brown 1978), bu t fu r th e r knowledge about the metacog ni t iv e - cogn itive re la tionsh ip may not necessarily b rin g de fin itiona l c la rifica tio n fo r as Wertsch, (1978) has pointed out:
"....as we pursue problems In this area further and further, the distinctions between cognitive and metacognltlve abilities will beome less and less clear."
I f i t is accepted th a t m eta-functions are re la tive ly independent
aspects o f cognition , (e.g.. Brown, 1975; Brown and DeLoache, 1983) they
appear to play a crucia l role in the way ind iv idua ls organise learn ing
and deploy cogn itive and mnemonic stra teg ies, (e.g., K urtz and Weinert,
1989; Andreassen and Waters, 1989; Swanson, 1990) and seem to be
inseparably related to in te lligence, (e.g., Borkowski, 1985) reading,
(e.g.. Cross and Paris, 1988) mathematics, (e.g., Shoenfeld, 1987) and
Memory, (e.g., Pressley, et al., 1985).
73
One o f the most In fluen tia l f ig u re s In contem porary m etacognitive
discussion is Ann Brown, (e.g., 1975; 1977; Brown and Palincsar, 1982;
Brown and DeLoache, 1983) who d iscrim inates between d if fe re n t aspects
o f metacognition as follows:
"The basic s k ills o f metacognitlon Include p re d ic tin g the consequences o f an action o r event, check ing the re su lts o f one’s own actions (d id It work?), m onito ring one’s ongoing a c tiv ity (how am I doing?), re a iity tes ting (does th is make sense?), and a v a r ie ty o f o the r behaviours fo r coord ina ting and c o n tro iiin g de libera te attem pts to learn and solve problem s." (Brown, 1978)
This in te rac tive re la tionsh ip between metacognition and s tra te g y
deployment is im portant. Kurtz and Weinert, 1989, w rite : "....one o f the
most re liabie d iffe rences between the cogn itive behaviours o f g ifted and
average ch ild ren is th e ir use o f s tra teg ies on memory and problem
so lv ing tasks." (see also, S iegler and Kotovsky, 1986; Jackson and
B u tte rfie ld , 1986).
Young ch ild ren are ty p ic a lly naive, "u n sk ille d ", "less p la n fu l" and
"p roduction d e fic ien t" (e.g., F lavell, 1971) In the m anipulation and
management o f th e ir metamemorial [7] and metacog n it iv e fu n c tio n s [8]
(e.g.. Brown, et al, 1983; Corno, 1986; Zimmerman and M artinez-Pons,
1986, 1988) bu t the re does appear to be convincing evidence which
suggests th a t younger ch ild ren can bene fit from programmes o f
in s tru c tio n aimed at ra is ing metacog n it iv e awareness, (e.g., Levin, et
al., 1982)
Slife, e t al., (1985) attempted to isolate metacognition as an
" in te rre la te d " bu t "d iffe re n tia l" aspect o f cognition by comparing
normal and disabled s tuden ts ’ performance on problem -solv ing tasks.
7 Knowledge gained th rough in trospection about how one’s own memory works.8 Knowledge gained th rough in trospection about how one’s own cognition functions.
74
S life ’s team iden tified a positive re la tionsh ip between knowledge o f
cognition and problem -solv ing performance, bu t concluded:
" Is knowing how to solve problems a d if fe re n t s k ill o r a b ility from knowing th a t one knows how to solve problems? The re su lts appear to answer the question In the a ffirm a tive ." (S llfe , et al., P. 441, Ib id .)
In a recent s tudy by Swanson, (1990) a cogn itive a b ility te s t
(Thornd ike and Hagean, 1978) was used to id e n tify high and low ap titude
ch ild ren . Using a 2 x 2 expérimentai design, [9 ] ch ild ren were given an
adapted te s t o f metacognition taken from questionnaires produced
independently by Kreutzer, e t al, 1975; Myers and Paris, 1978.
Swanson demonstrated tha t, regard iess o f general ap titude, ch ild ren
w ith developed metacog n itive sk ills were supe rio r problem -solvers.
Swanson in te rp re ted these resu lts to suggest th a t "h igh metacog n itive
s k iils can compensate fo r overall a b ility by p rov id ing a ce rta in
knowledge about cogn ition ." Swanson’s position seems somewhat
precarious, fo r research attem pting to estabilsh a re la tionsh ip between
memory and metamemory using corre la tiona l [10] stud ies has been
d isappo in ting , (e.g., Perlm utter, 1978; Cavanaugh and Borkowski, 1979,
1980; Ringel and S pringe r, 1980; Kendall, Borkowski and Cavanaugh, 1980)
a lbe it p lausib le explanations have been o ffe red as to why th is d isp a rity
should exist, (see Cavanaugh and P erlm utter, 1982 fo r a review).
9 High ap titude - low metacognition v low ap titude - high metacognition.10 Where some aspect o f memory knowledge Is assessed, w ith a view to estab lish ing co rre la tions between memory-metamemory performance.
75
THE RELIABILITY OF CHILDREN’S REPORTS ON THEIR OWN MEMORY JUDGEMENTS
As two aspects o f the present s tud y , [11] requ ired ch ild ren to make
verbal and w ritte n judgem ents related to th e ir own use o f s tra teg ies ,
problems related to th is type o f re p o rtin g are b r ie f ly discussed.
Ericsson and Simon, (1980) have focussed a tten tion on the
re la tionsh ip between e lic itin g inform ation from sub jec ts about th e ir
memory ac tiv itie s , and the accuracy w ith which these statements are
reported . Making an im portant co n trib u tio n to th is area o f knowledge,
Andreassen and Waters, (1989) have recen tly conducted a s tu d y to te s t
the hypothesis th a t post-perform ance re p o rts on a fre e -re ca ll memory
task would re fle c t metamemory-behavlour re la tionsh ips In younger
ch ild ren whereas more accurate p re-perform ance repo rts would be
ch a ra c te ris tic o f the o lder ch ild ren s tud ied . The hypothesis was
supported , leading to the observation th a t o ider ch ild re n ’s metamemorial
th in k in g is characterised by p re -ta sk estimates o f what s tra te g ic action
is requ ired . F u rthe r, a t the p re -task po in t, " i t would be possible
to use p rev ious experience and acquired knowledge to In fe r what would be
an ap p rop ria te memory s tra te gy in the p a rtic u la r s itua tion and then pu t
th a t knowledge to use." (ib id ).
There would appear to be numerous cogn itive a c tiv it ie s associated
w ith the selection, m onitoring and implementation o f approp ria te ta s k -
related s tra teg ies . Whereas adu lts and o lde r ch ild ren tend to
"p la n fu lly " manage th e ir iearn ing, (e.g., Flavell, 1971) and re trieva l
operations, (e.g., O rnste in, et al., 1985b) young ch ild ren are
inexperienced, inexacting and ina rticu la te in p rescrib ing ta s k -
app rop ria te stra teg ies, (e.g., see Kail, 1979). Indeed, they may not be
able to describe the typ e o f cogn itive a c tiv ity they have themselves
d irected, (e.g., Cavanaugh and P erlm utter, 1982) lacking both the
11 The pup il questionnaires fo llow ing experim ents in the 7 series, and also, the selected fo llow -up In te rv iew s related to the questionnaires.
76
vocabulary and appropria te in trospec tive s k ills to a rticu la te
metamemorial actions w ith accuracy, (e.g., Ericsson and Simon, 1980).
F u rth e r, young ch ild ren may not feel motivated to do th e ir best, (e.g..
Booth, 1981) o r understand what is being asked o f them,
(e.g., see e.g., V lie ts tra , 1982; Kaii, 1979; Case, 1975) leading to
un rep resen ta tive resu lts , (e.g., M each am, 1972).
Young ch ild ren especially, m ight have d if f ic u lty in in te rp re tin g
the statements, requirem ents and questions o f experim enters, may have
d if f ic u lty In fo llow ing the opera ting in s tru c tio n s o ffe red , (e.g., Hagen
and Hale, 1973) o r may fa ll to concentrate e ffe c tive ly , (e.g.,
V u rp illo t, 1968)
In an attem pt to Improve metamemorial data-collection methodology,
Ackerman and Bailey, (1989) suggest th a t Inferences made and data
collected from co n cu rre n t metamemorial a c tiv ity are like ly to be more
re liab le than data drawn from sub jec ts prospective p red ic tions and
Judgements; ch ild ren being more able to explain what Is happening as a
cause o f memory a c tiv ity ra th e r than what m igh t happen. O ther
experim enters have emphasised the need to approach the s tu d y o f
metamemory from a range o f methodological approaches, using material
obtained from prospective, ( fu tu re ), concurren t, (p resen t) and
re tro sp ec tive (p rev ious) metamemorial a c tiv ity , (e.g., Cavanaugh and
P erlm utte r, 1982; Brown, et al., 1983; Fabrlcus and Hegen, 1984).
77
SOME PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
The grow ing in te re s t in metamemory, s tra teg ies and mnemonics has
considerable relevance to the management o f classroom learn ing.
I f , as the lite ra tu re suggests, the re are no fundamental s tru c tu ra l
d iffe rences between the memories o f ch ild ren and adults, (e.g., Chi,
1976; 1978) it seems reasonable to assume th a t ch ild ren possess the
necessary "so ftw are" to apply the same cogn itive s tra teg ies and
mnemonics, ty p ic a lly adopted spontaneously by o lde r people. As th e ir
acquis ition has been shown to lead to more e ffec tive learn ing w ith broad
populations, i t should be in the keen in te res t o f educationa lists to
teach th e ir s tuden ts these sk ills . Such a position o f course, would
requ ire the a va ila b ility o f local au tho rity -based o r independent
tra in in g programmes, ta rge tted at teachers responsible fo r teaching
sub jects re levan t to s tra te g y sk ills , a lthough It could easily be argued
th a t s tra te gy s k ills are re levant to all sub jects. The teachers
responsible would then be In a position to tra n s fe r th e ir knowledge to
o the r s ta ff d u rin g tra in in g days o r at o th e r su itab le times.
Schools op ting ou t o f such programmes fo r financia l [12] o r o the r
reasons, would do well to remember th a t schools are en te ring a fre e -
m arket s itua tion where e ffe c tive learn ing (re su lts ) may be the
"cornerstone" o f su rv iva l!
From a philosophical perspective , ch iid ren have a r ig h t to
antic ipa te th a t teachers w ill inform them o f how best to s tudy and learn
inform ation, given th a t teachers expect ch ild ren to learn what is placed
before them to learn.
12 Under the Local Management o f Schools, It is like ly th a t in s titu tio n s w ill make less money available fo r in -se rv ice tra in in g programmes.
78
Were th is knowledge unavailable, educationa lists m ight be fo rg iven
fo r proceeding w ith learn ing a c tiv itie s in much the way as they have fo r
m illennia, bu t the grow ing body o f knowledge re la ting to how ch ild ren
learn, and how they can learn more resource fu lly and e ffe c tive ly , should
now be In the hands o f p ractis ing teachers. One wonders w hether th is
w ill ever be the case......
79
CLASSROOM CONSIDERATIONS
M eta-tra in ing , has been shown to lead to considerable learn ing gains
both w ith normal ch ild ren , (e.g., Lodico, et. al., 1983; O’Su llivan and
Pressley, 1984; Pressley, et al., 1985; Andreassen and Waters, 1989) and
w ith g ifted ch ild ren , (e.g., Jackson and B u tte rfie ld , 1986; S iegler and
Kotovsky, 1986; K urtz and Weinert, 1989).
A lthough th is tra in in g takes many forms, i t is essentia lly designed
to raise ch ild re n ’s awareness o f th e ir own cogn ition ’s operational
capabilities, w ith the specific aim o f extending the s tra te g ic a n d /o r
mnemonic options available to them. As in rehearsal in te rven tion
programmes, th is may not be s u ffic ie n t to promote the spontaneous use o f
a s tra teg ic behaviour, a lthough in te rven tion may iead to immediate
learn ing gains. This issue may be c la rifie d as evidence from
long itud ina l m eta -tra in ing stud ies becomes available.
Given th is knowledge, the teacher’s role in developing each c h ild ’s
metamemorial awareness o f when to use a ta sk -a p p ro p ria te s tra te g y o r
mnemonic w ill be a complex issue. But i f the metamemorial consciousness
o f ch ild ren can indeed be raised as the lite ra tu re suggests,
in te rven tion programmes ough t to b ring about a number o f inva luab le
improvements in the c h ild ’s reasoning and learn ing th ro u gh the more
e ffec tive use o f s tra te g ic th in k in g and se if-m on ito ring .
I t is necessary to say th a t the management o f classroom s tra te g y
in s tru c tion , (cogn itive o r mnemonic) is p r in c ip a iiy dependent on the
classroom teacher and is most like ly to be successful I f ch ild ren can be
ta u g h t to adopt "p a rtic u la r cogn itive programmes" (Belmont and
B u tte rfie ld , 1977) " ....th a t are suited to the task and are based on an
understand ing o f the ch ild . This can on ly be achieved i f the (teacher)
understands the requirem ents o f the learn ing task in some detail and
knows a fa ir amount about the processing lim ita tions o f the learner. I t
80
Is then possible to develop plans which are w ith in the in d iv id u a l’s
capacity ." (Howe and Ceci, 1979).
To be most e ffec tive in th is role, the teacher should have
knowledge o f the fo llow ing:
a) the development o f s ta teg ic cognition in ch iid ren
S tra teg ies are acquired increm enta lly. An
appreciation o f th e ir re la tionsh ip w ith the c h ild ’s evo lv ing cognition may fa c ilita te approp ria te s tra te g y -ta s k matching.
b) how to id e n tify the c h ild ’s c u rre n t s tra te g ic competency
This would p rov ide the evidence requ ired to make more accurate judgem ents about the c h ild ’s c u rre n t s tra te g ic capab ilities and needs.
c) how and when the c h ild ’s s tra te g ic th in k in g may be advanced
For the ch ild to apply a ta sk -a p p ro p ria te s tra te g y , he must a) know o f the s tra te g y and b) appreciate the s itu a tion s where i t is like ly to be most e ffec tive .This may req u ire metacog n it iv e in s tru c tion .
d) how the ch ild can be ta ugh t to use the s tra teg ies a lready known more e ffe c tive ly and how the range o f these m ight be successfu lly extended
This would enable the ch ild to make learn ing more de libera te and planned.S tra teg ies related to each stage o f learn ing, (e.g., lea rn ing , re ten tion and reca ll) bu t c u rre n tly outs ide the c h ild ’s re p e rto ry , could be In troduced by the teacher as p a rt o f the normal teacher as p a rt o f a normal learn ing programme.
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SUMMARY OR SE C T IO N 2
Mnemonics In general and f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics in p a rtic u la r are used
in schools to promote c h ild re n ’s acqu is ition o f basic facts , (e.g.,
see the section marked "S ta ff su rvey In th is s tu d y , pp.293-325). Every
c u rr ic u la r area re lies upon ch ild re n acqu iring facts , around which a
knowledge-base [1 ] can be established.
Given th a t assessment has evolved as an Im portant p a rt o f the
educational process, informal schemes aimed a t remembering more have
received a tten tion at both theore tica l and practica l levels.
I t seems a necessary p a rt o f the more general mnemonic discussion
to explore the h is to rica l lin k s between knowledge, assessment and the
cu rricu lum , and inapp rop ria te merely to take th is re la tionsh ip fo r
granted.
The discussion which fo llow s Includes an appraisal o f how the
more tra d ition a l contexts o f mnemonics have been changed by the
in tro du c tio n o f National C urricu lum . I t Is argued th a t fa r from the re
being less o p p o rtu n ity o r reason fo r using mnemonics w ith in th e new
cu rricu lum , the re are even g rea te r o p po rtu n itie s available to im prove
c h ild re n ’s learn ing leading to lasting educational benefits, bene fits
which schools m ight ignore a t the r is k o f being less co s t-e ffec tive .
1 "...the extent to which knowledge acquired in one context m ight generalise to o the r contexts." (Prowat, 1989).
82
Follow ing a descrip tion o f the term "know ledge", the re la tionsh ip between knowledge, assessment and the cu rricu lu m Is exp lored; f i r s t from an h is to rica l perspective , and second. In re la tion to the im portance o f promoting knowledge w ith in th e fram ework o f National C urricu lum and the practica l im plications o f th is approach.
THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE
"Prom oting the tra n s fe r o f knowledge and s k ill In s tuden ts Is a m ajor - many would say th e m ajor - goal o f education." (Prawat, 1989).
What It is " to know" has been a pe rs is ten t theme th ro u g h o u t m ankind ’s
philosophical e nqu iry , (e.g., Plato, 427-347 B.C.; Prawat, 1989) and is
s t i l l a popu lar top ic in sc ie n tif ic and educational jou rna ls , (e .g „
Shuell, 1986; S lavin, 1987; Vosniadou and Brewer, 1987; Eyion and
L inn, 1988; Alexander and Judy, 1988; C arr, 1988, e t al. and o ffic ia l
repo rts , (e.g., The Munn Report. 1985, esp. chs 3 & 4).
To "know " is to " id e n tify " , to "have In the m ind", to "have
learned" [1] and has its o rig in in the Latin "noscere" (to recognise)
and the Greek, " gno" meaning to " beœme acquainted w ith, come to know
a th in g ."
From an academic perspective, the term "know ledge" is genera lly
considered to be consensus agreement between scholars regard ing
p a rtic u la r statements o r events, (e.g., Jacob, 1987; C arr, 1988). Such
statem ents are su b jec t to "v igo rous revis ion and in te rro g a tio n ",
(Jacob, In press) w ith a view to ex trac ting "deeper" c la rifica tio n and
analysis o f the sub jec t m atter, (Socrates, Plato, 427-347 B.C.;
Protagoras; Cobb, Yackel and Wood, 1988) "even in the course o f a
s ing le life tim e", (Simon, 1980).
1 The Concise Oxford D ictionary (1990)
83
In the s p ir i t o f Schwab, 1964, Kuhn (1970) suggests knowledge
merely re flec ts a " tra d it io n " among scholars at p a rtic u la r po in ts In
time, who genera lly agree upon the spec ific "na tu re o f the un ive rse
they are examining, the questions raised, the research problems and
approp ria te methods o f e n q u iry ". As G riff ith s , (1986) pu ts It:
"...th e re are not a lim ited number o f form s o f knowledge", b u t ra th e r
a un iverse open to en qu iry , (see also. H irs t, 1969).
The discussion which fo llow s Is p r in c ip a lly re lated to the cu rricu lu m , education and assessment o f p re -1 6 -ye a r-o ld secondary c h ild re n. For a contem porary discussion on post-16 educational p rov is ion , see Roby, (1990, pp.172-177, and Jones, 1990, pp. 179-199).
KNOWLEDGE, LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT - A BRIEF HISTORY
"The p rim ary missions o f educational In s titu tio n s , from elementary to graduate and professional schools, are to Im part knowledge and to teach cogn itive s k ills ." (F rederiksen, (1984, p. 363)
From ancient to contem porary times, id e n tify in g precise ly what aspects
o f knowledge education should transm it to learners, and how th is can
be most e ffe c tive ly accomplished, has proved problematic, (e.g.,
Socrates; Rousseau, 1911; A. S. Neill).
The Roman, Tacitus, suggests th a t Agrico la established some form
o f s tru c tu re d learn ing and oral assessment fo r local and regional
adm in is tra to rs in England around AD 78, (Lawson and S live r, 1976) and
although A E lfr ic ’s Colloquy (c. 1000 AD) presents dialogue between a
monk and some boys, (p robab ly ch o ris te rs ) i t is genera lly assumed th a t
education at th a t time was res tric te d to those o f noble b ir th o r those
w ith some form o f monastic a ffilia tio n . There is ce rta in ly evidence
which suggests th a t ce rta in monastic foundations [2 ] had scholastic
reputa tions d u rin g the period 600-1066, b u t i t was not u n til the la te r
2 For example, W inchester, G lastonbury, Ramsey and Worcester.
84
medieval period (1300-1530) th a t the u n ive rs itie s o f Oxford and
Cambridge, (w ith the K ing’s su ppo rt) routed learn ing away from the
d ire c t contro l o f re lig ious o rde rs and laid academic foundations which
were la te r to dominate English education. (For a review , see Lawson
and S ilve r, 1976, ch.1).
A lthough not a recent innovation, new grammar schools [3 ] were
established fo llow ing the various ou tb reaks o f plague (1348/9), du ring
which the numbers o f learned masters and c le rics se rv ing
ecclesiastical in s titu tio n s were reduced by as much as a th ird . The
improved economic se cu rity o f many p h ilan th rop is ts , noblemen and
merchants d u rin g the late 1400s, combined w ith the d ive rs ifica tion o f
knowledge resu ltin g from b e tte r communication and developing lite ra ry
resources, accelerated the rise o f educational foundations unattached
to re lig ious orders.
In the English "secu lar w orld ", i t was only d u rin g the mid 1800s
th a t w ritten assessment replaced v is its to grammar schools, by so-
called ’ locals’ , [4] whose various respons ib ilities included
m onitoring the progress o f schools by period ic "oral inspection".
Having in troduced w ritten assessment in 1858, the u n ive rs itie s o f
Oxford and Cambridge, issued th e ir f i r s t ce rtifica te s o f accredita tion
to candidates in 1877. The "O xbridge" model, where course in s tru c tion
culm inates in w ritten assessment, has, fo r nearly one -and -a -h a lf
cen tu ries, dominated the English education system.
3 e.g., in 1382, William o f Wykeham (Bishop o f W inchester) founded a grammar school in W inchester. A rchbishop Chichele founded a college at Higham Ferre rs, in Northam ptonshire.4 V is its by a U n ive rs ity fellow who assessed competence th ro u gh oral examination.
85
The 1944 Education Act promoted the tr ip a r t ite d iv is ion o f
schools [5 ], each designed to ca te r fo r ch ild ren o f specified a b ility ,
bu t because each cu rricu lum was m arkedly d iffe re n t in character, a
d if fe re n t approach to s tuden t assessment and course evaluation was
requ ired .
Responding to a recommendation o f the Secondary Schools
Examinations Council (1943), in 1951, G.C.E. [6] examinations replaced
the old School C ertifica te which la rge ly fa iled to d iffe re n tia te
between c u rr ic u la r areas and was unable to p rov ide the f le x ib il ity ,
range o f sub jects , o r competence requ ired o f pos t-w ar socie ty, (e.g.,
Taylor, 1964; B u tte rfie ld , 1990).
I t was not u n til 1965 th a t the secondary modern schools [7 ]
achieved com parab ility , th rough the in tro du c tio n o f the C ertifica te o f
Secondary Education (C.S.E.).
Given co ncu rren t lim ita tions o f assessment design, and
Innovation, the re was an in e v ita b ility th a t the perform ance o f
candidates should adhere to the tra d itio n a l s ty le o f summative
evaluation, (e.g., B u tte rfie ld , 1990) ty p ic a lly d u rin g timed, w ritte n ,
formal examinations. This typ e o f assessment o ffe red candidates l it t le
o p p o rtu n ity to demonstrate the broad va rie ty o f th e ir knowledge and
also the many s k ills related to each su b je c t’s syllabuses, (e.g..
Buckle, 1990). A dd itiona lly , tra d itio n a l assessment o ffe red l it t le o r
no o p p o rtu n ity fo r ch iid ren o r teachers to specify pos itive
achievement, o th e r than th a t d ire c tly related to specified assessment
c r ite r ia , (see McGuff, 1990 fo r a recent review).
5 Grammar fo r the most academicaliy able; technica l, fo r those w ith technical ap titude; and secondary fo r ch ild ren o f lower a b ility .6 General C ertifica te o f Education.7 O ffe ring a cu rricu lum fo r the less academically able.
86
Innovation in both c u rr ic u la r design and assessment methodology
was fu r th e r impeded by Inconsistencies between cu rricu lum bodies and
p lann ing groups who appear to "be drawn to d if fe re n t models and
theories o f knowledge", (C arr, 1988). Despite these d if f ic u lt ie s , over
time, the c learer, less ambiguous specifica tion o f p recise ly what
lea rners ough t to know at va rious stages o f a sy llabus o r course o f
in s tru c tio n , toge the r w ith a c lear descrip tion o f the c r ite r ia and
concepts associated w ith th is process, have been p rogress ive ly
re fined .
THE INFLUENCE OF OBJECTIVES UPON CURRICULUM DESIGN AND ASSESSMENT
"There is a lready a volum inous co llection o f pious w orks on cu rricu lu m ob jec tives . Perhaps th a t is why th e re is a cu rious u n re a lity about the su b jec t. Statements about o b jec tive s seem to be l i t t le more than a ra tiona liza tion o f a c tiv it ie s which are conducted fo r o the r, fo rg o tte n o r on ly ha lf-suspected purposes." (Musgrove, 1968, p.216).
Space on ly perm its an ou tline sketch o f the ob jec tives [8 ] in fluence
on school learn ing and the form ula tion o f examination c r ite r ia .
A lthough the p a rticu la r re la tionsh ip between the c h ild ’s
possession o f factual knowledge and academic achievement is now well
known, (e.g., Glaser, 1984; Chi, 1985) the c la r ity w ith which th is and
o th e r comparisons can now be made owes much to Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy
o f educational ob jectives. Some go fu r th e r in suggesting th a t Bloom’s
co n tr ib u tio n to o u r understand ing o f the term knowledge, has
"in fluenced almost every specifica tion o f (educational) o b jec tives",
(Deale, 1975) and cu rricu lum [9 ] design, (e.g., Francis, 1981).
8 The c lassifica tion o f outcomes th ro u gh specified in ten tions9 "A cu rricu lum is an attem pt to communicate the essential p rin c ip le sand fea tu res o f an educational proposal in such a form th a t i t is opento c r it ic a l s c ru tin y and capable o f e ffe c tive trans la tion In to p rac tice ." (Laurence Stenhouse, (1978, p. 4)
87
In addition to c la r ify in g va rious aspects o f educational
knowledge:
Knowledge o f specifics Knowledge o f term inology Knowledge o f specific factsKnowledge o f ways and means o f dealing w ith specificsKnowledge o f conventionsKnowledge o f tre n d s and sequencesKnowledge o f c lass ifica tions and categoriesKnowledge o f c r ite r iaKnowledge o f methodologyKnowledge o f the un ive rse ls and abstrac tions In a fie ld Knowledge o f p rinc ip les and genera lisations Knowledge o f theories and s tru c tu re s
Bloom iden tified six major categories o f educational ob jectives:
1) Knowledge; 2) Comprehension; 3) App lica tion;
4) Analysis; 5) Synthesis; 6) Evaluation
Bloom iden tified the necessity to synchron ise the re la tionsh ip between
the content o f cu rricu ium and assessment methodology. U n fo rtuna te ly ,
w h ils t he stated th is re la tionsh ip w ith unprecedented precis ion, "the
g reat problem has been th a t the external examination system has
made i t d if f ic u lt to ensure th a t teaching ob jec tives and assessment
o b jec tives co incide". (Macintosh, 1974).
The impact o f Bloom’s taxonomy on contem porary educational
th in k in g has been considerabie.
The in troduc tion o f the National C urricu lum has o ffe red
cu rricu lum designers a unique o p p o rtu n ity to synchron ise both
cu rricu iu m and assessment ob jec tives. I t has been designed so th a t
o b jec tives in te rre la te at each stage o f the learn ing process, from
sy llabus design, th ro u gh various form s o f assessment ob jec tives which
are themselves d ire c tly related to teaching ob jec tives and sy llabus
in fra s tru c tu re .
88
The in fluence o f the ob jec tives approach, (e.g.. Bloom, 1956;
B obbitt, 1924; T y le r, 1949; Taba, 1962) a lthough not w ithou t Its
c r it ic s , (E isner, 1967; 1969; K liebard, 1968) is ev iden t in a review
o f the present G.C.S.E. assessment ob jectives. Here, th e re Is a
s tr ik in g s im ila rity between the re la tionsh ip between c u rr ic u la r
ob jec tives and the aspects o f knowledge to which they relate, and
Bloom’s taxonomy. Indeed, the re is a " ....s trong in fluence o f some
form o f ob jec tive approach in all the su b je c t areas", (Buckle, 1990).
For example, the Physics, Maths and Technology cu rricu lum documents
inc lude as th e ir lower ob jec tives: "Recall" o r, "Know and reca ll",
p rogress ing th ro ugh to comprehension and the manipulation o f fac ts to
produce analysis, syn thes is and evaluation.
KNOWLEDGE AND EXAMINATION PERFORMANCE
"To re s tr ic t the measurement o f the p u p il’s a tta inm ent to the consideration o f evidence consis ting solely o f a w ritte n s c r ip t o r sc rip ts , completed in s tipu la ted periods o f time on ce rta in dates, is in s u ffic ie n t data to presume to deduce re su lts o f such consequential importance to the in d iv id u a l." (Rogers, 1974, p. 158)
The approach o f Bloom and his contem poraries has had a decisive Impact
upon all modern syllabuses, (e.g., Francis, 1981) and the s trong
in fluence o f the ob jec tives approach is ev iden t in all contem porary
assessment c r ite r ia . Perhaps not s u rp r is in g ly , a review o f the 1992-
1993 G.C.E. Regulations and S yllab i, (London Board) ide n tifie s the
c h ild ’s acquis ition o f knowledge in each su b jec t area as an essential
fe a tu re o f courses.
89
For example, the A-S [10] Biology assessment ob jec tives commence:
"The examination w ill te s t the fo llow ing (ob jec tives):
a)
Knowledge and understand ing o f
(I) biological facts, terms, p rinc ip le s , concepts and re la tionsh ips, et al.
b) Application o f biological knowledge In
(I) con s tru c ting hypotheses, design ing and conducting experiments and in te rp re tin g resu lts , e t a l."
T ra d itiona lly , the main th ru s t o f assessment has been d irected tow ards
p lacing candidates in rank a b ility by tes ting the q u a n tity and q u a lity
o f factua l Inform ation (knowledge) learners can recall, (e.g., Roby,
1990) bu t d u rin g the past ha lf decade in p a rticu la r, the re has been an
erosion o f the typ e o f timed w ritte n assessment which emphasises a
lea rn e r’s a b ility accurate ly to recall fa c ts w ith in th is typ e o f
fram ework.
Buckle, (1990) suggests:
"The purpose of traditional public examinations was to certify that a candidate had reached a certain standard In the subject. That Is to say that the candidate possessed skills of recall, understanding and application of the knowledge In the subject at a level appropriate to the qualification."
D uring the past f iv e years in p a rticu la r, the re has been a dramatic
s h if t o f emphasis away from the norm -re ferenced assessment methods,
ty p ic a lly associated w ith G.C.E. and C.S.E. courses. C u rre n t tre n d s in
assessment tend to emphasise the q u a lity o f the ch ild re n ’s work over
p re -p rescribed periods (continuous assessment) as well as the va rie ty
o f th e ir personal qua lities and a ttr ib u te s [11], which are not
examined in the normal, formal way.
10 Advanced_Supplementary11 Records o f Achievement
90
THE ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM
"It is the attention of the assessment objectives (within National Curriculum) to skills and processes which determines the need for a course work element, and which marks the greatest departure from the emphasis upon recall of knowledge and upon timed, written examinations" (Butterfield, 1990).
U ntil recen tly , examination innovation la rge ly consisted o f
"augm enting ra th e r than rep lacing conventional techn iques" o f
assessment, (Rogers, 1974). For many decades, assessment has been
almost exclus ive ly d irected toward educational outcomes related to
cogn itive s k ills .
This typ e o f approach neglected the assessment o f im portan t
a ffe c tive s k ills , such as the development o f d isc ip lined w orking
habits, the acqu is ition o f s tud y s k iils and social s e n s it iv ity , (e.g.,
Kelly, 1971; Mathews, 1974) and a lthough The Schools Council
Examinations Bu lle tin No 1, o ffic ia iiy o ffe red teachers g rea ter
involvem ent and f le x ib ility in the assessment process, [12] the need
to stream line the school cu rricu lum and Its assessment methodology
became apparent.
On 20th June, 1984, S ir Keith Joseph announced his in ten tion to
implement a National C urricu lum , w ith the f i r s t courses commencing in
September 1986.
The in it ia tiv e was to mark the demise o f examinations which re ly
heavily upon timed assessment aione to assign ch ild ren to d iffe re n t
levels o f achievement, (e.g., B u tte rfie ld , 1990).
12 eg., th ro u g h the provis ion o f regional examining boards and external moderation.,
91
Within the fram ework o f National C urricu lum , the whole concept o f
the curricu lum -assessm ent re la tionsh ip and ch ild re n ’s a tta inm ent has
recently been rad ica lly re -de fined , making e xp lic it the precise level
o f a tta inm ent a "norm al" learner o f g iven age should have achieved in
each area o f the cu rricu lum . Given th a t th is task has been considered
both im practicable and unresourcable, (N.U.T. conference, 1991) and
also th a t i t has been considered a re tro g ress ive step to te s t
youngsters w ith such v ig ilance, (Labour Party Conference, 1991) the
re a lity appears to be th a t period ic formal tes tin g is to form p a rt o f
the normal school assessment programme. The tools used in th is
d iffe re n tia te d [13] approach to learn ing and assessment are as many
and varied as the s k ills they seek to evaluate and p rov id e evidence o f
a c h ild ’s cogn itive and a ffec tive atta inm ent th ro u gh o u t a c h ild ’s
schooling.
This clear, unambiguous specifica tion o f precise ly what knowledge
ch ild ren should have at spec ific chronological ages, is an issue
centra l to th is s tu d y , bu t the o r ig in o f such discussion can be traced
to numerous in flu e n tia l papers and w rit in g s produced between c. the
mid 1940s onward, (e.g.. The Norwood Report. (1943) The Waddell
Committee Report. (1978), The C ockcro ft Report. (1982) Mathematics
Counts.
F rustra ted by the lack o f a coordinated approach tow ards
c u rr ic u la r design. H irs t, (1969) w rites:
"Anyone who today advocates curriculum changes on pure philosophical grounds without considering the psychological and sociological factors that are relevant Is simply irresponsible. For rational curriculum planning, we must, for Instance, have sound empirical evidence on how children learn, we must know the demand In our society for people with specialist knowledge."
13 D iffe ren tia tio n by task invo lves the se ttin g o f assessment tasks at d if fe r in g levels o f d if f ic u lty . D iffe ren tia tion by outcome, the use o f a common task which reveals wide ranges o f performance, (e.g.. Buckle, 1990)
92
Changes to the r ig id , in flex ib le secondary cu rricu lum were accelerated
by the needs o f the ra p id ly evo lv ing technological society o f the
seventies. In a fu r th e r in flue n tia l paper, Musgrove, (1968 p.229)
suggested:
"Our curricula are still geared to a society In which the majority would be engaged In manual work, knowledge once acquired had a permanent value, the age of puberty was 17, life was over at 40, and father never bathed baby."
As the decade o f the seventies passed, the clear appeals fo r a
rad ica lly d if fe re n t cu rricu lum , w ith assessment opp o rtu n itie s
ca re fu lly matched to each sy llabus were addressed. I t was clear th a t
the "b o lt-o n " remnants o f the t r ip a r t ite system ’s examining s tru c tu re
(G.C.E./C.S.E.) would p rov ide inapp ropria te measures o f assessment fo r
a d iffe re n tia ted cu rricu lum so m arkedly d if fe re n t in character.
A lthough timed examinations were to be retained as an Im portant
fea tu re o f the overa ll G.C.S.E. assessment plan, they were to
supplement the inform ation re la ting to s tude n ts ’ achievements gained
th ro u gh o th e r measures. These include p ro je c t work, p ro filin g , records
o f achievement, [14] self-assessment and extensions o f aural and oral
tes ting .
A lthough the new s ty le o f assessment has extended the range o f
cogn itive and a ffe c tive [15] s k ills which are tested and more read ily
accommodates Ind iv idua l learn ing s ty les, (e.g., Entw istle , 1981;
R iding, 1990) the emphasis o f assessment is s till focused upon the
knowledge candidates possess and the q u a lity w ith which th is can be
applied.
14 Assessment which has some element o f s tu den t involvem ent o r contro l in the specification o f personal achievement.15 S k ills connected w ith a ttitu d e s and se lf-expression
93
For example, the national c r ite r ia fo r physics iis ts th ree key
sk ills , the f i r s t is "Know and reca ll: factua l in form ation;
conventions; requirem ents fo r sa fe ty " et al.
Among the Statements o f A tta inm ent fo r the Science G.C.S.E. [16]
syllabus, (p. 6) are:
(level 1) "Know th a t th e re is a wide v a rie ty o f liv in g th in g s , which includes human beings."
(level 2) "Know th a t p lan ts and animals need certa in conditions to susta in life ."
(level 3) "Know th a t liv in g th in g s respond to seasonal and da ily changes."
Perhaps not s u rp r is in g ly , documents fo r each c u rr ic u la r area place a
s im ilar emphasis upon the role the acquis ition o f knowledge p lays in
the form ulation o f a c h ild ’s m u ltila te ra l [17] and un ila te ra l [18]
knowledge base.
A lthough one o f the emphases o f National C urricu lum is upon
se tting national requirem ents related to specified c r ite r ia o f
atta inm ent, (e.g.. Brown, 1990) repeated attem pts to reduce the
emphasis piaced on recall as an asssessment measure related to these
c r ite r ia are being met w ith increasing resistance.
For example, a lthough recent recommendations o f The H istory
W orking Party requested more flex ib le approaches to learn ing th rough
ch ild re n ’s "em pathy" w ith h is to rica l characters and events, these
appeals have been firm ly re jected in fa vo u r o f a move back to
"basics", (John MacGregor in the tab lo id press, Ju ly , 1990).
16 General C ertifica te o f Secondary Education17 Knowledge o r s k ills which read ily tra n s fe r to a range o f s itua tions, e.g., te llin g the time, o r using a ca lcuiator.18 Knowledge o r s k ills which have res tric ted application outs ide a spec ific knowledge base, e.g., knowing th a t a narrow s tr ip o f land connecting two la rg e r bodies is called an isthmus, (Geography).
94
MacGregor argues fo r a re tu rn to knowledge o f "fac ts , dates,
people and places", adding " I a ttach g rea t Importance to securing
assessment arrangem ents th a t te s t the knowledge and unders tand ing o f
the h is to ry s tud ied ", ( ib id ).
Using Bloom’s model, MacGregor’s argum ent, th a t "fee lings" should
not be ta u g h t at the expense o f fa c ts and basic knowledge, appears to
have some rationale, in th a t fac ts p rov ide the fram ework from which
h ighe r reasoning proceeds, (see also e.g., Vosniadou and Brewer, 1987;
Alexander and Judy, 1988). F u rth e r, i f Bloom’s taxonomy Is a va lid
statement o f the development o f cog n itive organ isation In ch ild re n . It
fo llow s th a t s tra teg ies, cogn itive o r mnemonic, which can fa c ilita te
the acquis ition o f factua l inform ation are at the ve ry least
im portant. I f not essential tools o f learn ing.
Next w ill be discussed:
1) How knowledge is related to the school cu rricu lum
2) How the incremental acquis ition o f knowledge fac ilita te s h igher cogn itive judgem ents to be made
and
3) How one’s knowledge o f personal learn ing s tra teg ies [19] can lead to a more e ffic ie n t use o f the knowledge base [20] ch ild ren possess.
19 "The collection o f mental tac tics employed by an Ind iv idua l In a p a rticu la r learn ing s itua tion to fa c ilita te acqu is ition o f knowledge o r s k ill." "Thus conceived, learn ing s tra teg ies lie w ith in the domain o f "cogn itive s tra teg ies" (B runer, Good now, and Austin , 1956).20 Prawat, (1989) defines a knowiedge base as "the extent to which knowledge acquired in one context m ight generalise to o th e r contexts",p. 1
95
I t would be naive to suggest th a t e ith e r domain knowledge o r s tra teg y
acquis ition alone are a p rescrip tio n fo r examination success. Amongst
o th e r im portan t variab les are: in te lligence, (Wagner and S te rnberg ,
1984) m otivation, (Booth, 1981; Ames and Ames, 1984) e ffo r t,
(Holloway, 1988) anxie ty, (Covington and Omelich, 1987; Hembree, 1988)
se lf-concept, (Chapman, 1988) iea rn ing context, (Sm ith, 1988)
a tten tion , (e.g.. C arver and Scheier, 1986; W igfield, 1988), e t ai.
But probably none o f these variab les Is as im portan t as the
in te rre la tion sh ip between domain-knowledge [21] and s tra te g y
knowledge, (e.g., Alexander and Judy, 1988) o r the "p la n fu l" way In
which the ch ild manages and regulates h is o r her own knowledge, (e.g.,
F lavell, 1971; Andreassen and Waters, 1989; Hanley and Collins, 1989).
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DOMAIN AND STRATEGY KNOWLEDGE
"....e ffec tive and e ffic ie n t iea rn ing in the classroom is dependent upon the continual o rches tra tion o f one’s conten t and s tra te g y knowledge". (A lexander and Judy, 1988)
Recent research has explored th is p a rtic u la r re la tionsh ip , (e.g.,
D erry and M urphy, 1986; Shuell, 1986; Vosniadou and Brewer, 1987;
Alexander and Judy, 1988; Andreassen and Waters, 1989) suggesting th a t
a w ell-defined knowledge base Is an im portant, i f not "essentia l"
fea tu re o f e ffe c tive "schema" [22] o r s tra te g ic knowiedge, (e.g.,
Glaser, 1984; Chi, 1985).
21 The declara tive , procedura l, o r conditional knowledge one possesses re la tive to a p a rtic u la r fie ld o f s tu d y ." (A lexander and Judy, 1988)22 (Anderson, 1984)
96
This position has been shown in a number o f c u rr ic u la r areas such
as reading comprehension, (e.g., Pearson, Hansen and Gordon, 1979;
Ta ft and Lesiie, 1985; Recht and Leslie, 1988) ) mathematics, (e.g.,
H iebert, 1984; Cauley, 1988; M urray and Mayer, 1988) where i t has been
repeatedly demonstrated th a t p r io r knowledge "fa c ilita te s both the
q u a n tity and qu a lity o f reca ll", (Recht and Leslie, 1988)
Both Anderson (1984) and Baddeley (1985) have c lea rly pointed
ou t, " to ta lly new" knowledge is in constant in te rac tive exchanges w ith
p re -e x is tin g o r prio r-know ledge . But a lthough the c h ild ’s possession
o f a "minimal base" o f domain knowledge "would appear to be a
necessary b u t In su ffic ie n t condition fo r e ffec tive u tiliza tion o f
s tra te g ic knowledge", (A lexander and Judy, 1988, p. 388) adequate
domaln-knowledge Is not a p resc rip tio n fo r e ffec tive learn ing , unless
accompanied by approp ria te metacog n itive stra teg ies, (e.g., Hanley and
Collins, 1989). For domain-knowledge to fa c ilita te learn ing
e ffe c tive ly , i t requ ires to be "assim ila ted", organised, accessed and
manipulated by the ch ild , (e.g., Simon, 1980; Glaser, 1984; Rablnowltz
and Chi, 1987).
The co ro lla ry re flec ts s im ila r interdependencies. S tudies by
Gitomer (1984) and Schoenfeld (1987) have demonstrated th a t the
adoption o f inap p rop ria te s tra teg ies not on ly impedes performance, bu t
is costly in term s o f time and e ffo r t. In accounting fo r such
de fic its , Simon, (1980) ra th e r fo r th r ig h t iy suggests: "bare fac ts do
not solve problem s...." bu t fac ts are the ru b ric s which once
"accommodated" by and "assim ilated" w ith in the in d iv id u a l’s re p e rto ire
o f knowledge, p rov ide the "necessary cond ition " fo r s tra te g y -
general isation, (e.g., Piaget, 1972).
97
More recently , Alexander and Judy, (1988) have attempted a
syn thesis o f research at the " in te rse c tio n " between domain and
s tra tegy-know ledge , extending the e a rlie r proposals o f Wl nog rad,
(1975) and a ttem pting to avoid the c ritic ism s levelled at related
research re ly in g p rin c ip a lly on "desc rip tive , observational and
corre la tiona l analyses", (e.g., Willson, 1987 & 1988). Given th a t
present knowledge o f th is in te ra c tive -re la tio n sh ip is "v e ry much in
its in fa ncy", (A lexander and Judy, 1988, p. 382) what does seem clear,
is th a t: "A foundation o f dom ain-specific knowledge seems requ is ite to
the e ffic ie n t and e ffec tive u tiliza tion o f s tra te g ic knowledge,"
(ib id . p. 384; Newell, 1980; Resnick, 1982; Chi, 1985) and in so lv ing
a range o f problems In fie ld s as d iverse as genetics, (Smith and Good,
1984) avionics, (Gitomer, 1984) w rit in g , (McCutchen, 1986) o r computer
programming, (K lahr and Carver, 1987).
F u rthe r, once acquired, domain-knowledge in the form o f factual
in form ation has a sense o f ’ redundancy’ associated w ith it, unless the
ind iv idua l possesses the necessary s k ill to exp lo it i t In o th e r ta s k -
approp ria te s itua tions.
In s u ff ic ie n t time precludes more detailed discussion about the
’ u n ive rsa l’ concept o f knowledge, b u t It is hoped th a t these comments
have at least set the context o f fu r th e r d iscussion, w h ils t
id e n tify in g some o f the problems w ith which describ ing the term
"know ledge" is inev itab ly associated.
98
KNOWLEDGE, THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM AND MNEMONICS
"School examinations are p a rt o f th e English way o f life . They have become established to the po in t th a t th e ir need Is seldom questioned. And I f th e re was any doub t about th e ir Immediate fu tu re , th is u n ce rta in ty seemed to have disappeared w ith the In trod uc tio n o f the General C e rtifica te o f Secondary Education In 1988 and th e proposal to te s t p u p ils a t the ages o f 7, 11 and 14 also", (Brown, p .78, 1990).
I t m ight at f i r s t appear th a t the in troduc tion o f the National
C urricu lm suggests the p rogress ive erosion o f learn ing s tra teg ies such
as mnemonics, which were la rge ly developed to su p po rt the recall
demands associated w ith summative timed w ritte n examinations which are
in decline. Th is may not be the case.
Far from eroding the necessity fo r s tuden ts to engage recall and
lea rn ing s tra te g ies such as f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics to assist the
lea rn ing and organ isation o f factual in form ation, the National
C urricu lum m igh t even increase the need fo r learn ing stra teg ies.
A lthough th e re will now be less emphasis upon timed w ritte n assessment
which emphasises candidates’ a b ility to recall and apply knowledge,
the re w ill be an increased emphasis on precise ly what knowledge
ch ild ren o f d if fe re n t ages should possess.
I t is not th a t recall and knowledge have less w eight In National
C urricu lum assessment. I t is merely th a t the emphasis on the
p a rtic u la r way in which th is knowledge is assessed has changed. By
making a range o f knowledge components e xp lic it, i t is now possible
fo r teachers to co llect a va rie ty o f evidence concerning the knowledge
o f each ch ild re la ting to th e ir area o f the cu rricu lum .
99
Irre sp e c tive o f the e th ics invo lved in com petitive education, i t
w ill be in the in te res ts o f schools to consider o p po rtu n itie s which
may fa c ilita te the more e ffec tive tra n s fe r o f learn ing. To th is end,
new learn ing methods and s tra teg ies which promote the more e ffe c tive
tra n s fe r o f knowledge, w ill become increas ing ly sought.
Such methods exist and those schools which take the in it ia tiv e to
capita lise on the e ffic iency they can b rin g to the learn ing s itua tion ,
w ill gain the most.
The National C urricu lum atta inm ent ta rg e ts w ill promote these
op po rtun ities , by h ig h lig h tin g those concepts which ch ild ren should
know at spec ific ages.
As schools p rogress from the more com fortable climate o f
se cu rity , where achievement is not made pub lic , nor compared w ith
o th e r schools, tow ards a tta inm ent- related accoun tab ility , the "best"
schools w ill a ttra c t the "best" customers, and i t is not inconceivable
th a t the best schools w ill be judged as those where the a tta inm ent o f
th e ir ch ild ren more closely approximates to national atta inm ent
c r ite r ia .
Sue B u tte rfie ld , (1990) makes the po in t clear:
"The Education Reform Act has established assessment as the measure by
which the implementation o f the National C urricu lum and school success
w ill be Judged." (ib id ).
The m arket fo r s tra teg ies which fa c ilita te a tta inm ent may be
fu r th e r developed by the impact o f the Local Management o f Schools
in itia tive .
100
Delivering the National C urricu lum w ill requ ire all the expertise
o f teaching s ta ff and more. To be cost and tim e-e ffec tive , teachers
w ill need to change the way in which they have tra d itio n a lly ta u g h t
th e ir sub jects. With atta inm ent ta rg e ts such a prom inent fe a tu re o f
learn ing, teachers w ill o f necessity employ these as a re ference fo r
mastery, [23].
Unrefined as these In itia tive s are at present, they appear to
o ffe r Improved op po rtu n itie s fo r schools to m onitor and specify each
c h ild ’s knowledge in a range o f co g n itive /a ffe c tive s itua tions.
F u rthe r, the in ten tion is th a t th is inform ation will be system atica lly
updated and recorded in a form th a t w ill d isp lay each c h ild ’s progress
th ro u gh o u t formal education. R iding and B u tte rfie ld , (1990) suggest:
"C u rre n t in itia tive s assume, fo r the f i r s t time, the poss ib ility
o f a new pa rtne rsh ip between cu rricu lum and assessment."
Whilst o ffe rin g a number o f benefits to education, i t is not
inconceivable th a t such radical revis ion o f assessment methodology may
also create numerous novel problems. Among these will be how learn ing
performance compares between local, regional and national
in s titu tion s .
I t seems almost inev itab le th a t parents, au tho rities , employers
and schools themselves, will be forced to examine and compare the
academic and social performance o f th e ir s tuden ts w ith o the r
in s titu tio n s who have an equal r ig h t and desire to a ttra c t
"custom ers"!
23 Mastery learn ing Is a concept which presupposes minimum c r ite r ia o f learn ing
101
As a se rv ice to the community, In d u s try , academic In s titu tio n s
and the nation, education now en te rs the infamous phase o f becoming
not on ly s e lf-s u ff ic ie n t bu t also academically se lf-accountable,
concepts shed by post-V ic to rian c u rr ic u la r innovation as "e v ils " best
avoided. One can on ly hope th a t the reasons fo r such policy reversa ls
re fle c t in ten tions sym pathetic to the ch ild and In ten tions
commensurate w ith ch ild re n ’s ind iv idua l development ra th e r than a
cheap method o f comparing production at va rious stages o f cogn itive
m anufacture.
102
SUMMARY OR SECTION 3
Section 3, begins w ith a general review o f mnemonics, inc lud ing an
h is to rica l descrip tion . This is followed by some examples o f the
contexts In which mnemonics are employed In contem porary society w ith
discussion re la ting to some o f th e ir s tre n g th s and lim ita tions.
Next, the tra d ition a l be lie f th a t b iza rre imagery is more potent
than p lausib le imagery is explored. In a review th a t addresses th is
th e o ry in re la tion to so-called "v isua l mnemonics". Th is is followed
by an examination o f some o f the evidence related to v isua l mnemonics,
focussing upon th re e examples: The method o f loci, th e pegw ord system
and the keyw ord mnemonic. The loci and pegword systems form the basis
o f many commercial mnemonic systems and memory courses, whereas the
keyword method Is the f i r s t typ e o f mnemonic to have been successfu lly
applied to lea rn ing w ith in the classroom context.
103
MNEMONICS - A BRIEF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
"Researchers and p ra c titio n e rs now recognise th a t mnemonics are an e ffe c tive way to organise, encode and re tr ie v e in fo rm ation ." (C a rrie r, e t ai., 1983, p. 235).
The word mnemonic is a d e riva tive o f the Greek word 'mnene which
means memory o r the e ffec t o f experience, and is also a ttr ib u ta b le to
the goddess o f memory, Mnemosyne.
From an h is to rica l perspective, i t is known th a t mnemonics were a
h ig h ly favoured aid mémoire o f the o ra to rs o f ancient Greece, (see
"method o f loci" below). These "c ra fts " became such valued memory-aids
th a t they can be found in some form pene tra ting almost every human
society, (e.g., see Hunter, 1979, pp. 1-23). W ithin western cu ltu re ,
mnemonics have had a va riab le and often tu rb u le n t reception. This has
possib ly resu lted th ro ugh the association o f mnemonics w ith ph ilosophers
o f the occult, (e.g., F ludd, 1574-1637). In th is context, they became
despised and rid icu led as p a rt o f the "b la c k -a rts ".
Even today, "masters o f deception", magicians like Paul Daniels,
and professional mnemonists such as Bruno F u rs t and H arry Lorayne,
perform m emory-feats which cap tiva te the in te res t o f astounded
audiences.
A t the tu rn o f the cen tu ry , the cautious reservation o f the
re lig ious and secular world tow ards mnemonics became even more ev iden t
w ith in the sc ie n tif ic community. The recently established d isc ip line o f
psychology was making the tra n s itio n from in tro sp e c tio n is t psychology,
"the science o f mental life " , (R ichardson, 1980, p. 5) to behavioura l
pysychology, the "science o f behaviour", ( ib id ). For numerous reasons
which are beyond the scope o f th is paper, the in tro sp e c tio n is t approach,
fa iled to address many issues related to what we now term cog n itive
psychology. W ithin the b ehav iou ris t fram ework, the s tudy o f mnemonics
104
and more spec ific mental a c tiv it ie s became equally d if f ic u lt , as the
behav io ris ts placed an im portant emphasis upon ob jec tive sc ie n tif ic
methodology. Such a d isc ip lin a ry ph ilosophy did not read ily lend itse lf
to the s tu d y o f unique personalised events and processes. Watson (1914,
pp.9, 27), made the position clear:
"Psychology, as the behaviorist views It, Is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science, which needs introspection as little as do the sciences of chemistry and physics. I t is granted that the behaviour of animals can be investigated without appeal to consciousness. The position is taken here that the behaviour of man and the behaviour of animals must be considered on the same piane..."
W ithin such a re s tric te d context, i t was v ir tu a lly impossible fo r
researchers to fin d the freedom to investiga te e ith e r mnemonics o r
mental imagery, (e.g.. Holt, 1964).
With the advent o f cogn itive psychoiogy, (cogn itiv ism ) p rev ious ly
re s tr ic te d areas o f s tudy became legitim ate ta rg e ts o f research.
D escrib ing the tra n s itio n from behaviorism to cognitiv ism , Neisser,
(1976, p. 5) w rites almost re jo ic in g ly :
"The behaviourist taboos have been broken, and the mind suddenly seems worth studying after all."
The present in te re s t in mnemonic s k iiis evolved in the late '50s
and early '60s la rge ly as a re su lt o f experimental work on m em ory-tasks
in vo lv ing pal red-associate fre e -re ca li. Given the task o f learn ing
iis ts , ty p ic a lly in the form o f w ord -g roups o r Consonant-Vowel-Consonant
tr ia d s , sub jec ts commonly reported using va rious s tra teg ies to
fa c ilita te lea rn ing , (e.g., C lark, Lansford, and Dallenbach, 1960; Rock,
1957; Underwood and Schulz, 1960). Upon fu r th e r analysis, i t became
apparent th a t to help learn ing , normal a d u lt populations draw upon a
broad re p e rto ire o f cogn itive s tra teg ies rang ing in complexity and
d iv e rs ity from simple ro te -re p e titio n , to g roup ing , re -cod ing and
im agery-association. A lthough these s k iiis m igh t seem u n su rp r is in g , and
ce rta in iy i t is not un reason abie to assume they have played a s im ila r
105
role In learn ing th ro u g h o u t "c iv ilis e d " m ankind’s h is to ry , (e.g., see
Hunter, 1956 and Yates, 1966 fo r a review ) th e ir e fficacy had p rev ious ly
been based upon what behaviouris ts m ight call sub jectiv ism ra th e r than
sc ie n tif ic ve rifica tio n and fact.
G radually, what was once considered something o f a suspect area o f
s tudy has again become popular and the focus o f considerable research,
even "a research top ic in its own r ig h t" . (Beilezza, 1981, p. 248).
A lthough Bower’s (1972) comment:
"Many experimental psychologists cannot entertain thoughts about imagery without some deep sense of guilt associated with forbidden taboos."
may no longer be completely applicable, i t s t il l co lours mnemonic
investiga tion w ith reserva tions which appear la rge ly u n ju s tifie d . The
approach o f th is s tudy is th a t associated w ith the p rin c ip les o f
cogn itive psychology.
106
MNEMONICS IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
"The value o f Inform ation depends upon its being available when re qu ired . I t is no use my owning a book on accounting i f I do not understand i t when I open it , i f I do not remember th a t I own i t when faced w ith an accounting problem, i f I cannot fin d the so lu tion w ithou t reading the e n tire book o r i f th e book is packed in a tru n k in the a tt ic when I need It in my o ffice ." (M orris , 1979, p. 52)
The media, especiaiiy te lev is ion, have o ffe red professional mnemonists
o r “ memory men" the o p p o rtu n ity to demon state the benefits th a t mnemonic
systems can a ffo rd . F u rth e r, items re la ting to mnemonic systems
fre q u e n tly appear on the fro n t page o f tab lo ids and popular magazines,
(e.g.. The Independent, 21-2-90) in form ing readers th a t by using the
system proposed, in a p rescribed time they w ill obta in a "pow erfu l
memory". Of courses, what is meant, is th a t mnemonic systems can be
purchased to assist people w ith a number o f everyday memory problems.
In a recent a rtic le fo r the ' Readers D igest’ . Stephen Powelson
discussed his memorisation o f tw e n ty -tw o o f the tw e n ty - fo u r books o f the
Greek Illia d . Such a fea t m ight have received l it t le a tten tion had he
not completed the exercise between the ages o f s ix ty and seventy years!
In his a rtic le , ( Readers Digest. October, 1988 PP 130-133) Powelson
reviews a number o f mnemonic devices Inc lud ing chunking , (g roup ing to -
be-remembered Items toge the r) the loci method and imaging, (crea ting
b iza rre Images o f to-be-rem em bered items). For a more comprehensive
review o f the work o f mnemonists see eg. H unter, (1957); Lurla , (1968)
Raw I es, (1978) and Lorayne & Lucas, (1972).
A fu r th e r example o f mnemonics In contem porary learn ing appeared in
a recent te lev is ion broadcast generated by the A d u lt L ite racy and Basic
S k ills U nit, ( ’S p e llin g - it-o u f, B.B.C. T.V., broadcast on 14th October,
1988). Mnemonics were used to help lite ra ry -hand icapped adu lts w ith
spe illng . Two examples w ill Illu s tra te the suggestions made to viewers.
107
The word " is land " i t was suggested, could be d iv ided in to tw o separate
words; ’ /s’ and 'lan<f and th o u g h t o f as "an island is iand". The word
'is land ’ was superimposed onto a p ic tu re o f an Id y llic trop ica l Island
w ith palms and white sand, in o rd e r to fu r th e r s treng then the
association by means o f In te rac tive Imagery and association. In th is
example, both visual and a u d ito ry s tra teg ies are employed and by
m ispronouncing the ta rg e t-w o rd in a phone tica lly re g u la r way, the
inform ation is more read ily encoded th ro u gh the e laboration imposed. The
second mnemonic, was one to assist the spe lling o f "necessary". The
v iew er was Inv ited to v isualise a v ica r In his p u lp it wearing his
c lerica l co lla r and two red socks. In animated graphics, he leans ou t
from the p u lp it and exclaims: "There Is one co lla r and two socks in
necessary". Again, by r ic h ly e labora ting the ta rg e t material, and using
both phonetic and visual association, the m ateria l’s coding and
subsequent access Is fac ilita ted .
I recen tly v is ited the Leicester U n ive rs ity Computer Centre in
o rd e r to process some fig u re s connected w ith th is s tudy and, looking
th ro u gh the handbook fo r the guidance o f users, d iscovered the fo llow ing
suggestion related to remembering one’s "passw ord":
"Do not choose a password th a t can easily be guessed by someone
else; a useful t ip is to th in k o f some phrase th a t you can remember
easily, and then take the In itia l le tte r o f each word to form the new
password. For example, the phrase "Computer programmers are the sa lt o f
the e a rth " would y ie ld the password "CPATSOTE". - What su p po rt fo r
f i r s t - le tte r mnemonics!
108
With my fam ily, I recently v is ited a large in n e r-c ity swimming
bath. During ou r v is it , we encountered two Im portant s itua tions where a
good memory was not on ly useful bu t essential. F irs t, upon changing, one
was expected to lock one’s valuables and c lo th ing away In a locker fo r
which a key was exchanged (In a reciprocal mechanism) fo r a ten pence
coin. There was a number upon the key-fob and I u n w itt in g ly assumed th a t
th is number corresponded to my locker number. Had I not re tu rned to the
locker to deposit my watch, I would have had no Idea what my locker
number was. Fortuna te ly , a bemused fe llow -ba the r had noticed which
locker I had used and d is tingu ished It from the p le thora o f o thers.
Second, upon re tu rn in g from bath ing , my son and I, know ing ou r shared
iocker number, set about locating the locker, on ly to fin d th a t the
m yriad rows o f lockers were aranged ou t o f numerical sequence! Had I
been aware o f both problems from the outset, a d ig it - le t te r mnemonic (1)
would have helped w ith the number problem, and Imaging (2) w ith the
iocation problem. How o the r s tran ge rs cope who knows!
More recen tly , I was teaching a group o f tw e lve -ye a r-o ld s some
mnemonising sk ills , to f i l l a few m inutes a t the end o f a lesson. The
focus was on d ig lt - le t te r conversion. In a va rie ty o f forms, a p re -
medlevai mnemonic In which d ig its 0-9 are converted to le tte rs o f the
alphabet. A common form Is 1 = A, 2 = B, 3 = C and so on, naught can be
considered an O. A fte r ve ry b r ie f in s tru c tio n , I explained th a t f i r s t -
year ch ild ren often experienced d if f ic u lty In remembering the School’s
te lephone number, (203817). The group were qu ick to po in t ou t th a t
converted , th is would become "B O C H A G" and at the same time.
1 The techn ique o f conve rting numbers to le tte rs o f the a lphabet In o rd e r to make them more memorable.2 For example, accentuating geographical fea tu res In the p rox im ity o f o u r locker.
109
appreciated th a t th is acronym was probably less memorable than the
telephone number Itse lf! (What would they th in k o f the hypothetica l 5 0
2 6 8 - E O B F H ? )
I then demonstrated how "bochag" could be made more meaningful by
converting i t In to an acrostic, requesting the ch ild ren (In groups o f
th ree ) to do the same. In a ve ry sh o rt while, a m u ltitude o f f i r s t -
le tte r mnemonics were excited ly suggested. Among my fa vo u rites were:
"B - il ly 0 - f C -orby H-ad A G-oose"
"B-en 0 -n ly C-omes H-ome A - fte r G-ames"
and the memorable?
"B-en 0 -n ly C-atches H -aggis A-nd G-upples"
As a fina l example, I recently received a c re d it card from one o f
B rita in ’s la rgest c re d it companies; the card was complete w ith
in s tru c tio n s about how to remember my "PIN" (3) number. A s q u a re d -g rld ,
w ith what appeared to be randomly scattered numbers on It was used as
an example o f how the chances o f remembering one’s p in number "could be
im proved". I t was suggested th a t the ca rd -h o lde r m ight form a s im ila r
g rid to "help remember" the number. I t appears th a t not many o f the
’f r u i ts ’ o f experimental cogn itive psychology have ’ g row n ’ w ith in the
po licy-m aking departm ents o f the m u lti-na tiona ls , suggesting th a t
G runeberg ’s 1978 statement:
...." if psychology Is going to make any contribution to the man In the street In helping him with his own memory problems, it will have to come through an understanding of the processes over which the individual has control, in other words, strategies of learning and retrieval."
is a so lu tion s til l searching fo r a problem!
3 P-ersonal I-d e n tifica tio n N-umber.
110
IMAGERY AND MNEMONICS
"It is quite clear that, under the circumstances Investigated by cognitive psychologists In their formal laboratory experiments, the elaboration and construction of Integrative, mental Images may lead to substantial and reliable improvements in the ability to remember". (Richardson, 1980, p.80)
For "30 a rid years", (Neisser, 1972a) p r io r to the mid 1960s, the
powerfu l in fluence o f the behaviouris ts had la rge ly consigned mental
imagery to a s ta tus "u n f it fo r serious s tu d y ", (see M erry, 1980a fo r a
review).
D issatisfied w ith in tro spe c tio n is t [1 ] th eo ry and methodology, the
behaviouris ts made a determined attem pt to eradicate all approaches
which employed sub jec tive measures to form ula te hypotheses and obta in
data. Watson, (1914, pp. 9-27) was uncompromising In his suggestion
th a t:
"Psychology, as the behaviourist views it, is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science, which needs introspection as little as do the sciences of Chemistry and Physics.... I t is possible to define [psychology] as 'the science of behaviour’ and never to go back upon the definition: never to use the terms consciousness, mentalstates, mind, content, will, imagery, and the like ".
By the mid 1950s, the re was what Neisser, ( ib id .) has termed a
"paradigm s h if t" in psychological th in k in g , leading the behaviouris ts to
"allow so-called m enta listic concepts back in to th e ir d iscussions",
(R ichardson, ib id . p.6). The weakening behav iouris t position Is c lea rly
re flected in data found in Psychological A bstracts, where, between 1955
and 1977, the momentum o f research in to the s tudy o f human imagery
accelerated qu ite dram atically. F rus tra ted a t the cons tra in ts Watson and
his associates had imposed upon imagery research, Hebb, (1960) w rote
somewhat cyn ica lly :
1 S ub jective o r "p r iv a te " assessment o f one's mental processing.
111
"In the psychological revolution, the second phase Is just now
getting underway. The first banished thought, imagery, volition,
attention and other such seditious notions. The sedition of one period,
however, may be the good sense of another".
By 1974, confidence in imagery research, its methodology and h igh ly
encouraging experimental fin d in g s , had led to such optimism among
psychologists, th a t S ta rke r's (1974) proclamation: "Once abandoned as
non-measurable and hopelessly sub jective , the mental image has begun to
y ie ld its secrets to the tools o f cogn itive psychology", appeared to
herald a second renaissance fo r in trospectionalism .
Along w ith o thers, (e.g., Neisser, 1972b) the hopes o f S ta rke r were
to be s h o rt- liv e d . There was to be no "m ajor change in the d irec tion o f
experimental psychoiogy" (R ichardson, ib id . p.1) leaving Newell, (1973)
"h a lf d istressed and ha lf confused"! Despite uncerta in ties ove r the
specific d irec tion imagery research should adopt, un de rlin ing the new
"re sp e c ta b ility " o f imagery research, Neisser, (1976, p.5) w rote w ith
optim ism: "The behav iouris t taboos have been broken, and the mind
suddenly seems worth s tudy ing a fte r ail. Ideas and images are once again
discussed in respectable jo u rn a ls ..." .
The more recent in te res t in imagery has been at least p a rtly
a ttr ib u te d to the re -pub lica tion o f Galton’s (1883) research [2 ]. In a
unique su rvey , Gaiton requested a number o f his learned colleagues to
supp ly e xp lic it im agery-deta iis , related to th e ir recollections o f
breakfast, on a p rescribed date. A lthough rid icu led by behav iouris ts as
"un im p ortan t" and " in a p p ro p ria te " at the time o f in itia l publication ,
the s u rv e y -re tu rn s , emphasised a number o f im portan t d iffe rences in the
way people both cons truc t, re ta in and recall images. Some o f Galton’s
2 Republished in Semeonoff, B., (1966) (Ed.) ’Personality Assessment’. Penguin.
112
sample reported v iv id recollections o f th e ir meal. F u rth e r, they could
do th is w ith extreme ease, whereas o the rs reported d if f ic u lty in
genera ting any images at all.
Galton’s work has subsequently received substantia l empirical
sup po rt, p ro v in g in te rn a lly consistent, (e.g., Juhasz, 1972) and re -te s t
re liab le , (e.g., Evans and Kamemoto, 1973; Sheehan, 1967; White, et al.,
1977) a lthough Baddeley, (1985) has found l it t le re la tionsh ip between
" rated im agery" and performance, and Richardson, (1980, pp.118-119)
urges caution in the in te rp re ta tio n o f su b je c tive rep o rting .
Contemporary research in to the s tudy o f human imagery was at f i r s t
la rge ly dominated by the work o f Allan Paivio, (e.g., Paivio, 1965;
1969; 1971; 1972; 1975; 1976 and 1979) whose attem pts to accommodate the
s tudy o f imagery, w ith in a fram ework acceptable to the behaviouris ts ,
has had a dram atic and in flu e n tia l impact upon research design and
methodology.
Prom inent among Paivio’s co n trib u tio n s to psychology, is the dual
coding theory, (e.g., Paivio, 1971; Paivio, 1978). This assumes two
" in te rdepend en t bu t r ic h ly interconnected symbolic system s": (Paivio,
1979) an image system, specialised fo r encoding perceptual, non-verba l
in form ation and events, and a verbal system, responsib le fo r coding
lin g u is t ic Inform ation. Paivio’s theo ry has received some su p p o rt from
the neuropsychological work o f M ilner, (1970) who has demonstrated th a t
damage to the le ft hemisphere im pairs verbal performance, and to the
r ig h t, v isual and spatial performance. Baddeley and W arrington, (1973)
also note th a t amnesic pa tien ts who possess normal lin g u is tic ab ilities ,
are impaired in visual processing, suggesting th a t th is in a b ility is
associated w ith the amnesic damage, w h ils t (separate) verbal processing
fu n c tio n s la rge ly unimpaired.
113
P ylyshyn, (1973) fu r th e r argues fo r an "amodal" th ird code, which
regulates the in terchange between visual and verbal encoding, bu t th is
position has been re jected as an hypothesis leading "to an In fin ite
regress" (Anderson, 1978) in psychological th in k in g on imagery, (see
Richardson 1980, pp. 4-24 fo r d iscussion). An a lte rna tive contem porary
view m aintains the argum ent fo r a s ing le o r "common coding system ",
(e.g.. Bower, 1972) on the grounds th a t a "common generative grammar"
between visual and au d ito ry encoding was more analogous to a "conceptual
deep s tru c tu re " (Bower, 1970) handling both audio and visual encoding.
The confusion among psycholog ists about the dependence o r
interdependence between visual and verbal processing, has Impeded the
o rig ina l in e rtia and d irec tion o f imagery research. C learly,
considerable research has ye t to be undertaken in o rd e r to Illum inate a
more precise and acceptable position.
IMAGERY IN LEARNING
Despite speculation th a t ch ild ren younger than 8 could generate
e labora tive imagery on ly i f the ta rg e t Items were v is ib le to the ch ild ,
(e.g., Wolff and Levin, 1972) the beneficial e ffec ts o f e labora tive
mental imagery w ith adu lts , (e.g., A tk inson, 1975; Raugh and A tk inson,
1975) and ch ild ren , (e.g.. Levin and Pressley, 1978; Varley, et al.,
1974; Yuille and Catch pole, 1973; M erry, 1980a; Condus, et al., 1986)
have now been well documented.
I t has fu r th e r been demonstrated th a t ch ild re n are able to benefit
from im ag e ry -in s truc tio n at a much e a rlie r age than had p rev ious ly been
considered possible, (e.g.. Bender and Levin, 1976) and th a t im agery-
in s tru c tio n s given to ch ild ren as young as 4 years can re su lt in
lea rn ing improvements, (e.g., Danner and Taylor, 1973).
114
In common w ith cogn itive development in general, the c h ild ’s
a b ility spontaneously to generate and u tilise e labora tive imagery
appears to be age-re la ted, (Levin and Pressley, 1978) and related to the
m aturation o f h igher cogn itive reasoning, (see Pressley, 1982 fo r a
review ). These incremental improvements in im agery-m anlpulation have
been demonstrated between narrow age-groups. For example, Pressley and
Levin, (1977) discovered d iffe rences In Imagery-competence between 5 and
7 -yea r-o lds asked to image w ord -pa lrings . Whereas ins truc ted ch ild re n in
both age-g roups ou t-perfo rm ed the n o n -ins truc ted contro ls, It was found
th a t o n ly the o lde r ins truc ted ch ild ren could generate images a t the
fa s te r o f two presentation rates, (6 sec p a ir v 12 sec pa ir). Evidence
suppo rting the p a rticu la r re la tionsh ip between cogn itive m aturation and
im a g e ry -u tility appears in neuropsychological stud ies, where cog n itive
impairment caused by amnesia,, (e.g., Baddeley and W arrington, 1970;
1973) o r b ila tera l temporal lobectomy, (e.g., Jones, 1974) resu lts in
im agery-p roduction deficiencies. The same type o f generative
defic iencies have been iden tified in the lea rn ing-d isab led , (e.g.,
McGivern and Levin, 1983; Condus et al., 1986) where im agery-p roduction
defic iencies can de fer o r deny those learners using e labora tive
associative imagery in th e ir learn ing. Given the s trong case fo r
teaching material th ro u gh the use o f associative imagery, i t seems
reasonable to ask: "What type o f imagery is the most e ffe c tive lea rn ing
a id"? F u rth e r, a lthough i t is beyond the scope o f th is s tu dy . It would
be useful to know i f the re is an age-re lated re la tionsh ip between the
m anipulation and e ffectiveness o f d if fe re n t types o f Imagery.
115
BIZARRE V PLAUSIBLE IMAGERY
"....b iza rreness is not a fa c to r determ in ing the value o f mental Imagery in im proving reca ll". (R ichardson, 1980, p .73)
Since a n tiq u ity , (e.g.. Ad Herennium, 86-82 B.C.) the ancient Greeks had
p rescribed associative in te rac tive imagery to fa c ilita te the recall o f
prose and o ra to ry , (see Yates, 1966 fo r a review ) aware th a t by
en rich ing the context and content o f learn ing material, recall could be
improved. A lthough the practice o f fo rm ing b iza rre associative imagery
is the basis o f a number o f contem porary " ra p id " language and vocabulary
courses, and an im portant tool o f the professional mnemohist, (e.g.,
F u rs t, 1954; Luria , 1968; Lorayne and Lucas, 1972) what Is less
apparent, and s till confused, is the question "Does b iza rre Imagery
produce su pe rio r learn ing to p lausib le im agery"?
Experimental s tud ies tes ting the "widespread conv ic tion " (e.g.,
Cornoldi, et al., 1988) th a t b iza rre imagery is the most fa c ilita tiv e
form o f imagery, have produced a range o f inconsis ten t fin d in g s . Despite
numerous claims tha t, "v iv id , s tr ik in g and fa n ta s tic ...fa r-fe tch e d ,
exaggerated and d is tin c tiv e " Images, fa c ilita te su p e rio r learn ing,
(H unter, 1957; see also, Dei in, 1968; Perensky and Senter, 1970; M erry,
1980a; Pra Baldi, et al, 1985) some stud ies have fa iled to f in d a
pos itive b iza rre e ffect, (e.g., Wollen, Weber and Lowry, 1972). F u rth e r,
a number o f s tud ies comparing b iza rre w ith ’ normal’ images, suggest th a t
the fa c ilita t iv e e ffec t o f norma! images is a t least equ iva len t to th a t
o f b iza rre images, (e.g., Bergfe id, Choate and Kroil, 1982; Kroii,
Schepeler and Angin, 1986) i f not superio r, (e.g.. Col Iyer, Jon I des and
Bevan, 1972). Wollen and his associates (1972) confirmed Gombrich’s
(1972) suggestion, th a t the best fa c ilita to rs were unusual, in fact,
"the more b iza rre and un like ly the b e tte r" .
116
The claim by Postman, (1975) " th a t the unimportance o f b izarreness
was one o f the few established conclusions o f recent research on
im agery", seems a prem ature conclusion.
There are fo u r main explanations related to these anomalies:
ORIGINATION
One possible reason suggested fo r the d iscrepancies between research
fin d in g s , (e.g., Cornoldi, et al., 1988) is th a t the o rig ina tion o f
imagery p roduction is an im portan t determ inant o f its success. A fte r
Wollen had modified his experimental design to remove the e ffec ts o f
e xp e rim en te r-in s truc tion . Nappe and Woiien, (1973) concluded th a t if
sub jec ts had autonomy in selecting learn ing material the re was no
appreciable d iffe rence between e ith e r type o f imagery. F u rth e r, b iza rre
imagery took "apprec iab ly longer" to form than p lausible imagery! (see
also, Neisser, 1976, p .140).
There are at least th ree stud ies which fa il to concur w ith th is
view: Jamieson and Schimpf, (1980) M erry and Graham, (1978) and M erry,
(1980a). In both M erry and M erry and Graham’s s tudy , schoolch ild ren, who
"ra te d " b izarreness themselves, produced su p e rio r learn ing , a position
confirmed by resu lts using verbal material, (e.g., Jacoby, 1978; Glover,
B run ing and Plake, 1982; McDaniel, 1984; Pressley, et al., 1987).
MATERIAL
Typ ica lly , the material used in the p iaus ib ie -b iza rre debate has been
the association o f w ord -pa irs , drawn e ith e r from an item -bank by the
researcher, (experim enter-generated) o r a lte rn a tive ly , by sub jects
themselves, (sub jec t-genera ted ) ra th e r than free recall o r recognition
tasks. A ttem pting to isolate aspects o f the "trea tm en t" as im portan t
117
variab les a ffec ting the success o f b iza rre imagery, Cornoldi, e t al.,
(1988) followed M erry and Graham’s experimental procedure, bu t changed
the material, "...the b izarreness e ffec t d isappeared". These resu lts
prompted C orno id i’s team to d iffe re n tia te between a s itua tion th a t is
"s trange because i t is unusual and ye t possible" (e.g., "the dog suckles
the ca t") and a s itua tion impossible outs ide o f the imagination, (e.g.,
the dog g ives a le c tu re ") a d is tin c tion proposed ea rlie r by Col Iyer,
Jonides and Bevan, (1972). S upporting the fin d in g s o f Cavedon, et ai.,
(1984) and Cavedon, e t ai., (in press). C ornoid i’s team re je c t the
e fficacy o f b izarreness in fa vo u r o f the "unusua l", claim ing th a t
unusual associations are more susceptib le to processing because o f th e ir
fe a s ib ility than less-feasib ie b iza rre items. What constitu tes ’a
b iza rre sentence’? M erry, (1980a) has attempted to c la r ify th is po int.
He d iscrim inates between "anomalous sentences", which may contain
"several d iscrepancies", and t r u ly "b iza rre sentences" which contains
one anomaly on ly. Adopting a s tro n g in te rfe rence approach, i t is
reasonable to hypothesise th a t m u ltip le b iza rre associations may compete
fo r "d is tin c tive ne ss" whereas a s ing le b iza rre association is less
like ly to be affected.
DURABILITY
There is at least te n ta tive evidence th a t b iza rre images lead to more
e ffe c tive long-te rm recall, (e.g., A nd reo ff and Yarmey, 1976; Webber and
M arshall, 1978; M erry and Graham, 1978; M erry, 1980a; 1980b) and are
less susceptib le to in te rfe rence , (e.g., E inste in, McDaniel and Lackey,
1989). Like A nd reo ff and Yarmey, (1976) M erry and his associate, ( ib id .)
found b iza rre imagery fa c ilita tiv e at both immmediate and delayed
recall, un like Webber and Marshall, ( ib id .) using line -d raw ings as
s tim u li, who found p lausib le images su p e rio r at immediate re -te s t, bu t
118
b iza rre images supe rio r at 1-week re -te s t. Webber and M arshall’s (1978)
fin d in g s have subsequently been supported by at least two la te r s tud ies,
(e.g., Marshall, Nav, and Chandler, 1980 and O’ Brien and Wolford, 1982)
who conclude th a t the re is a "crossover e ffe c t" between plausib le and
b iza rre imagery, b iza rre imagery becoming supe rio r a fte r a period o f
around one week.
SUBJECTS
Nearly all o f the research has used college s tuden ts as sub jects ,
(M erry , 1990) o ften as p a rt-acc red ita tion o f a psychology course. The
resu lts o f such stud ies have been c ritic ise d from a number o f
perspectives.
F irs t, s tuden ts are not rep resen ta tive o f the population in
general, (e.g., see Richardson, 1987)
Second, i t is known th a t social class is an im portant variab le
connected w ith imagery, (e.g., R ichardson, 1987) and th a t college
populations are un rep resenta tive o f w ider c la ss -d is tr ib u tio n .
T h ird , i t is known th a t performance on imagery tasks is a ffected by
age, (e.g., McDaniel and Kearney, 1984; Parkin and S treet, 1988).
Fourth , mature learners employ a wide range o f metacognItive s k ills
to resolve recall demands, (e.g., McDaniel and Kearney, 1984; Cunningham
and Weaver, 1989) and more able learners have a more developed re p e rto ry
o f learn ing s tra teg ies a t th e ir disposal, (e.g., K urtz and Weinert,
1989).
College and u n iv e rs ity s tuden ts do not p rov ide balanced samples. I t
is the re fo re w ith caution, th a t the resu lts o f experimental work
employing adolescents and adu lts as sub jec ts should be generalised to
ch ild ren o r o the r populations.
119
Given the inconclusive evidence available, the main variab les th a t
appear to be im portant determ inants o f the e fficacy o f b izarreness, are:
a) The o rig in o r ownership o f the material to be learned,
(e.g., Deiin, 1968; M erry and Graham, 1978) and the typ e o f
material used, (Cornoldi, et al., (1988).
b) The re la tionsh ip between the time available to
co n s tru c t o r form b izarre-associa tions, (e.g.. Nappe
and Wollen, 1973; also see Neisser, 1976,) and the po in t
at which recall is requ ired , (e.g., Webber and Marshall, 1978;
O’ Brien and Wolford, 1982).
c) The p a rtic u la r age-range o f the experimental sample,
(e.g., McDaniel and Kearney, 1984; Parkin and Streete, 1988)
d) Whether free recall tes ts re ten tion (where b iza rre images
help) o r cued recall (where b iza rre images appear to be
unhe lp fu l.
There fo llows discussion related to th re e types o f mnemonic which employ
in te rac tive imagery to fa c ilita te recall:
The 'm ethod o f loci ’ (which usually requ ires the fo rm ula tion o f
plausib le in te rac tive im agery) and the so-called 'pegword* and 'keyword*
mnemonics which both employ b iza rre in te rac tive imagery. The keyword
system is o f p a rticu la r in te res t to the s tu den t o f mnemonics, as i t has
been ve ry successfu lly used w ith ch ild ren in the classroom.
120
THE METHOD OF LOCI
The method o f "Loci" [3 ], was an im portan t mnemonic o f the Greek
philosophers, and accredited to Simonedes, whose s k ill In id e n tify in g
the mangled bodies o f colleagues, crushed by temple masonry in 477 B.C.,
gave b ir th to A rs memorie a r t if ic ia ii, o r mnemotechny. (e.g. Hunter,
1957; Young, 1961; Yates, 1966; W ittrock, 1975; Marshall and F rye r,
1978; Baddeley, 1985).
The fa c ilita tiv e e ffec t o f the loci method is obtained by
associating each complete aspect o f the learn ing material as v iv id ly as
possible, (e.g., G runeberg, 1983) w ith a "physica l place", o r places
fam ilia r to the learner, one place fo r each "chunk" o f Inform ation th a t
is to be learned.
The Greek o ra to rs imaged a key p a rt o f a speech, to ge the r w ith a
p a rtic u la r location w ith in the temple such as the doorway. Another p a rt
o f the o ra to ry is associated w ith the ante-cham ber and so on, u n til each
section o f the speech had been in te ra c tive ly imaged w ith a specific
location. During the speech, the o ra to r simply ’jo u rn e ye d ’ the imagined
route, s ta rtin g at the doorway and s topp ing to re tr ie ve each aspect o f
the speech from each location. Not on ly does the loci method organise
the material to be recalled sequentia lly , fa c ilita tin g se ria l-access, it
also avoids an associated problem o f the pegword method, (see below)
where the number o f loci o r pegs m ight be lim ited to the mnemonising
time o r e ffo r t available.
3 Latin fo r "places"
121
For the Greeks p a rtic u la r ly , knowledge was a cherished ’commodity’
(Raw I es, 1978; Yates, 1966) and those who could recall and present
argum ents w ith precision and c la r ity were revered. Simonedes’ successful
d iscovery q u ick ly penetrated o ra to ry and philosophical mediation sk ills ,
(e.g., see Sorabji, 1972) leading Cicero, in De Oratore 11 to urge all
would-be ph ilosophers to engage "memoria techn ica". Essentia lly, the use
o f the method o f loci remains "unchanged" (R ichardson, 1980) and can be
traced th rou gh the M iddle-Ages, (e.g., Petrus Ravennas, (c. 1448-1508)
th rough to the occu lt-ph ilosopher F ludd, (1574-1637) and Stokes’ (1868)
"mnemonicai globe," [4] upon which a ’face’ is superimposed w ith various
mnemonic in s tru c tio n s designed to fa c ilita te geographical recall, (see
H ill, 1978). In 1907, Meiklejohn included the system in a textbook,
c ircu la ted to L.C.C. secondary schools [5 ] hoping th a t It would "make
the ge tting up o f h is to ry as easy as remembering the s itua tion o f a
s tre e t".
Under sc ie n tif ic conditions, the loci method has been used
successfu lly to fa c ilita te recall both using adults , (e.g., G ronlnger,
1971; Bower, 1973) and ch ild ren as sub jec ts , (eg. Brown, 1975 and
Kobasigawa, 1974). Among the f i r s t experimental s tud ies, the loci method
proved an im portan t and successful learn ing mediator, (e.g., Bugelski,
e t ai., 1968) and capable o f fa c ilita tin g access to incidenta l aspects
o f p re -learned text, (e.g., Rothkopf, 1971). Later, Zechmeister, et al.,
(1975) reported th a t both item and spatial recall was p roportiona l to
su b je c t’s memory fo r visual position.
4 Displayed in the B ritish Museum5 Local County Council
122
I t seems to m atter l it t le w hether the in te rac tive images formed are
b iza rre o r o rd in a ry , (e.g.. Wood, 1967; Bower, 1970; Wortman and
S parling, 1974) bu t a lthough the re is some evidence to su p po rt b iza rre -
imagery e ffects, (e.g., Deiin, 1969) as Gruneberg ( ib id .) suggests,
"b izarreness is associated w ith v iv idness" and th is may be the cause o f
Deiin’s resu lt. The tra d ition a l fa ith in the e fficacy o f b iza rre
imagery, (e.g., see Ad Herennium. 86-82 BC; Wollen, e t al., (1972;
Gombrich, 1972) has been fu r th e r eroded by the resu lts o f M orris, (1978)
who found th a t b iza rre images took around tw ice as long [6] to form as
"conventiona l" images. Even when M orris maximised the circum stances
which " fa vo u r" b iza rre images, conventional imagers performed m argina lly
be tte r, bu t the d iffe rence was not s ta tis tic a liy s ig n ifica n t. What
appears to be im portant, is the type o f recall requ ired o f sub jects.
There is evidence th a t free -reca ii, [7 ] can be considerably fac ilita ted
by bizarreness, (e.g.. M erry, 1980a). I t is hypothesised th a t in a cued
recall condition , such as th a t associated w ith the loci method, sub jects
m ight fin d i t easier to generate p lausib le lin ks between items, (M erry,
1990).
The method o f loci then, has an ancient ’ pedigree ’ which has
received lit t le m odification du ring its passage to contem porary
magicians and scholars. I ts range and u t i l i ty is re la tive ly
u n res tric ted , provided enough loci o r places can be Iden tified . Unlike
chain o r lin k in g mnemonics, fa ilu re to recall one o r more o f the cues,
(in the form o f loci) does not In h ib it access to o th e r cues. O rd inary o r
conventional images are at least as e ffe c tive as b iza rre images which
take tw ice as long to cons truc t and manipulate.
6 (4 seconds v 2 seconds)7 Where sub jects are abie to recall p rev ious ly learned inform ation in whatever o rd e r they fin d most com fortable
123
THE "PEGWORD" MNEMONIC
"Distinct, preferably unique retrieval cues. Integrative!y associated with the Information to be recalled are the Ideal for efficient retrieval. The Peg mnemonic provides these conditions." (Morris, 1979)
The " peg-w ord" (e.g., M iller, et al., 1960) o r "hook” (e.g., Gruneberg,
1983) mnemonic system, ap prop ria te ly c lassified by Bellezza, (1981) as a
peg-mnemonic, is closely derived from the loci-method, using In te rac tive
imagery to fa c ilita te recall. S tudies comparing the method o f loci and
the pegword system, (e.g.. Bower and Reitman, 1972) essentia lly fin d
"iden tica l reca ll" cha rac te ris tics , (e.g., see Bellezza, 1981; Lesgold
and Goldman, 1973).
A series o f cues, p re -learned to c r ite r io n (complete competence)
are associated w ith the learn ing material. Later, to re tr ie ve the
learn ing material in seria l o rde r, the cues are recalled, th e reby
p rom pting the recall o f the associated learn ing material. An example
w ill illu s tra te the technique.
The learner must f i r s t learn to c r ite r io n a sequence o f words which
w ill la te r act as recall-cues. Typ ica lly , these are as follows:
One is a BunTwo is a ShoeThree is a TreeFour is a DoorFive is a HiveSix is S ticksSeven is HeavenE ight is a GateNine is a LineTen is a Hen
124
Next, a visual association is formed between these pegs and whatever is
to be remembered. I used the system recently to remember a few items o f
shopping, and formed the fo llow ing images:
A ja r o f coffee grow ing ou t o f a bun A shoe 'covered ' in b reakfast cereal A tree w ith y o g h u rt hanging as leaves A door upon which b iscu its had been nailed Bees ca rry in g c risps to a hive etc.
As I do not normally use the system fo r shopping, I was su rp rise d how
durab le i t appeared to be, being easily able to recall the l is t a week
la te r. C learly, the example illu s tra te d fa ils to u tilise the fu ll
potentia l o f the mnemonic, (ie., to fa c ilita te seria l o rd e r sequencing)
bu t the items could have been sequenced to s u it the layout o f the store.
The method does have its lim ita tions:
a) The associative images used w ith previous pegs, may In te rfe re w ith subsequent material.
b) As on ly ten pegs can act as cues, the learner must extend the number i f the re are not enough. This m ight be problem atic, as approp ria te rhym ing words are cumbersome, (e.g., see Gruneberg, 1983). M orris, (1979) po in ts o u t th a t the range o f pegs can be g rea tly extended, illu s tra tin g th a t 'memory-men' use 52 pegs when memorising the seria l location o f p lay ing -ca rds , (see also, Lorayne and Lucas, 1972).
c) Failure to recall a peg/s, may re su lt in loss o f recall fo r one o r more item.
d) I t takes a l it t le time to form the in te rac tive images,(e.g., Bugelski, 1962; Bugelski, Kidd and Segmen, 1968;Lea, 1975). W riting the items down m ight be more economical use o f time.
Among the harsher c r it ic s o f mnemonic systems. H unter (1977) re fe rs
to Francis Bacon's commentary about "loca tion " mnemonics being "no t
dextrous to be applied to the serious use o f business and occasions",
and a lthough Richardson, (1980) somewhat m isconstrues M orris 's , (1977)
position, he does emphasise H unter's ( ib id .) m isg iv ings:
125
"The method has such a c ircum scribed range o f u t i l i ty th a t it is
useless fo r all p ractica l purposes o f learn ing and remembering.
A ppropria te task conditions are essential. These task cond itions ra re ly
arise in real life ." I t is the w r ite r ’s be lie f th a t many practica l
applications fo r the peg system can be found in schools. Take fo r
example, mental check lis ts th a t m ight be used as a ’fa ilsa fe ’ system,
complementing w ritte n inform ation. Items requ ired fo r v is its o r
’ res iden tia ls ’ could easily be remembered using the peg system.
Despite these more pessim istic views, the re is "considerable
empirical evidence" suppo rting the mnemonic’s e ffectiveness, (e.g.,
Bugelski, 1968; M orris and Reid, 1970; Paivio, 1971; Baddeley and
Lieberman, 1980) a lthough the re does appear to be a re la tionsh ip between
sub ject-im ageab ility , (e.g.. Divesta and Sunshine, 1974) the
concreteness o f the pegwords, (e.g., Delprato and Baker, (1974) and
learn ing-tim e, (e.g., Bugelski, e t al., 1968) and performance using the
mnemonic.
Subjects o f Bellezza and Reddy, (see Battig and Bellezza, 1979)
using a "m odified" peg-mnemonic, recalled 130 o f the 150 ta rg e t-w o rd s ,
[8] and, co n tra ry to tra d ition a l belie f, (e.g.. Ad Herennium, (86-82
B.C.) and as memory-improvement systems suggest, "b iza rre images do not
lead to b e tte r recall than o rd in a ry s itua tion s ," (M orris , 1978,, p.
155). In another s tud y , M orris and Stevens, (1974) tested s u b je c t’s
performance using lis ts o f 24 concrete words in th ree experimental
conditions: lin k in g images, [9] s ing le images, [10] and an un ins truc ted
contro l. L ink ing images produced recall su p e rio r to th a t obtained by
imaging ind iv idua l items which in tu rn , proved less e ffe c tive than the
u n ins truc ted contro l!
8 Using cued recall techniques9 In s tru c ted to lin k images in groups o f th ree10 In s tru c ted to image each item separate ly
126
Concerned th a t "experiments may have fa iled to allow sub jec ts
s u ffic ie n t time to form b iza rre images," M orris, (1978) tested b iza rre
imagery e ffec ts "where sub jects have been allowed enough tim e," fo r
construc tion . In fac t, o rd in a ry images led to s ta tis tica lly
in s ig n ifica n t, m arg ina lly su p e rio r recall, bu t as noted elsewhere, th is
re la tionsh ip is prom inent in cued, immediate re - te s t cond itions whereas
b izarreness can be a powerfu l learn ing fa c ilita to r in deiayed fre e -
reca ii conditions, (e.g., see M erry, 1978)
Conducive w ith the main body o f reserach related to the b iza rre -
o rd in a ry hypotheses, (see "Im agery," th is s tu d y ) i t seems to m atter
l it t le w hether pegword cues are e ith e r b iza rre o r o rd in a ry at immediate
re -te s t. Nearly all s tud ies show th a t lo c i-typ e methods produce learn ing
supe rio r to th a t produced when no mnemonic con tro ls are used and
a lthough b iza rre images take longer to co ns tru c t than o rd in a ry images,
th e ir e fficacy over o rd in a ry Images on ly becomes apparent at delayed re
test.
127
THE KEYWORD MNEMONIC
" I t Is not prem ature to conclude th a t the keyword method is a h ig h ly e ffe c tive s tra te g y fo r remembering new vocabu la ry, as well aso th e r factua l Inform ation w ith an associative component This Istru e fo r su b je c t populations o f all k inds, rang ing In age from preschoolers to adu lts ." (McGlvern and Levin , 1983)
A lthough research related to vocabulary Ins tru c tio n can be traced to the
publication o f work by Gray and Holmes, (1938) it is on ly more recently
th a t the p oss ib ility o f teaching fo re ign vocabulary, using mnemonics,
has been e ffe c tive ly demonstrated, (e.g., Ott, e t al., (1973).
The keyw ord mnemonic, o r ig in a lly proposed by A tkinson, (1975) has
p robab ly become the most r igo rou s ly Investigated mnemonic type . The main
p rin c ip le o f the mnemonic is to p rov ide learners w ith associative cues
in the form o f in te rac tive images [11].
Rosenheck, Levin and Levin, (1989) Illu s tra te how the mnemonic is
used:
"...to remember th a t the Spanish word fo r duck Is pato, one could recode the Spanish word In to a concrete English keyword th a t Is acoustica lly s im ila r, such as pot. The next step Is to re la te the keyword pot to the meaning, duck. This could be accomplished by p ic tu r in g a duck Inside a pot. In th is way a re tr ie va l path Is formed th a t lin k s the fo re ign word pato w ith Its English meaning, duck” .
The method has proved so successful in both labora to ry, (e.g., O tt, et
a!., 1973) and applied studies, (e.g., M erry, 1980b) th a t its commercial
potentia l is now being exploited in a p le thora o f D.I.Y. [12] language
in s tru c tio n courses, (e.g., A memory-improvement scheme o ffe red by Paul
Daniels/ Michael Pressley, in The People Newspaper, 25-2-90).
11 Where a mental re la tionsh ip o r ’ p ic tu re ’ is formed between two o r more images12 Do I t Yourself
128
The keyword mnemonic, sometimes re fe rred to as the Keyword
"methocf, (e.g., Desrochers, et a!., 1989) has now been extensive ly
stud ied w ith a range o f sub jects , e.g., undergraduates, (e.g., A tkinson
and Raugh, 1975; Rosenheck, Levin and Levin, 1989; McDaniel and
Pressley, 1989;) learn ing disabled ch ild ren , (e.g., M astrop lerl, et al.,
1985b; Condus, et al., 1986; Scruggs, e t al., 1987) normal ch ild ren ,
(e.g.. Levin, e t al., 1982; McGlvern and Levin, 1983) and more able
ch ild ren , (e.g., McGlvern and Levin, 1983) w ith encouraging resu lts .
The keyword method has ty p ic a lly enabled m nem onlca lly-instructed
users to demonstrate "dram atic re su lts " (M erry , 1980b). Learning
improvements in excess o f 50% s u p e rio r ity ove r non-user con tro ls are not
unknown, (e.g., Raugh and A tkinson, 1975) and a s tu d y by Pressley,
(1977) demonstrated th a t ch ild ren could achieve 189% s u p e r io r ity ove r
non-users, when tested on Spanish-English word association.
C learly, the acquis ition o f "complete vocabu lary knowledge is
complex,..." (McDaniel and Pressley, 1989) re q u ir in g a wide range o f
associative s k ills such as the in te rp re ta tio n and analysis o f meanings,
fluency in accessing approp ria te meanings, and judgem ents o f accuracy
which are ta sk -a p p ro p ria te ly related to c u rre n t needs, (e.g.. Beck, e t
al., 1987; E lshout-M ohr and van Daalen- Kapte ijns, 1987).
Claims fo r such involved processes are not made fo r the keyword,
bu t used to promote the acquis ition o f fo re ign o r native vocabu lary. The
keyword fac ilita tes a "na rrow " understand ing o f the type o f context in
which a p rev ious ly unfam iliar word m ight be appropria te , (e.g.,
Kameenui, et al., 1987) and helps to establish a basic re p e rto ry o f
words fo r which at least some meaning is known, (e.g.. Beck, e t al.,
1987).
129
Although not w ithou t its c r it ic s , (e.g., S ternberg , et al., 1983;
Nagy, et al., 1985; Hall, et al., 1981; 1986) the keyw ord ’s e fficacy has
also been demonstrated over a va r ie ty o f contro l conditions and
a lte rna tive s tud y methods, (e.g.. Levin, et al., 1982. For reviews, see
M astrop ieri, et al., 1985a; McDaniel and Pressley, 1987; McKeown and
C urtis , 1987). F u rth e r, its " f le x ib il ity " (Levin , e t al., 1982) has been
illu s tra te d in a range o f sub ject-a reas, e.g.,: Science facts,
(M astrop ie ri, Scruggs and Levin, 1985b) science classifica tions,
(M astrop ie ri, et al., 1985b) na tura l h is to ry , (Veit, e t al., 1986)
botanical concepts, (Rosenheck, Levin and Levin, 1989) mineral
ca tegorisa tion, (Levin , et al., exp. 2, 1986) and German nouns, (e.g.,
Desrochers, et al., 1989).
Despite such positive resu lts , confidence in the keyword method has
not been un iversa l. Hall and his associates, (e.g.. Hall, et al., 1981 ;
Hall, 1988) have expressed th ree im portant concerns about claims made
fo r the mnemonic, related to:
Learn ing time. Presentation speed and O rig ination [13] / in s tru c tio n .
13 Suggesting th a t d isp roportiona te time is requ ired fo r su b jec ts to co n s tru c t the mnemonic, resu lting In g rea te r tim e-on -task than th a t fo r a lte rna tive learn ing conditions
130
KEYWORD DURABILITY
A lthough some experimental resu lts suggest th a t experim enter-generated
keywords lead to be tte r, more durab le learn ing , (e.g., McGivern and
Levin, 1983 and see Gruneberg, 1983) the re is some confusion about long
term keyword s u p e r io r ity , when compared w ith a lte rna tive learn ing
methods such as the semantic context method, (see Nagy, Herman and
Anderson, 1985 and Sweeney and Bellezza, 1982).
An explanation, which m ight account fo r these anomalies, re lates to
the number and q ua lity o f cues established d u rin g in itia l learn ing.
The keyword method, re lies upon the form ation o f ju s t one
in te rac tive lin k , (e.g., McDaniel, e t al., (1987) whereas i t is known
th a t a "m u ltitude o f e laborations" ( ib id .) o ffe r a w ider range o f
re tr ie va l cues and improved access at both coding and recall stages,
(e.g.. Cuddy and Jacoby, 1982; Anderson and Reder, 1979). There Is also
evidence which suggests th a t u n ins truc ted learners, free o f the learn ing
cons tra in ts th a t in s tru c tio n imposes, in tu it iv e ly form numerous semantic
associations d u rin g learn ing, (e.g., Battig , 1965). These p rov ide the
lea rner w ith r ic h e r and more numerous semantic links , upon which to
"hang" new learn ing material, (e.g., C lifton and Slowiaczek, 1981).
Because the keyword method re lies upon ju s t one In te ra c tive lin k ,
the poss ib ility o f cueing the co rre c t in form ation d u rin g recall, tends
to be wholly re lia n t upon re -con s truc tin g the one In te rac tive image.
This area o f the keyw ord ’s potentia l weakness, m ight also be its
main s tre n g th . L im iting the number o f semantic associations a t encoding,
could co n tr ib u te to the keyw ord ’s e ffectiveness by reduc ing the
in te rfe rence e ffec ts which would otherw ise be caused th ro u gh the
simultaneous encoding o f numerous semantic links .
131
TIME-ON-TASK AND SPEED OF PRESENTATION
Underwood, (1983) has extended the investiga tion re la ting to keyword
research anomalies, by suggesting th a t the inform ation in it ia lly
acqu ired in each experimental condition is not "equ iva len t", an idea
which Hall and his associates, (e.g.. Hall and Fusson, 1986; Hall, Owens
and Wilson, 1986) have explored from a somewhat d if fe re n t perspective.
Hall’s view is th a t item -presenta tion speed, and the tIm e-on-task
allocated to a lte rna tive lea rn ing methods being tested, is
in a p p ro p ria te ly d is tr ib u te d . His argum ent, is th a t the tim e-o ffe red
a lte rn a tive learn ing conditions w ith which the keyword is compared, tend
to be o f a rb it ra ry dura tion , allocated as a re su lt o f convenience ra th e r
than appropria teness.
Hall and Fuson, (1986) note th a t a lthough keyword experiments
ty p ic a lly o ffe red Item -learning times o f around 9-10 seconds, th is
amount o f time a r t if ic ia lly Inh ib ited the e ffectiveness o f a lte rna tive
learn ing methods. They illu s tra te d the po in t by dem onstrating th a t
sub jec ts g iven sho rt p resenta tions o f items, (e.g., 3 items, every 3
seconds) learned more than sub jec ts in a 9-second sing le presentation
condition , (Hall Owens and Wilson, 1986) an e ffe c t also noted by
Bellezza, (1981).
Responding to Hall’s comments, Pressley, (1987) questioned the
keyword in s tru c tio n s o ffe red by experim enters in Hall’s team, suggesting
th is as the prima facie reason why the normal "keyw ord e ffe c t" was not
rep licated. Pressley, ( ib id ) concludes: .... "Hall and Fuson ignored the
p o ss ib ility th a t on ly th e ir spec ific keyword-m ethod in s tru c tio n s may not
be adequate", (p .333).
132
Adopting a s im ila r learn ing paradigm to Hall, bu t d if fe re n t keyword
ins tru c tion s , P ressley’s ( ib id ) sub jects , [14] outperform ed n o -s tra te g y -
contro l learners in both 1 x 9s and 3 x 3s presentation conditions
despite b r /e f tra in in g on keyword use.
This view is im portant and can be applied to the learn ing o f all
mnemonics, especially in those s itua tions where attem pts are being made
to demonstrate the e fficacy o f a p a rtic u la r mnemonic against a lte rna tive
learn ing methods.
Responding to Hall’s c r itiq u e , Pressley (1987), suggests th a t a
fa ilu re to p rov ide su ffic ie n t time fo r sub jec ts to use a selected
keyword o r approp ria te in s tru c tion on how to u tilise the keyword method,
m ight serious ly reduce the keyw ord ’s e ffectiveness. Nonetheless,
Pressley, ( ib id .) concluded th a t fa s t rates o f presentation were not
conducive to learn ing v ia the keyword method.
Some stud ies, which incorporated delayed re -te s t, (e.g., A tkinson
and Raugh, 1975; M erry, 1980a; Condus, et al., 1986) have demonstrated
memory improvements over no -s tra tegy con tro ls , (e.g.. Levin, e t al.,
1982) and also against taxonomic [15] learn ing conditions, (e.g.,
Rosenheck, Levin and Levin, 1989). A team led by McDaniel, (1987) tested
college s tu den ts ’ recall o f vocabulary pa ired-ltem s, (learned using the
keyword method one week e a rlie r) against the semantic-con te x t method.
A lthough they observed fa cu lta tive keyword "e ffec ts " at Immediate re
tes t, they concluded: "....the re were no d iffe rences in long-term
re ten tion as a func tion o f learn ing method". These fin d in g s are in sharp
co n tras t to Rosenheck, et al., (1989) s tud y , where It was concluded th a t
the "keyw ord mnemonic s u p e r io r ity appears to increase w ith tim e".
14 u n iv e rs ity students15 h ie ra rch ica lly organised lis ts
133
To te s t the hypothesis th a t at least some o f the research anomalies
were e ith e r due to the typ e o f keyword in s tru c tio n th a t sub jec ts were
o ffe red , o r to the s u ita b ility o f the keywords selected fo r research.
Hall, (1988) conducted two experiments. However, he was unable to
d iscover any s ig n ifica n t learn ing improvements using the keyword method
unless keywords were selected upon the basis o f mnemonising s u ita b ility ,
e.g., "obvious keyw ords", ( ib id ). Indeed,
"The keyword subjects scored significantly more poorly than control subjects on Items not selected for keyword suitability."
McGivern and Levin, (1983) approached the problem from a d iffe re n t
perspective by tes ting the "s tim u lus -trans fo rm a tio n " [16] stage o f
keyword operation. C hildren w ith e ith e r high o r low vocabulary knowledge
were assigned to one o f th ree keyword conditions, each graded in the
degree o f s tru c tu re and su p po rt provided by the experim enter, against a
contro l condition where no s tra teg ies were adopted. Whereas a ll the
keyword conditions fac ilita ted ch ild re n ’s vocabu lary learn ing , the
degree o f sup po rt o ffe red was shown to be more cruc ia l to the ch ild ren
w ith low vocabu lary knowledge, who experienced "considerab ly more
d if f ic u lty " ( ib id ) in m anipulating the learn ing material.
A lthough i t is known th a t ch ild ren w ith memory de fic its do not use
mnemonic s tra teg ies ve ry e ffe c tive ly , (e.g., Torgesen, 1980; see
McLaughlin Cook, (1989) fo r a review ) more recen tly , a series o f s tud ies
have de libera te ly explored the p o ss ib ility o f using the keyword-m ethod
to fa c ilita te the learn ing o f lea rn ing-d isab led ch ild re n , (e.g.,
M astrop ieri, et al., 1985a; Condus, e t al., 1986; Scruggs, et al., 1987)
w ith most encouraging resu lts .
16 Where the fo re ign vocabulary word Is linked to a corresponding English word
134
In the Condus s tudy , 32 lea rn ing-d isab led ch ild ren iden tified w ith
"low ", and 32 w ith "h ig h " receptive vocabularies, were random ly assigned
to e ithe r keyword, o r one o f th ree d if fe re n t learn ing conditions, [7].
Not on ly did the keyword produce learn ing s ig n ific a n tly su p e rio r to the
o th e r learn ing methods stud ied at immediate re -te s t, bu t "s ig n if ic a n tly "
( ib id ) more word meanings were recalled 10 weeks pos t-tes t. These
resu lts provided evidence suppo rting the e a rlie r fin d in g s by
M astropieri, et al, (1985c) th a t the keyword techn ique is "extrem ely
e ffe c tive " (Scruggs, et al, 1987) as a mnemonic fo r assisting
le a rn ing - disabled ch ild ren .
THE KEYWORD METHOD: A FUTURE IN SCHOOLS?
" the study of vocabulary learning under naturalistic conditionsshould be a high priority." (Pressley, 1987)
I t is hard to envisage how such a usefu l, flex ib le and po ten t mnemonic
form will ever penetrate educational practice.
A lthough the re is l it t le evidence to suggest th a t B ritish language
teachers have been alerted to the possible benefits the mnemonic m ight
a ffo rd , a su rvey amongst a group o f American teachers shows th a t they
have expressed a keen in te res t, (e.g.. Levin, e t al., (1982) and were
w illing to "explore (the method) fu r th e r in th e ir classrooms." I f such
an undertak ing has been explored in the U.K. i t has, to the w r ite r ’s
knowledge, remained un reported. I t should fu r th e r be noted, th a t the
keyword method has proved to be a flex ib le learn ing tool and is
ce rta in ly not re s tr ic te d to vocabulary in s tru c tion . Given the breadth o f
7 P icture context, sentence-experience context, and u n in s tru c te d contro l.
135
potentia l applications fo r th is mnemonic, It seems necessary to ask the
question:
Why, a fte r p rov ing successful in so many applied stud ies, and in
such a broad range o f sub ject-a reas, does the method remain v ir tu a lly
undiscussed and undisclosed in any o f the main educational weekly
papers, [18]? Indeed, "...the keyword method is o ften not recommended in
vocabulary In s truc tion program s...", (McDaniel and Pressley, 1989).
In the same way th a t advances In knowledge about developmental
aspects o f cognition on ly stead ily f i l te r in to classroom practice,
problems o f communication at the in te rsection between knowledge sources
[19] and teachers’ access to th is appear to lack co -o rd ina tion .
Lev in ’s ( ib id ) concluding rem arks would seem to be equa lly re levant
today, when he wrote:
"...will the (keyword) method ever prove its worth to the point that it will be welcomed into the vocabulary learning of classroom teachers"?
At present i t is d if f ic u lt to envisage a time when teachers w ill have
the o p p o rtu n ity to exp lo it the wealth o f research which concerns th e ir
everyday ac tiv ities . One wonders.... why?
18 e.g., The Times Educational Supplement19 e.g.. Educational periodicals, u n iv e rs ity , college and po ly techn ic lib ra r ie s
136
SUMMARY OR SECTION 4
Under the more general heading of "First-letter mnemonics", acrostics
and acronym s are described along with discussion related to their
application. This Is followed by a rev iew o f the lite ra tu re
sp e c ifica iiy re la ted to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics.
Next is a discussion which attempts to account for the
descrepancy between the popularity of the mnemonic and Its poor
performance during scientific Investigations of Its efficacy.
This Is followed by discussion related to some theoretical and
practical considerations related to a p p ly ing first-le tter mnemonics
through a synthesis of the literature available and the writer’s own
experiences related to actual classroom practice. The results of a
limited survey undertaken In seven secondary schools and related to
the informal use of mnemonics are used to support a number of
arguments relating to classroom practice and hitherto unaddressed.
137
RIRST—LETTER MNEMONICS
"F irs t le tte r mnemonics....may have considerable potentia l fo r assisting lea rners in college courses where th e re are many concrete fac ts to be learned." (McLaughlin Cook, 1989).
There are two p rinc ipa l types o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics: acrostics and
acronyms.
An acrostic, more commonly called a " f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic", (e.g..
Nelson and A rcher, 1972; Baddeley, 1985; McLaughlin Cook, 1989) is a
"p e g -typ e " mnemonic, (e.g., Bellezza, 1981) where the f i r s t le tte r o f
each word form ing a learn ing sequence is eiaborated In o rd e r to
cons truc t new words. T yp ica lly , these new words are reconstructed to
form a meaningful sentence, statement o r phrase. The type o f material
commonly reorganised in th is way is o ften a rb it ra ry in nature, w ith
l it t le in te rre la tion sh ip between the to -be -lea rned Items o r the items’
semantic s tru c tu re , (e.g., Higbee, 1977). W ithin th is context, the
purpose o f acrostics is to p rov ide the learner w ith more e ffe c tive ly
organised and s tru c tu re d learn ing material conta in ing s trong e r, more
useful cues. This Is achieved by generating "meaning, in tegra tion and
cues where none (m igh t) n a tu ra lly ex is t", (M orris , 1979).
To decode the inform ation contained in acrostics, the mnemonic is
recalled, cueing the f i r s t le tte rs o f the o rig ina l learn ing material.
Acronyms also p rov ide learners w ith f i r s t - le t te r cues, bu t the le tte rs
are no t elaborated o r embellished w ith additional meaning a lthough the
le tte rs o f the acronym m ight fa c ilita te th is e ffect, (e.g., N.U.T. [1 ];
N.A.L.G.O., [2 ] C.O.H.S.E. [3 ]).
1 National Union (o f) Teachers2 National And Local Government O ffice rs ’ Association3 Confederation Of Health Service Employees
138
An acrostic commonly illu s tra te d In the lite ra tu re , (e.g.,
G runeberg, Monks and Sykes, 1977; M orris and Cook, 1978; Bellezza,
1981; Baddeley, 1986) is "R -ichard o f Y -o rk G-ave B -a ttle I -n V -a In", a
phrase used In form ally by teachers to help s tuden ts remember the v is ib le
spectrum in sequential o rd e r, i.e., R-ed, O -range, Y-ellow, G-reen, B-
lue, I-n d ig o and V -io le t. An association between the acrostic and the
learn ing material is e ith e r formed d u rin g In itia l acquis ition o f the
material, o r a lte rn a tive ly , at some po in t a fte r the material has been
learned. There is no conclusive evidence suggesting th a t sub jec ts who
engage f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics d u rin g In itia l lea rn ing , o r a t a la te r
stage, produce supe rio r learn ing , a lthough th e re does appear to be a
re la tionsh ip between su b je c ts ’ p rio r-know ledge o f the learn ing material
th a t is to be mnemonised, [4] and the subsequent e ffectiveness o f a
mnemonic, (e.g., M orris and Cook, 1978; Battig and Bellezza, 1979).
In a va rie ty o f a lte rna tive learn ing s itua tions, acrostics are used
by teachers on an informal basis, (e.g., see "S ta ff s u rv e y ", pp.293-325
o f th is s tu d y ) ty p ic a lly to help s tuden ts learn material com prising
words o r phrases which must be remembered and la te r recalled accurate ly,
o ften In seria l o rde r. For example, to help learn the co lour-cod ing o f
res is to rs , e lectron ics s tuden ts sometimes use the acrostic "Beyond
Brown’s Rose Orchard You Glimpse Blue V iolets Growing Wild". Here, the
f i r s t le tte r o f each word In the sentence, represen ts a co lour In
spec ific sequence and is used in the same way as the "R ichard Of
Y o rk " acrostic. For fu r th e r examples, see e.g.. Nelson and Archer,
1972; o r D ictionary o f Mnemonics. 1972: Smith, fo r a fu l le r review ).
4 C onverting learn ing material in to a mnemonic form
139
F ir s t - le tte r mnemonics have been shown to fa c ilita te se ria l-o rd e r
recall, (e.g.. Nelson and A rcher, 1972; M orris and Cook, 1978). They
also help to s tru c tu re and organise material, a fa c to r known to Improve
learn ing , (e.g., Norman, 1976). Some acrostics incorporate rhyme. This
fu r th e r enhances the po ten t!ai o f the mnemonic by p ro v id in g increased
meaning and cueing power, w h ils t sim ultaneously lim iting the range o f
possible a lte rna tives. For example, s tuden ts o f physio logical psychology
use va ria tions o f the acrostic, "On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Fop And
G lutton Vended Some Hops," to remember the crania l nerves (e.g., see
Nelson and Archer, 1972). Since a n tiq u ity , rhyme has been known to be
an im portan t agent in learn ing and recall.
Rhyme reduces possible w ord -op tions by fo rc in g the reader to
an tic ipa te phonetica lly s im ilar words, (e.g., McGeoch, 1942; Bower and
Bolton, 1969). For example, once It is known th a t the mnemonic "T h ir ty
days hath September etc.. fo r learn ing the length o f ca lendar
months, is set to a form o f metrical rhyme, the month cued by
"September" leaves on ly the options: December and November. In a s im ila r
way, acrostics which employ rhyme, m ight fu r th e r im prove the mnemonic’s
fa cu lta tive potential by re s tr ic tin g the phonetic poss ib ilitie s o f some
succeeding words, w h ils t sim ultaneously p ro v id ing a fu r th e r "hook"
th rough Its ly rica l form. Rhyme is not an uncommon fe a tu re o f acrostics,
bu t i t is less usually associated w ith acronyms. Aconyms are Just one
word, (e.g., N.A.T.O.) and because the sequence is to all in te n ts fixed ,
the fa c ilita t iv e e ffects rhyme m ight a ffo rd do not exist.
140
At present, the re is no evidence which suggests e ith e r rhym ing o r
non-rhym ing f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics are superio r, bu t a s tu d y by Machida
and Calson, (1984) using a rhym ing-sentence mnemonic w ith 12 and 13
year-o lds, found th a t mnemonics which Incorporate rhyme did fa c ilita te
learn ing . Machida and Carison’s re su lts are also In te res ting because
actual c u rr ic u la r material (a lgebra ic p rinc ip les ) was used as p a rt o f
the learn ing programme, and also because when compared to a re g u la r
teach ing-m et hod contro l group, the mnemonic g roup were s t i l l able to
demonstrate supe rio r learn ing at a 2-week pos t-tes t.
141
ACRONYMS
In con tras t an acronym, also c lassified by Bellezza, (1981) as a
"peg-mnemonic", is a reduction mnemonic, com prising the minimum
"c rit ic a l c r ite r ia " , (e.g., Norman, 1976) o f each word form ing the
lea rn ing material. Typ ica lly , acronyms employ the f i r s t le tte r o f each
word com prising the learn ing material. These then act as cues o r prompts
a t the time o f attempted recall. For example, "SCUBA" Is a term
associated w ith underw ater d iv in g and form s an acronym fo r the
in form ation: S -e lf C-ontained U -nderw ater B -rea th ing A -ppara tus.
Probably a more fam ilia r example m ight be the Ind iv idua l "P. I. N."
number, (P-ersonal I-d e n tific a tio n N-umber) requ ired to obta in cash at
bank se rv ic e -tills .
I t is sometimes the case th a t the f i r s t le tte rs o f the words o r
inform ation fo r which an acronym is an abbrev ia tion , o ften fa ll to
p rov ide a coherent o r cohesive statement o r phrase, regard less o f how
they are organised. To overcome th is problem, " f i lle r -w o rd s " o ften have
to be included as p a rt o f the acronym. A lthough f il le r -w o rd s can help in
the generation o f an in te llig ib le and more memorable mnemonic, i t has
been noted th a t f ille r-w o rd s , a t least in the case o f acrostics, (e.g.,
see L leu ry , 1980) may re su lt in negating the mnemonic’s fa c ilita tiv e
e ffect.
To re tr ie ve o r remember the o rig in a l unabbrev ia ted m ateriai, the
acronym is recailed, o ffe rin g the learner the f i r s t ie tte rs o r "c r it ic a i
item s", (e.g., Norman, 1976) o f each word as cues to prom pt both the
complete words and subsequent words com prising the acronym. F u rth e r
exam pi es m ight Include: " R O Y G B I V", an a lte rn a tive mnemonic to
the acrostic "R ichard Of York Gave Battie In Vain", used to teach the
v is ib le spectrum , (e.g.. Nelson and A rcher, 1972) and " H O M E S" a
scheme fo r remembering the " f iv e great lakes", (e.g., Higbee, 1977).
142
Acronyms have become so popular, th a t they appear to have emerged
as p a rt o f the ’standard vocabu la ry ’ o f contem porary cu ltu re . Indeed, it
would not be inapp ropria te to suggest th a t they dominate a v a r ie ty o f
iite ra tu re related to education in general and educational in it ia tiv e s
in p a rticu la r. So successfu lly are acronyms remembered, th a t the
mnemonic its e if o ften becomes the re fe re n t phrase.
For example, "L A S E R", is now such a commonplace word th a t few
people would be able to elaborate the acronym in o rd e r to re -fo rm the
extended term , (e.g.. L igh t Am plification ^ ( f ii ie r -w o rd ) Stimuiated
Emission o f Radiation).
For purposes o f c la r ity , i t is useful to d is tin g u ish between
acrostics and acronyms, before proceeding to suggest the general
fram ework w ith in which f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics w ill be reviewed. M orris,
(1979) o ffe rs a useful Illu s tra tio n , suggesting : " ....o f th e tw o common
mnemonics fo r the spaces and lines o f the tre b le c le f, FACE is an
acronym while E -ve ry G-ood B-oy D-eserves F -avou r is an acros tic ."
FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS REVIEW APPROACH
A lthough i t is not completely sa tis fa c to ry , I propose to follow
McLaughlin Cook’s (1989) approach in dissem inating the evidence re la ting
to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, by tre a tin g acrostics and acronyms toge ther.
This position is made somewhat more tenable in th a t an unpublished
thes is by Mulvenna, (1982) tes ting and comparing the tw o mnemonic types,
found no learn ing d ifferences.
143
Although the evidence related to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics is ia rge iy
inconclusive, by adopting th is combined approach o f convenience, it is
possible to make more meaningful genera lisations than wouid be
reasonable review ing acrostics independently. Where evidence
spec ifica lly related to acrostics Is available and re levant. It w ill o f
course be included.
144
FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS - A REVIEW OF RESEARCH
Evidence related to the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics as
lea rn ing aids is confused. A lthough a number o f s tud ies have found
pos itive e ffec ts , (e.g.. Nelson and A rcher, 1972; Pines and B lick, 1974;
G runberg, Monks and Sykes, 1977; M orris and Cook, 1978; Haring and F ry ,
1980; L ieu ry , 1980) o the rs have not, (e.g., Boltwood and B lick, 1970;
G runeberg, 1973; Waite, B lick and Boltwood, 1971; Perewiznyk and B lick,
1978). F irs t- le t te r mnemonics have been demonstrated to be a favoured
lea rn ing s tra te g y o f s tuden ts , (e.g., B lick and Waite, 1971; B lick,
Buonassissi and Boltwood, 1972) and are also used in fo rm a lly by teachers
in the classroom, (see "S ta ff su rve y " o f th is s tu d y , pp.293-325).
Whereas the re is ve ry l it t le evidence suggesting how widespread is
the use o f f i r s t - le t te r men mon les In school environm ents, o r how
e ffe c tive they are when used w ith ch ild ren , evidence related to th e ir
use by s tud en t-p opu la tio ns is available. Roberts, (1968) found th a t 60%
o f his su b jec ts grouped words by th e ir f i r s t le tte rs . This fin d in g was
subsequently extended by Boltwood and B lick, (1970) B lick and Waite,
(1971) where 38% and 34% o f sub jec ts respective ly , p r io r itis e d the
f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic techn ique as th e ir most popu lar aide memolre. A
fu r th e r s tu d y by H arris, (1980) confirm s the p o p u la rity o f the mnemonic,
b u t a lthough 47% o f H a rris ’s sample reported using the f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonic. It was not used re g u la rly , suggesting more specialised
application such as examination prepara tion where i t is not unusual fo r
teachers to suggest mnemonic techniques as an aid to lea rn ing , (see
"S ta ff su rv e y " o f th is s tudy , ( ib id )
145
Given its p opu la rity , one m ight expect th a t the mnemonic would be
at least a useful tool In examination revis ion and recall, bu t attem pts
to compare college s tuden ts ’ use o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics w ith the
class o f degree subsequently obtained by re g u la r mnemonic users, (e.g.,
G runberg, 1973) have found no fa c ilita t iv e e ffe c t o f the mnemonic upon
examination performance [5].
S tudies have so fa r fa iled to account fo r tw o im portant
observations:
1) Why is the re such a d is t in c t d is p a rity between the p opu la rity o f acrostics and ob jec tive evidence su ppo rtin g th e ir e fficacy over o the r learn ing methods?
2) Why do stud ies commonly re p o rt co n tra d ic to ry evidence about
a) the mnemonic’s e fficacy in general
and
b) the o r ig in [6 ] o f the mnemonic?
Results o f s tud ies using E (experim enter) and S- (su b je c t) generated
f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic schemes co n flic t. Whereas K ib ie r and B lick, (1972)
and Pines and B lick, (1974) suppo rting E-generated schemes suggest:
"the source of the mnemonic was the crucial variable affecting recall," (ibid).
Other stud ies, e.g., Boltwood and B iick, (1970) and G ilchris t,
(1981) fa iled to su p p o rt th is position. F u rth e r, Lieberman, Waiters and
Cox, (1968) examining mnemonic o rig in a tio n in a broader context, fa iled
to su p po rt the e fficacy o f mnemonics in e ith e r E o r S-generated
conditions!
5 C learly, examination performance, requ ires more o f candidates than factual recall.6 S ub ject o r experim enter-designed.
146
Research inve s tiga ting the p a rtic u la r re la tionsh ip between
o rig in a tio n and the mnemonic’s d u ra b ility (e.g., sustained e ffec t) is
also confused. Kerst and Levin, (1973) demonstrated the mnemonic’s
d u ra b ility regard less o f o rig in , which Is in con tras t to the e a rlie r
fin d in g s o f Oiton, (1969) who discovered ind ica tions th a t the in itia l
bene fits o f E-generated schemes de terio ra ted over time.
The re su lts o f both Kerst and Levin and 01 to n ’s s tud ies, ( ib id )
need to be assessed ca re fu lly , as ne ithe r incorporated a standard
con tro l. F irs t, G ilch ris t, (1981) employing unrelated w o rd -lis ts , found
no d iffe rences between E-generated acronyms when compared w ith e ith e r E
o r S-generated sentences. Second, in a s tu d y comparing sentence and
f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics in both E and S-generated conditions. Pines and
B lick, (1974) found s ig n ifica n t d iffe rences in fa vo u r o f E-generated
schemes, conclud ing th a t "th e source o f the mnemonic was th e cruc ia l
va riab le a ffe c tin g reca ll." ( ib id .), and adding: E-generated schemes
"su ffe re d no s ig n ific a n t losses" ove r tw o-day and six-week in te rva ls ,
( ib id .) . I t is o f course d if f ic u lt to review o rig in a tion as o b je c tive ly
as we m ight like to.
A num ber o f awkward variab les tend to confuse the issue:
What is a ’ good’ f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic?
Good in what context?
Good fo r what type o f population?
How is the e ffectiveness o f the mnemonic related to expendedcog n itive e ffo rt?
How is the e ffectiveness o f the mnemonic related to the s u b je c t’sm otivation?
147
These fin d in g s suppo rt e a rlie r conclusions by Rohwer, (1966) who
suggested th a t E-supplled sentences improved learn ing because
" meaningful ness and syn ta c tic s tru c tu re In combination are the
p rope rtie s o f verbal s tr in g s which fa c ilita te le a rn ing ". Testing fo r
o rig in a tio n s u p e rio r ity in acronyms, Manning and B run ing , (1975)
compared acronyms in both concrete and ab s tra c t form aga inst an S-
generated sentence-mnemonic condition , in both immediate, and one-day
re -te s t conditions. Manning and B run ing reported sentence-scheme
s u p e r io r ity over both concrete and abs trac t acronym conditions, w ith no
s ta tis tica lly s ig n ifica n t d iffe rences between the tw o acronym -types at
one day re -te s t.
Even i f o rig ina tion is d isregarded, th e re s t i i i exists confusion as
to how durab le the e ffec ts o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics are. Pash and
B lick, (1970) K Ibler and B lick, (1972) and Pines and B lick, (1974) o ffe r
su p p o rt fo r the mnemonic’s long-te rm e fficacy whereas Boltwood and
B lick, (1970) and Carlson, et al., (1981) fa iled to d iscover any
appreciable long-te rm benefits even when the mnemonic condition was
compared to a simple repe tition contro l group.
In his review o f verbal mnemonics, McLaughlin Cook, (1989)
compares evidence o f the e fficacy re la ting to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics
w ith th a t o f a lte rn a tive mnemonic forms. Boltwood and B lick, (1970)
assessed the e fficacy o f f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics against th ree d if fe re n t
s tra te g y -co n d itio n s : d escrip tive s to ry , acronyms and c lu s te rin g . Each o f
the techniques was compared w ith a repe tition con tro l g roup using S-
generated material. Of the mnemonic techniques s tud ied , o n ly the
descrip tive s to ry method was e ffec tive a fte r e ig h t weeks.
148
IDENTIFYING CAUSES FOR THE DEFICIT BETWEEN THE POPULARITY OF
THE MNEMONIC AND SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
" I t m ight ve ry well be th a t the fa ilu re s to fin d the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic e ffe c tive do not re su lt from the fa c t th a t the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic cannot work as a mnemonic device, b u t ra th e r th a t I t was not Implemented co rre c tly . " (Bellezza, 1981)
I f , as Carlson, Zimmer and Glover, (1981) repo rt, f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics
"don ’t aid memory", why are they used a t all? M orris and Cook (1978)
ask, "S ure ly so many people cannot be wrong?"
In accounting fo r th is d is p a rity . It seems reasonable to consider
broader aspects o f the mnemonic. I t m ight be th a t under a r tif ic ia l o r
s c ie n tif ic conditions, one o r more o f the mnemonic’s components have
been inapp rop ria te ly manipulated, re su ltin g In negating the mnemonlc’s
fa c ilita tlv e e ffect. I t is also conceivable th a t the re Is some component
o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics which fa ils to tra n s fe r to the type o f
s itua tions under which they have so fa r been investiga ted . This
p o ss ib ility is made more conspicuous In th a t some o f the more prom inent
fea tu res o f the mnemonic such as cueing, (e.g., W hittaker, McShane and
Dunn, 1986) the organisation o f learn ing material, (e.g.. Ceci and
B ronfenbrenner, 1985) and labe lling , (e.g., Fabricus and Cavalier, 1989)
have been investigated independently and each have been found to be
im portan t components o f learn ing.
SUBJECTS
Nearly all o f the evidence concerned w ith the mnemonic Is re lated to
stud ies using a du lt populations, ty p ic a lly psychology s tuden ts
p a rtic ip a tin g in stud ies as p a rt o f the requirem ents o r accred ita tion o f
psychology courses. L it t le o r no serious work employing sc ie n tif ic
methodology has been undertaken w ith schoolch ild ren, using normal
c u rr ic u la r learn ing material, w ith in a fam ilia r learn ing environm ent.
149
I f i t is the case th a t f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics "don ’t aid (the )
memory" o f adu it sub jects , th is position may not generalise across to
p re-ado lescent populations o r, more im portan tly , to circum stances and
su b jec ts ou ts ide the u n iv e rs ity se tting ! F u rth e r, colleges and
u n ive rs itie s do not p rov ide e ith e r balanced o r represen ta tive samples
from which generalisations to normal populations can be made, as
s tuden ts are amongst soc ie ty ’s most academicaiiy able.
Given th a t teachers in schools do use mnemonics to help teach
c u rr ic u la r inform ation In th e ir classrooms. It seems reasonable to
assess how ch ild ren m ight bene fit from using mnemonics as a related bu t
separate issue to th a t o f how adu lts m ight benefit from them.
150
TIME-ON-TASK
Researchers, (e.g., M orris and Cook, 1978; Beiiezza, 1981) have often
expressed two im portan t concerns related to: a) the time sub jec ts take
to learn and b) to app ly f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics. F irs t, i t can be argued
th a t stud ies allow ing sub jects more time to iearn the mnemonic, merely
demonstrate learn ing improvements as a function o f the ex tra tim e-on-
task. Subsequently, an Im portant fe a tu re o f s tud ies dem onstrating the
mnemonic’s e fficacy, w ill be th a t o f ca re fu lly time-matched a lte rna tive
learn ing conditions. Second, ex tra time in any comparative experimental
condition wili inev itab ly o ffe r the sub jec ts In question more time to
re fle c t upon, organise and disseminate Ideas, fac to rs known to
fa c ilita te learn ing , (Tobin, 1987). But, as Gruneberg, Monks and Sikes,
(1977) remind us, " I t is d if f ic u lt to assess how much time should be
allowed fo r (mnemonic) co n s tru c tion ", when a llocating matched learn ing
time to each group com prising the experiment. For example, when tes ting
f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics. Nelson and A rcher, (1972) presented th e ir
sub jec ts w ith one word every two seconds. Smith and Noble, (1965)
w orking w ith pegword mnemonics and using Consonant-Vowel-Consonants, as
learn ing material, used four-second presentations.
I f the evidence which would enable researchers to p rov ide
approp ria te p resenta tion-tim e and mnemonic iea rn ing-tim e is so ambiguous
fo r adu lt populations, fa r less evidence Is available to assist in the
design o f applied experiments using schoolch ildren as sub jects . In the
absence o f available evidence suggesting approp ria te m ateria l-
presentation speed and also optimum m nem onic-learning-tim e, the need fo r
ca re fu lly designed p ilo t s tud ies becomes essential. Each f ir s t - ie t te r
mnemonic contains unique cues fo r spec ific factual inform ation. As
applied stud ies become more common, i t w ili become more im portant to
know how much time ch ild ren need to process and apply f i r s t - le t te r
151
mnemonics o f d if fe re n t item and w ord -leng ths. I f teachers can be
convinced th a t the time taken to mnemonise material in the sh o rt-te rm is
economical in term s o f long-te rm re ten tion , then i t is fo r the teacher
to seek ou t the many o p p o rtu n itie s when acrostics w ill fa c ilita te
re ten tion , (e.g., see also, Cox, 1991).
TIME OF RECALL
The fa ilu re o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic when compared w ith a lte rna tive
learn ing methods (ty p ic a lly employing rote rehearsal o r u n ins tru c te d
lea rn ing ) In immediate re -te s t conditions, (e.g., Carlson, Zimmer and
Glover, 1981) re flec ts s im ila r f in d in g s using sentence mnemonics, where
s u p e r io r ity ove r contro l g roups became ev iden t on ly a fte r six weeks,
(e.g.. Pines and B iick, 1974) and e igh t weeks (Boitwood and B iick, 1970;
Garten and B iick, 1974) respective ly .
I t seems inapp rop ria te to expect sub jec ts w ith the dual task o f
learn ing the mnemonic and the o rd e r o f the learn ing material, to
demonstrate Immediate learn ing Improvements. I f my experiences are
co rrec t, few teachers teach a f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic w ith e ith e r the
in ten tion o r expectation o f the mnemonic becoming immediately
purpose fu l! An acrostic Is more genera lly ta u g h t as a means o f helping
ch ild ren o rd e r and organise ty p ic a lly a rb it ra ry learn ing material fo r
long-te rm re ten tion , (see "S ta ff su rve y " o f th is s tu dy , pp.293-325) w ith
the additional bene fit o f p ro v id ing the f i r s t - ie t te r cues inh e re n tly
supplied by the mnemonic.
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THE SIZE OF THE MNEMONIC
The size o f the mnemonic appears to be a key determ inant o f its success.
This seems to be the case both fo r f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics, (e.g.,
L ieu ry , 1981) and sentence-mnemonics, (e.g.. Bower and C lark, 1969).
Such fin d in g s are rem iniscent o f M ille r’s (1956) notion o f a re s tric te d
processing capacity in the Immediate o r sh o rt-te rm store , and s tro n g ly
suggest lim ita tions in the immediate processing capacity o f cogn ition at
the reception level. This e ffec t has been demonstrated regard iess o f how
inform ation is "chunked" o r grouped toge the r and i t is reasonable to
hypothesise th a t the same re s tr ic tio n s apply to the learn ing o f f i r s t -
le tte r mnemonics! Using a du lt populations, s tud ies have used both six
words, (e.g., Gruneberg, et ai., 1977; Nelson and A rcher, 1972) and nine
words, (e.g.. Pash and B iick, (1970). Moreover, as Beiiezza, (1981)
po in ts out, many stud ies using the pegword mnemonic are lim ited to ten
items due to the inhe ren t ch a ra c te ris tic o f the mnemonic Itse lf.
MOTIVATION AND NOVELTY
A s tud y inves tiga ting o the r mnemonic forms, (e.g., G r iff ith , (1979),
suggests th a t sub jec ts engage g rea te r cogn itive e ffo r t o r "expended
processing capacity" in app ly ing th e ir own as opposed to E -suppiled
mnemonics. G r if f ith ’s fin d in g s have im plications fo r s tud ies
inco rp o ra tin g E-generated f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics in th a t a tten tion and
concentra tion are dependent variab les fo r e ffec tive learn ing , (e.g.,
Torgesen and L icht, 1983 and see Baddeley, 1990, fo r a review). I t is
also known th a t Incentives, (e.g.. Booth, 1981) cogn itive e ffo r t, (e.g.,
Weiner, 1985) in te res t, (e.g., S h irley and Reynolds, 1988) and
m otivation, ( fo r a review , see Ames and Ames, 1984) play Im portant roles
in pos itive ly a lte ring ch ild re n ’s perception o f learn ing , (e.g., Ames
and A rcher, 1988).
153
Nearly all o f the research related to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics to
date has been d irected tow ards ad u lt populations, who have ty p ic a lly
’ vo lun tee red ’ th e ir services as p a rt o f a course requirem ent, (see
McLaughlin Cook, 1989 fo r a review). I t seems at least conceivable, th a t
the In te rests , motivation and incentives o f ad u it populations to iearn
and apply mnemonic material, d if fe r from th a t o f ch ild populations. For
example, schoolch ild ren In the fo u r th and f i f th years especially, have
both in tr in s ic (e.g., s k ill-a c q u is it io n ) and e x trin s ic (exam-
p repa ra tion ) reasons fo r engaging a mnemonic. F u rth e r, mature learners
ty p ic a lly have more re fined and developed learn ing s k ills and
s tra teg ies , (e.g.. Waters and Andreassen, 1983) and are more able to
accurate ly id e n tify the circum stances in which these are like ly to be
most e ffec tive . I t may well be th a t college s tuden ts do not regard
p a rtic ip a tin g in mnemonic research, w ith the same s o rt o f enthusiasm as
a ch ild who is o ffe red a new and novel learn ing s k ill, w ith
e x tr in s ica lly specific practica l applications! F u rth e r, adu lt
mnemonisers m ight feel the re is a lim ited value in adopting a new
" t r ic k " when, ty p ic a lly un like the ch ild , they already possess an item -
bank o f lea rn ing s tra teg ies o f which the f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonic form s a
small pa rt. F u rth e r, sub jec ts form ing the contro l group o f s tud ies are
more like ly to spontaneously adopt sophisticated mnemonic s tra teg ies,
having the e ffe c t o f masking overall experimental resu lts .
154
THE TYPE OF RESEARCH SETTING
I t is often problem atic to address a ffe c tive components o f p a rtic u la r
I ear n I n g -s t rateg I es, as these are no to rious ly d if f ic u lt to specify ,
con tro l and assess.
The body o f research related to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics appears to
have been on iy m inimally successful in addressing these im portan t issues
and consistent w ith mnemonic research In general. L itt le is known about
c h ild re n ’s th in k in g related to the use o f s tra teg ies. Given the resu lts
o f " la b o ra to ry " tes ts on the mnemonic, common sense suggests th a t the re
is some im portan t va riab le o r e lem ent/s absent In th is type o f test.
Belezza, (1981) recognises th is problem in suggesting th a t the
mnemonic’s poor performance in experimental s tud ies is somehow related
to the circum stances in which f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics have so fa r been
applied. To date, the re has never been a s trong case fo r tra n s fe rr in g
experimental resu lts tes ting adu lt sub jec ts and app ly ing them to younger
populations. Nonethelesss, It Is a concern th a t such a popu lar mnemonic
can a t the same time prove so ine ffe c tive In the prepara tion fo r
examinations, even fo r those s tuden ts who name the mnemonic as th e ir
fa vo u rite learn ing s tra tegy !
There are numerous variab les which m ight account fo r a range o f
a ttitu d e s tow ards using the mnemonic. In e v ita b ly , some are s im ila r to
those found in any teaching s itua tion and include: teach ing -s ty le ,
presenta tion , tim e -o f-day , the gender o f teacher and sub jects , the
resources available fo r in s tru c tio n , the experience o f the teacher, the
155
m otivation o f teacher and taugh t. F u rth e r, ch ild ren o r s tuden ts may be
less inclined o r w illing to learn a mnemonic If they :
a) Fall to appreciate the potentia l bene fit the mnemonic m ight
a ffo rd th e ir learn ing
b) Are given In su ffic ie n t in s tru c tio n about how to use and apply
the mnemonic
c) Find the mnemonising a c tiv ity (in the case o f S-generated
mnemonics) too demanding to complete, o r "bad ly " produced (in
the case o f E-generated mnemonics).
Adopting th is hypothesis, i t becomes c lea re r precise ly why the f i r s t -
le tte r mnemonic has been " in e ffe c tive " (e.g., Boitwood and B lick, 1970)
when investiga ted by impersonal, detached and anonymous researchers
under a r t if ic ia l ( lab o ra to ry ) conditions. I t is d if f ic u lt and h igh ly
improbable th a t environm ents and circum stances which are represen ta tive
o f empirical se ttin gs can be replicated in a c iin ica i labora to ry
s itua tion .
In the "real w orld ", the q ua lity o f the re la tionsh ip between
teachers and th e ir classes is known to a ffe c t learn ing outcomes, (see
S ta ln tho rp , 1991 fo r an excellent review ) I t appears th a t the labora to ry
work undertaken so fa r has fa iled to accommodate th is Im portant
consideration. I t is hypothesised th a t th is has resulted In a reduction
o f the e ffo r t enthusiasm and insp ira tion to tap an acrostic ’s tru e
potentia l which under more regu la r learn ing conditions makes an acrostic
a pow erfu l learn ing aid. (e.g.. See the resu lts o f experiments in the
"7 -S eries" o f th is s tudy , pp.276-291 and also, Cox, 1991) A number o f
156
teachers do use f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics to help teach specific topics.
Are these s ta ff wasting th e ir time? Teachers place an im portant value
upon potentia l classroom learn ing-tlm e.
Common sense suggests th a t teachers are a d isce rn ing community. I f
th is community had perceived f ir s t - ie t te r mnemonics were ine ffec tive
lea rn ing -a ids , m ight they not have abandoned them long ago - o r a t least
hung them up along w ith the cane? A lte rn a tive ly , i f they are useful
lea rn ing -a ids , why Is the re not more obvious o r formal p rov is ion fo r
them w ith in c u rr ic u la r- ie a rn in g programs? These questions h ig h lig h t the
considerable need fo r applied experimental stud ies in schools.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS
The evidence now available s tro n g ly suggests th a t fo r mnemonics to have
the optimum fa c ilita tlv e e ffec t upon lea rn ing , they should ideally be
related to an established fram ework o f knowledge, (e.g., B a rtle tt, 1932;
McDaniel and Pressley, 1984 Rosenheck, Levin and Levin, 1989). I t has
been demonstrated th a t w ell-organised, (e.g.. Levin, 1972) and w ell-
construc ted mnemonics, (e.g., L ieu ry , 1980) p rov ide sub jec ts w ith the
best o p p o rtu n itie s to improve learn ing. In two related experiments,
M orris and Cook, (1978) successfu lly demonstrated th a t p r io r knowledge
o f the lea rn ing material was an Im portant fa c to r both In successful
encoding and re trie va l. Whereas in experim ent 1, ne ithe r concrete
abs trac t words in e ith e r E o r S-generated conditions fa c ilita te d recall,
recall was fac ilita ted in experim ent 2, where days o f the week were used
as the lea rn ing material. In th is condition , f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics
"cons iderab ly improved reca ll," suggesting th a t f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics
are e ffe c tive lea rn ing -a ids "when the items are known b u t th e ir o rd e rin g
presen ts problem s." ( ib id .) In recent papers, both the importance o f
"background knowledge" (e.g., A lexander and Judy, 1988) and the
157
necessity to p resent s tuden ts w ith c lear and unambiguous models and
examples from which to bu ild e ffec tive knowledge-bases are discussed.
Mayer, (1989) argues th a t verbatim knowledge related to concepts does
not in /fs e /f p rov ide the sub jec t w ith a s u ffic ie n t re p e rto ire from
which to generalise and apply task -a p p ro p ria te conceptual s k ills to
novel s itua tions, a position demonstrated by both Glaser, (1984) and
Chi, (1987).
F u rth e r, the evidence at present available related to
m etacognition, suggests th a t academicaiiy successful ch ild ren w ili be
more e ffec tive in knowing both how to generate and when to apply a
su itab le f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic, (e.g.. Leal, 1987; K urtz and Welnert,
1989). Successful ch ild ren w ill be more spontaneous In the freedom w ith
which mnemonic s tra teg ies are applied, (e.g., McDaniel and Pressley,
1984) and more able to generalise these to a w ider range o f se ttings,
(e.g.. Cross and Paris, 1988).
158
A JUSTIFICATION FOR TEACHING CHILDREN TO USE FIRST-LETTER
MNEMONICS
I t has been repeatedly demonstrated th a t ch ild ren acqu ire cogn itive
lea rn ing s tra teg ies and s k ills increm enta lly. That is, the acquis ition
o f learn ing s tra teg ies is more spec ifica lly related to th e ir c u rre n t
cog n itive m aturation, than to th e ir chronological age. This has been
shown to generalise across a range o f developmental se ttings , and has
been demonstrated fo r:
Memory s tra teg ies in general, (e.g.. Kail and Hagen, 1977;O rnste in and Baker-W ard, 1983; Waters and Andressen, 1983; Borkowski, et al., 1988)
Metacognition, (e.g.. Cross and Paris, 1988; see Brown and DeLoache,1983 fo r a review )
Metamemory, (e.g., Campione and Brown, 1978; Byrd and Ghoison, 1985 and Andreassen and Waters, 1989)
and
Rehearsal, (e.g., F lavell, e t al., 1966; Hagen and K ingsley, 1968;Meacham, 1980; O rnste in, et ai., 1985).
Researchers have also suggested th a t sub jec ts w ith a broader range o f
m etacognitive s k ills are more e ffec tive a t m anipulating and
dissem inating knowledge, and app ly ing ta sk -a p p ro p ria te s tra teg ies,
(e.g.. Brown, ( ib id .); Shueii, 1986 and Waters and Andreassen, 1983).
A dd itiona lly , metacognition has been found to play an Im portant ro le in
s tra tegy-ge ne ra lisa tio n per se, (e.g., Pressley, Borkowski and
O’S u llivan, 1985; Borkowski, 1985) and some a u tho ritie s hypothesise th a t
metacognition its e lf in some way regulates all th in k in g , acting as an
“executive c o n tro l" responsible fo r both aware and unaware cogn itive
a c tiv itie s .
159
These observations tend to su p p o rt B ransford , et a i’s. (1979)
assumption, th a t the knowledge people have about th e ir own cogn itive
fu n c tio n s is d ire c tly related to learn ing and reca ll-perform ance, (e.g.,
t ip -o f- th e - to n g u e and fee ling o f know ing). Material which is known once-
to -have-been-lea rned and present w ith in memory, does not always
guarantee its a va ila b ility , bu t learners who have acquired more
e ffic ie n t metacog n it iv e and metamemorial processing possess the
re qu is ite cogn itive "too ls" to organise, in te g ra te and manipulate
in form ation fo r e ffe c tive processing, (e.g., Mandier, 1967; C raik,
(1972). Organised material Is both easier to code and access than th a t
which is unrela ted, to the extent th a t If d isorganised material Is
presented to learners, they w ill organise the material in o rd e r to make
processing more e ffic ie n t, (e.g.,Mandier, 1972) as organ isation provides
more sa lien t re tr ieva l cues, (e.g., M orris, 1979; G runeberg, 1983).
Given the pos itive in te rre la tio n sh ip between the organ isa tion o f
learn ing material, s tra te g y -a cq u ls ition and lea rn lng-perfo rm ance, it
seems reasonable to consider o p p o rtu n itie s which m ight promote ch ild ren
to gain access to a w ider range o f s tra teg ies.
U nlike o lde r ch ild ren and adu lts , young ch ild ren and lea rn in g -
disabled ch ild ren tend not to employ g roup ing o r organizational
s tra teg ies spontaneously, (e.g., Torgesen, 1980; Borkowski, Wehying and
Carr, 1988). But in cases o f rehearsal, (e.g., F iaveli, Beach and
C hinsky, 1966; Meehan, 1980) and metacognition, (e.g., Lodico, e t al.,
1983; Pressley, et al., 1985; Cross and Paris, 1988; Andreassen and
Waters, 1989) in te rven tiona l In s tru c tio n has been shown to lead to
substan tia l improvements In learn ing , (e.g., Andreassen and Waters,
1989).
160
For many decades, psycholog ists have h igh ligh ted the need to extend
labo ra to ry and theoretica l research to real empirical se ttings , (e.g.,
B a rtle tt, 1932; Richardson, 1980) w ith a view to developing practica l
applications which w ill help ch ild ren to learn more e ffe c tive ly , (e.g.,
McLaughlin Cook, 1989). A lthough th is has already commenced, the area o f
s tudy has been in the somewhat specialised domain o f vocabulary
in s tru c tio n , (e.g.. M erry, 1980b; Levin, e t ai., 1982; McGivern and
Levin, 1983). F u rth e r, the specific typ e o f mnemonic employed has been
the so-called "keyw ord " method, (e.g., A tk inson, 1975) , (discussed pp.
127-135 in th is paper) a visual Imagery techn ique su ited to w ord -
associatlons. In s ta rk con tras t, fo llow ing a f lu r r y o f research a c tiv ity
in the late 1970s, in te res t in classroom applications o f f i r s t - ie t te r
mnemonics appears to have all bu t d issolved. Amongst the reasons fo r
th is decline In In te rest, m ight be the poor performance and confusing
evidence o f the mnemonic in labora to ry tr ia ls . Given th a t the keyword
mnemonic’s ’ labora to ry success’ (e.g., O tt, e t al., 1973) suggested
immediate practica l learn ing applications, the a tten tion o f those
w ork ing w ith in the fie ld o f learn ing s tra teg ies tended to be d ive rted
away from the s tu dy o f f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics to more fin a nc ia iiy
lu c ra tive topics.
Recent reviews o f verbal mnemonics have been more favourab le and
the need fo r applied stud ies related to f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics has been
requested, (e.g., McLaughlin Cook, 1989) and the methodological
fram ework fo r s tu d y ing f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics proposed, (e.g., Beiiezza,
1981 ).
161
There is lim ited evidence re la tin g to the use o f mnemonics in
schools and "no s tu d y has examined the spontaneous use o f verbal
mnemonics In schoo lch ild ren", (M cLaughlin Cook, 1989). This seems
strange, as schools appear to be the ’womb’ o f th is p a rtic u la r learn ing
s tra te g y ! (e.g., see "S ta ff s u rv e y ", in th is paper, pp.293-325). In
add ition . Leal, (1987) has focused upon the p a rtic u la r re la tionsh ip
between ch ild re n ’s adoption and use o f learn ing s tra teg ies and academic
success, h ig h lig h tin g the Importance o f c h ild re n ’s acqu iring a
re p e rto ire o f ta sk -a p p ro p ria te stra teg ies. Such acquis ition o ffe rs
lea rners a more flex ib le response in a va rie ty o f formal and Informal
lea rn ing s itua tions.
FIRST-LETTER MNEMONICS IN THE CLASSROOM
Research has indicated th a t i t is o ften in s u ffic ie n t merely to in s tru c t
ch ild ren how and when to use a p a rtic u la r mnemonic s tra te g y , (e.g., see
Kail, 1979 fo r a review ); the ch ild must keep a live the knowledge o f how
to use and apply mnemonics un til th e ir u t i l i ty becomes a spontaneous
aspect o f p robiem -soiv ing behaviour. This can be achieved e ith e r th rough
maintenance-rehearsal (fre q u e n t s ile n t o r audib le rev is ion o f the
process o r cogn itive a c tiv ity invo lved) o r by learn ing a mnemonic
techn ique to c r ite r io n th rough re g u la r use.
The process o f teaching ch ild re n how to use a mnemonic s tra te g y is,
in itse lf, a less form idable task than m onitoring the c h ild ’s pe rs is ten t
co rre c t use o f th a t s tra te gy . F u rth e r, th e re are practica l im plications
fo r ensuring th a t around th ir ty ch ild ren in each teaching group are able
to regu ia te the application o f a p a rtic u la r mnemonic.
162
Just like any cogn itive s k ill, the a b ility o f the ch ild to
spontaneously seek ou t o p p o rtu n itie s where a mnemonic could aid
lea rn ing , m ight invo lve a number o f specialised associated cogn itive
s k ills outs ide the c h ild ’s c u rre n t In te llectua l capabilities.
O pportun ities to apply f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics to lea rn ing material
in the classroom can be found in most ( i f not a il) su b je c t syllabuses.
For example, some years ago, I noticed th a t ch ild ren in my th ir d -
year C.D.T. (C ra ft, Design and Technology) groups were experiencing
problems in reca lling im portant factua l Inform ation in seria l o rde r,
less than 50% fa ilin g to recall the inform ation accurate ly, one week
p o s t-te s t [7 ]. A lthough on ly six words were Involved, these formed
im portan t sub-head ings from which a more thorough evaluation m ight be
generated. The inform ation was to be remembered in seria l o rd e r and was
as fo llows:
P-erform ance
F-unction
V-al ue-for-m oney
C -onstructlon
A -esthetics
S -a fe ty
7 Elapsed time a fte r in itia l recall tes t
163
The ch ild ren learn ing th is i is t o f a rb it ra ry material found It somewhat
d if f ic u lt to recall both the words and p a rtic u la r ly the s e r ia l-o rd e r o f
the words in the lis t. A fte r lim ited in s tru c tio n o f around two o r th ree
m inutes, on how to design and app ly f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics, th e group I
was teaching q u ick ly suggested the fo llow ing idea:
P-ei leans
F-ind
V-lndaloo
C -u rry
A -w fu ily
S -a tis fy in g
A fte r a maximum o f one o r two m inutes o f rehearsing the mnemonic, the
top ic was le ft. The next week, I tested the group In form ally w ith a view
to fin d in g ou t how successful o r o therw ise the mnemonic had been. A fte r
a few moments o f recollection, almost 85% were able to recall the six
w ord-headings in co rrec t seria l o rde r! Such observations are supported
by the fin d in g s o f Senter and Hauser, (1968) bu t in sharp co n tra s t to a
s tu d y by Perewiznyk and B lick, (1978) where E-generated f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonics, p rev ious ly iden tified as su p e rio r to those generated by
sub jects , (e.g.. Pines and B iick, 1974) performed poorly even aga inst a
s im p le -repe tltion con tro l. F u rth e r, ch ild ren In my C.D.T. group who were
in ita lly unsuccessful in reca lling a ll o f the words in co rre c t seria l
o rd e r, la te r e ith e r recalled the i is t c o rre c tly , o r, by minimal
prom pting th rough the mnemonic, recalled to c r ite r io n [8 ]! I t is worth
s tress ing th a t mnemonics do not teach the meaning o f words b u t they do
help organise and s tru c tu re to -be -iea rned material in such a way as to
make i t almost un fo rge ttab le , (see resu lts o f th is s tudy and
co llabora tive work, e.g., Cox, 1991).
8 Complete competence
164
Such encouraging observations b rin g in to question the host o f
negative f in d in g s related to the mnemonic, w h ils t also suggesting , th a t
i t m ight be p ru de n t to add an additional ca tegory to mnemonising
procedures, th a t o f group-genera ted mnemonics. Undoubtedly, mnemonics
conceived in th is way, w ill re ly upon the in p u t o f a few (more
academicaiiy able?) members o f the c lass/g roup . I have found th is does
not necessarily de trac t from a common fee ling o f ownership. C learly,
th is is a po in t th a t needs to be explored using more s c ie n tif ic
methodology.
165
SUMMARY OR SECTION 5
This begins w ith a descrip tion Id e n tify in g the choice o f approach used
in th is s tudy . Th is is followed by d iscussion related to the
methodology employed and an analysis o f the experimental m aterials
used.
Next, the main p ilo t experim ent and th e subsequent m odifications
th a t were implemented p r io r to th e main experim ents are described and
reviewed.
166
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:
In the in te re s t o f b re v ity , references in th is section w iii be lim ited to those which are e ith e r fe it app rop ria te o r which su p po rt evidence which does not appear elsewhere in th is s tudy.
The inform ation presented in th is s tu dy was obtained th ro u gh :
a) T h ir ty ind iv idua i experiments, each designed to compare the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, w ith un ins truc ted and ins truc ted ro te -le a rn ing conditions. Performance d iffe rences between two age-groups were also assessed in each o f the th ree experimental conditions.
b) A su rvey o f teaching s ta ff from random iy-assigned secondary schools w ith in the a u th o rity .
c) A su rve y reiated to the ind iv idua l learn ing methods o f each ch ild in the s tudy .
d) Seiective in te rv iew s w ith ch iid ren fromexperim enta l-cond itions In both yea r-g roups.
167
GENERAL PREPARATION FOR THE EXPERIMENTS:
1) In te rv ie w w ith Northam ptonshire Education A u th o r ity ’s Senior Education O fficer, requesting permission to undertake research and d is tr ib u te questionna ires to secondary schoois. Approval received.
2) Headmaster and sen io r management o f the study-schoo l approached th ree months p r io r to the experiments. S upport and approva l obtained.
3) R egistra tion teachers informed (inform ai discussion and w ritte n no tifica tion ) tw o months in advance o f commencing the experim ents, ( inc lud ing p ilo t) and again reminded th re e days p r io r to the p ilo t. W ritten rem inders were ai so piaced in re g is te rs on the morning o f the p ilo t and also o f each experim ent. This was subsequently re in forced by a verbai rem inder as respective s ta ff moved to re g is te r th e ir forms.
4) Experim ent room (school cinema) booked fo r the p ro jected period o f the experiments, ( inc lud ing p ilo t) as were all a ud io /v isua l aids th a t were requ ired .
5) Recorded inform ation and in s tru c tio n s fo r p ilo t and each subsequent experiment, p re -tes ted in experim ent room, p r io r to each experiment, to ensure reproduction q u a lity and experim ent-room c la r ity .
6) The prepara tion fo r the p iio t and all subsequent experiments inciuded a rran g ing seating as near to externai examination requirem ents as was practicab ie. Each su b je c t’s place wasp rov ided w ith a w ork-board and also, the learn ing sheetsappro p ria te fo r the experim ent ta k ing place. Maximum to ta ls were catered fo r and additional w rit in g equipment made avaiiable.
7) D uring the p ilo t experiment, and also subsequent In itia lexperim ents, a video-camera was used to record events. Thiswas used to e iic it unforeseen fa u lts in experimental design and adm in is tra tion w ith a view to re -app ra is ing the experimental approach where appropria te . A technic ian was avaiiable to record events.
8) Three s tuden ts were available d u rin g the p repara tion and adm in is tra tion o f each experiment. The ir assistance was inva luab ie . th e ir tasks included:
a) A ss is ting in s e ttin g -u p the experim ent room on each morning th e re was to be an experiment.
b) Checking th a t respective ch iid ren had, o r were in the process o f leaving fo r each o f the th i r ty experiments
c) Coliecting and issuing re ievan t iearn ing o r answ ering - sheets d u ring each experiment.
168
9) All research materials designed and tested p r io r to each aspect o f empirical work. These materials included:
a) The s ta ff questionna ire - c ircu la ted to 6 schools
b) Learning and answering sheets produced in sequence fo r each o f the th i r ty experiments.
c) The audio-tapes used in each experiment.
THE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
An applied experimental s tu d y was chosen as the main source o f
inform ation fo r the fo liow ing reasons:
1) S tudies addressing issues reiated to f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics have so fa r been conducted in a rtif ic ia l se ttings and w ith a narrow range o f sub jects , ty p ic a lly , college students. The mixed and confused fin d in g s o f these stud ies, have tended to d isc re d it f i r s t - ie t te r mnemonics as an aide-memoire, despite th e ir known po pu la rity amongst learners, (e.g., G runeberg, 1973). C learly the re is a need to explore the mnemonic’s e fficacy in more re gu la r learn ing s itua tions w ith d if fe re n t age-groups and w ith normal learn ing materials.
2) Common sense suggests th a t f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics are used in schoois, a lbe it on an informal basis and at the d iscre tion o f the teacher. L itt le is known about the e fficacy o f the mnemonic when i t is used w ith ch ild ren o r w hether o lde r ch ild ren are more adept a t using the mnemonic than younger ch ild ren . This typ e o f comparison suggested an experimental design which would allow comparisons to be made between ch ild ren o f d if fe re n t ages. F u rth e r, te s ting the e fficacy o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic in isolation o f a lte rna tive learn ing methods, seemed in its e lf somewhat a r t if ic ia l, as comparisons o f performance could not be made. These considerations are pursued fu r th e r below, (see "age o f su b jec ts ").
3) Psychologists have repeatedly requested th a t research is more d ire c tly related to real learn ing s itua tions, using actual c u rr ic u la r material, in a regu la r context. Attempts to sa tis fy these requests, o ften re qu ire researchers to compromise between meeting the requirem ents o f sc ien tific o b je c tiv ity , w h ils t a ttem pting to preserve the essential fea tu res o f the te s tin g context. As In most, i f not in ail applied stud ies, th is has been the case here.
169
4) For s c ie n tif ic reasons, i t was decided to standard ise the form at o f each experiment. This was c lea rly a compromise between experim ent and the ch ild re n ’s regu la r learn ing environm ent as d u rin g normal lea rn ing , ch ild ren encounter a va rie ty o f teaching s ty les and types o f presenta tion, (e.g., see the Oracle P ro ject, Leicester U n ive rs ity ). Whereas few teachers are like ly to p re sen t learn ing material, o r te s t th e ir c h ild re n ’s learn ing using an audio tape, th is method o f presentation o ffe red the most consis ten t ob jec tive and re liab le means o f communicating Inform ation to the ch ild ren . Not all o f the inform ation couid be communicated to the ch ild ren via an audio recorder. That which couid not, was de livered verbatim v ia p re -p repa red sc rip ts , each c a re fu liy matched fo r in te r -s c r lp t form at, consistency, and length.
AGE OF SUBJECTS
Research related to learn ing s tra teg ies in générai and to the use o f
mnemonics in p a rticu la r, has h igh ligh ted age-re iated performance
d iffe rences, (discussed in the section marked "metamemory" o f th is
s tudy , pp.69-74). Three main fea tu res have been iden tified :
1) There is a d ire c t re la tionsh ip between s tra te g y -u se and cogn itive m aturation. This re la tionsh ip is prom inent between pre and post adolescent ch ild ren bu t has been observed In the years approaching adolescence.
2) Younger ch ild ren have an undeveloped re p e rto ry o f learn ing s tra teg ies, are less p lan fu l and de libera te In matching learn ing needs w ith approp ria te stra teg ies.
3) Young ch ild ren can be successfu lly in s tru c te d In the use o f learn ing s tra teg ies and mnemonics w ith beneficial e ffec ts upon learn ing. Learning benefits o f two k inds have been demonstrated:
a) Learning performance th a t is su p e rio r to th a t o f ro te o r un ins tru c ted learners at immediate re - te s t [1]
b) Learning performance th a t is su p e rio r to th a t o f ro te o r un ins tru c ted learners at delayed re -te s t, [2 ].
1 A te s t conducted ve ry soon a fte r in itia l learn ing has taken place.2 Typ ica lly around seven days (va riab le ) a fte r learn ing the in itia l in form ation.
170
Using ch ild ren as sub jects , ce rta in mnemonic form s have now been
extensive ly and successfu lly stud ied in a wide range o f learn ing
contexts, in p a rticu la r, learn ing using the keyw ord mnemonic.
Im pressive resu lts , obtained in a rt if ic ia l se ttings , have more
recen tly given way to a number o f s tud ies applied to more reg u la r
learn ing s itua tions. These, too, have replicated the resu lts o f
e a rlie r f in d in g s leading to a search fo r fu r th e r applications o f the
mnemonic.
O ther popu lar mnemonics have also been stud ied in labo ra to ry
se ttin g s w ith confusing and co n flic tin g resu lts . In p a rticu la r, the
favoured learn ing method o f examination candidates, the f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonic, was found to be an unre liab le and poor learn ing fa c ilita to r
in some stud ies, w h ils t p rov ing e ffec tive in o thers.
There is l it t le evidence re la ting to how the mnemonic can benefit
ch ild ren in the ci ass room, using regu la r learn ing material - a
fam ilia r se tting fo r the mnemonic. F u rth e r, i t Is not known If
m aturation a ffec ts how the mnemonic is used, o r w hether i t has a
bearing upon its effectiveness. A dd itiona lly , i t Is not known i f
ch ild re n can be successfu lly ta u g h t to use f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics in
con junction w ith re gu la r learn ing material, o r how e ffec tive the
mnemonic is in promoting the long-te rm re ten tion o f th is material.
171
To illum inate these areas o f u n ce rta in ty , i t was decided to
invo lve two ye a r-g ro ups in the s tudy . The rationale behind the choice
o f years was as follows:
I t was p re fe rab le to ta rg e t f ir s t -y e a r ch ild ren as one o f the s tudy
groups fo r the fo llow ing reasons:
a) They o ffe red the youngest sample available w ith which to make m aturational/developm ental comparisons.
b) I f the re were to be any e ffec t on subsequent schooling as a re su it o f th is s tud y , damage o ccu rrin g in the f i r s t year m ight be less traum atic.
c) Whereas the second year were Involved in residentia l a c tiv it ie s d u rin g the course o f the experiments, (making them unavailable fo r variab le periods o f time) the f i r s t year were not.
P rov id ing an additional yea r-g roup w ith which to make maturational
comparisons o f the mnemonic’s perform ance was found to be d if f ic u lt
fo r both moral and practica l reasons.
D uring the re la tive ly extensive period in which i t was proposed
to conduct the research, (nearly th ree months) s tuden ts in the f i f th
ye a r were ac tive ly p reparing fo r external examinations. This
e ffe c tive ly precluded them as potential experimental candidates. For
sim ila r reasons, fo u r th -y e a r s tuden ts were omitted from the s tudy as
i t is a v ita l p re pa ra to ry year fo r the f i f th -y e a r external
examinations. A dd itiona lly , several schemes [3 ] are provided fo r the
fo u r th -y e a r s tuden ts a t around the time the research was ta rg e tte d . To
include th is yea r-g roup would have resu lted in a number o f awkward
adm in is tra tive complications rendering the tim ing and organ isation o f
the proposed experimental design im practicable. This le ft the
p o ss ib ility o f using second and th ird -y e a rs , as potential ta rge ts .
3 For example, "Work experience" and "Enhancement Week".
172
The second-years were e ffe c tive ly precluded because they were all
invo lved in res identia l-experience d u rin g the time the school had
granted permission fo r the unde rtak ing o f the research. Fortunate ly ,
th ird -y e a r s tuden ts were found to be unaffected by any forseeable
constra in ts .
ALLOCATION OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
The natura l d iv is ion between ail f i r s t and th ird -y e a r pup ils in to one
o f th ree school "houses", (th ree to each year) p rovided a convenient
dichotomy o f each yea r-g roup supp ly ing th ree matched groups.
Because o f tim etab ling and o th e r adm in is tra tive d iffe rences, i t
was decided to maintain the th ree groups in tact. One o f the groups
would p rov ide the mnemonic condition , w h ils t ch ild ren In the o the r two
groups could be assigned to com parative learn ing conditions.
There is a sc ie n tif ic tra d itio n amongst applied psychologists to
compare an experimental learn ing (s tra te g y ) condition w ith ch iid ren
who are asked to learn in th e ir reg u la r manner. This p rov ides an
ob je c tive ya rd s tick w ith which to compare the e fficacy o r o therw ise o f
the s tra tegy . C hildren in both years com prising these groups were
called "con tro l g roup ", and were un ins truc ted about how to learn
material th ro u gh o u t the experiments.
I t is known th a t h ighe r ach ievers and o lder ch ild ren adopt more
sophisticated stra teg ies, whereas less able and younger ch ild ren tend
to re ly upon the de libera te repe tition o f m ateriai to fa c ilita te
lea rn ing , (see pp.61-64 o f th is s tud y). But ro te -lea rn in g has been
shown to be a more e ffec tive learn ing mediator than a read, o r hear-
and-lea rn approach aione, especiaiiy w ith younger ch iid ren who have,
as yet, undeveloped and uns tra te g ic mnemonic capab ility . Because o f
its proven fa c ilita tiv e e ffec t on iearn ing , (see rehearsal, pp.64-68
173
o f th is s tu d y ) an ins tru c te d ro te -lea rn ing condition in both ye a r-
9 roups was incorporated in to the experimental design.
Having established the na tu re o f the a lte rna tive learn ing
conditions, a decision had to be made about /?ow the th ree school
houses in each ye a r-g roup m ight be allocated to p a rticu la r
experim enta l-cond itions. F u rth e r, i t was unclear i f each o f the th ree
houses was acceptably matched.
Although the school made extensive e ffo r ts to balance the th ree
houses accurate ly fo r ap titude, th is was no guarantee o f balanced
perform ance o f the th ree houses on memory and recall tasks.
In a series o f s ix independent experiments, ( la te r re fe rred to as
the "matching experim ent", experim ent 1) tes ts were made to determ ine
the com parab ility o f the th ree groups on a sh o rt-te rm memory task. The
th ree groups in each year, were asked to learn inform ation re la ting to
a p ractica l rea l-w orld s itua tion . Had the re emerged s ta tis tica lly
unacceptable in tra -y e a r [4 ] group lea rn lng-perfo rm ance d iffe rences,
the composition o f the various groups would have had to be reviewed.
In the event, in tra -y e a r d iffe rences were found to be acceptable, (see
resu lts fo r Experiment 1).
I t was fu r th e r decided to assign the group w ith the poorest score
in each ye a r-g roup to the experimental ( f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic)
condition . This would have the e ffec t o f making any advantage o f
mnemonic in s tru c tio n more pronounced.
4 D ifferences between g roups in each year.
174
The composition o f the experimental groups was as follows:
CONTROL - (subsequently re fe rred to as "C .-g rou p ","co n tro l-g ro u p " o r "u n in s tru c te d -le a rn e rs ").
REPRESENTED BY ONE THIRD OF ALL FIRST AND THIRD-YEAR CHILDREN, RANDOMLY SELECTED.
ROTE - (subsequently re fe rred to as "R .-g ro up "," ro te -g roup" o r "rote-1 earners").
REPRESENTED BY ONE THIRD OF ALL FIRST AND THIRD-YEAR CHILDREN, RANDOMLY SELECTED.
EXPERIMENT - (subsequently re fe rre d to as "E .-g ro u p ", "experim en t-g roup" o r "mnemonic g roup ").
REPRESENTED BY ONE THIRD OF ALL FIRST AND THIRD-YEAR CHILDREN, RANDOMLY SELECTED.
PILOT EXPERIMENTS
Although the experimental fram ework (e.g., experim ent v contro l v
ro te ) provides an established and accepted experimental research
s tru c tu re , the p a rtic u la r form at o f Ind iv idua l experim ents was closely
reviewed.
In an e ffo r t to obtain a consisten t approach th ro u g h o u t the
experiments, i t was decided:
1) To use real c u rr ic u la r material where applicable
2) To minimise the number o f independent variab les
3) To adopt an experim ent form at which was consistent
175
Because each o f the experiments had s im ila r s tru c tu re bu t d if fe re n t
content, i t was decided to focus upon developing a p ractica l and
func tiona l experimental design. This was p rim a rily achieved th rough a
fu ll-s ca le p ilo t s tudy , using ch ild ren unrelated to the main s tudy ,
(second-year ch ild ren ). The p ilo t re flected the fo llow ing aspects o f
the main experim ent form at:
1) A dm in is tra tive procedures requ ired to Inform and obta in approp ria te ch ild ren
2) T im e-of-day
3) Learning procedure, (v ia audio-tape)
4) Answering procedure, (v ia audio-tape)
5) Experiment presentation
5) Group size
6) Id e n tity o f experim enter
Following the main p ilo t, various adm in is tra tive and methodological
components were reviewed and modified. F u rth e r, p r io r to each o f the
experim ents, (e igh t designs in a ll) a small group o f ch ild ren ,
( ty p ic a lly tw e lve ) unconnected w ith the main experiments, pa rtic ipa ted
in ind iv idu a l p ilo ts to ensure:
a) A u d io -ta p e -c la rity and co n tin u ity
b) The appropria teness o f learn ing and answer-sheets,(and questionnaires where re levan t)
c) The tim ing o f both learn ing and answering aspects o f each experim ent
Both the main p ilo t, p r io r to experim ent 1, and subsequent p ilo ts,
ty p ic a lly comprised second-year ch ild ren , (mean between the two
ta rg e t-y e a r-g ro u p s ).
176
Because all the main experiments were linked in some way, (e.g.,
te s ting the long-te rm e ffects o f learn ing methods, using p rev ious ly
learned material w ith ch ild ren fam ilia r w ith th a t m ateria l), the
s ta tis tica l re s u lt o f each p ilo t was not p a rtic u la r ly re levant.
A lthough all p ilo t resu lts are available, they are not reported here.
A fu ll descrip tion o f the main p ilo t, inc lud ing discussion of
resu lts , can be found under the heading o f "P ilo t fo r Experiment 1 ",
p p .179-187 o f th is s tudy.
THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR THE MAIN EXPERIMENTS
Psychologists have repeatedly requested th a t applied experiments
should be as "rea l" as possible, re fle c ting as accurate ly as Is
p racticab le the context, circum stances and materials used d u ring
regu la r learn ing , (e.g., see Richardson, 1980). In a recent review o f
verbal mnemonics, McLaughlin Cook, (1989) urges th a t "....labo ra to ry
f in d in g s " should be "tested more system atically against the needs o f
re a l- life learn ing s itua tions ."
Various attem pts were made to comply w ith these requests.
A lthough i t could be argued th a t the experiments should have been
conducted by an experim enter unknown to the ch ild ren , th is would have
been un rep resenta tive o f real classroom practice. F u rth e r, i f the main
argum ent against someone fam ilia r adm in iste ring the experiments is
th a t a "h a w th o rn -e ffe c t" [5 ] is created, given the form at o f these
experiments, i t is d if f ic u lt to see how the e ffe c t can be applied to
any one group more than others. A va lid c ritic ism th a t m ight be
applied to th is s tudy , is th a t an experim enter known to the ch ild ren
m ight generate a haw tho rn -e ffec t th ro u g h o u t samples, making a
rep lica tion o f the s tudy d if f ic u lt .
5 e.g., where an experim enter’s in te rven tion stim ulates un representa tive o r a r tif ic ia l performance.
177
In o rd e r to achieve empirical research in n a tu ra lis tic se ttings ,
th is type o f ’sa c rifice ’ has to be accommodated.
Even i f in te r-scho o l comparisons are inva lidated by the
procedures adopted here, / f the expérimentai design th a t has been
adopted is considered both a re liab le and va lid in tra -g ro u p [6 ] and
in te r-g ro u p [7 ] measure and performance ind ica to r, the re is s t i l l a
s trong ju s tif ic a tio n fo r th is s tudy.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
In seiecting learn ing material fo r th is s tudy , one o f the main aims
was to align the experimental learn ing as closely as possible w ith
sub ject-m ate ria l th a t would normally be covered in each y e a r-g ro u p ’s
syllabus. To th is end, the sy llabus o f both f i r s t and th ird -y e a r
ch ild ren was scru tin ised w ith a view to ex trac ting material
fu l l f i l l in g the fo llow ing requirem ents:
1) The learn ing material had to be in the form o f a l is t o f items. This is the typ e o f material which ty p ic a lly favou rs learn ing using the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
2) L is ts between six and n ine-item sets o r sub-se ts were given p r io r ity . The w r ite r has found th a t a nine- item lis t Is the optimum length fo r learn ing using f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics.
3) The learn ing m ateriai had to comprise an im portant con s tituen t o f a su b je c t’s knowledge-base, e.g., a set o f material which, once learned, perm itted the ch ild to make more Informed and accurate comprehensive judgem ents, analysis and syn thesis re la ting to the sub ject-a rea .
4) Both yea r-g roups should fin d the learn ing material un fam iliar.
6 Comparisons made between the experimental g roups o f th is and o the r studies.7 Comparisons made between each o f the experimental g roups com prising th is s tudy.
178
"A r t if ic ia l" learn ing-m ateria l was de libe ra te ly avoided, as th is m ight
be a fa c to r co n tr ib u tin g to the mnemonic’s poor perform ance in
labora to ry studies.
Research has repeatedly demonstrated th a t meaning and the
relevance o f learn ing-m ateria l p lays an im portan t role in successful
learn ing . Using regu la r, factual c u rr ic u la r material which the
ch ild re n would normally be requ ired to learn, would hope fu lly p rov ide
th is o p p o rtu n ity .
The s ta ff-s u rv e y completed by s ta ff in secondary schools, (see
" S ta ff su rve y " in th is s tudy , pp.293-325) also suggested th a t item -
leng ths w ith in th is specific range were typ ica l o f the more popular
mnemonics. I t seemed reasonable to te s t items o f th is leng th ra th e r
than material o f an a rb it ra ry length.
PILOT STUDIES
Because each experim ent in the main s tud y was l in ked In some way, the
s ta tis tic s associated w ith ind iv idua l p ilo ts in isolation, are not
re levant, and are the re fo re un reported.
179
PILOT FOR EXPERIMENT 1
The sample comprised o f fo r ty - tw o , randomly assigned second-year
s tudents; sixteen g ir ls and tw e n ty -s ix boys (mean age, c. tw e lve
years).
METHOD:
Subjects were un brie fed about the na tu re o f the experiment. Upon
a rr iv a l, they were seated, as fa r as practicable, according to
examination requirem ents. Before s ta rtin g the p re -reco rded tape
conta in ing the d irections, inform ation and questions com prising the
experiment, the ch ild ren were informed th a t th e ir performance "no
m atter how good o r poor" would not a ffec t th e ir school-career.
Sub jects were requested to lis ten to the tape which would p rov ide
them w ith all the inform ation necessary to proceed w ith the minimum o f
fu r th e r ’ live ’ in s tru c tion .
START TAPE:
"In f ro n t o f you, the re is a card. Turn i t ove r now. On the card the re
is a s to ry , which I am going to read th ro u gh tw ice. A fte r I have read
the s to ry th rough tw ice, you w ill be asked to answer some questions
about the s to ry when you can no longer see the card. When I have
fin ished reading the s to ry , you will have a fu r th e r two m inutes to
read the s to ry th rough q u ie tly to yo u rse lf" .
FIVE SECOND PAUSE......
(All scoring -item s appear in ita lics )
180
"On the n ig h t o f Monday, January 16th, a robbery took place a t the
M idland Bank in Barton. E a rlie r in the evening, two men had been seen
ou ts ide the bank. One was ta il and about th i r ty years old, the o ther,
a sm aller man in his ea riy twenties. The ta ll man was wearing i ig h t -
coioured, red check tro u se rs and a navy blue overcoat. The smaller man
was th o u g h t to be wearing a grey ra incoa t and a yellow hat.
A t around 7-20pm, they were seen ru n n in g from the bank tow ards a
green Ford Cortina. The number o f the ca r Is believed to be QMS 629A.
The car sped o ff in the d irec tion o f Hecton Road and was la te r found
abandoned at Minster. I f you saw an y th ing suspicious you rse lf, you are
asked to contact the local police, phone number: Barton 57883'
FIVE SECOND PAUSE.
S tory read th rou gh again followed by two m inutes o f s ile n t
reading.
C hild ren prompted: "You now have two m inutes to read the s to ry th ro ugh
q u ie tly on you r own".
SIREN SIGNALS TIME-UP
"L ive " in s tru c tio n : "T u rn you r s to ry cards ove r now".
QUESTION SHEETS ISSUED TO EACH SUBJECT, FACE-DOWN.
RE-START TAPE........
181
"You have been given a sheet o f paper, tu rn i t over now. On the sheet
there are some questions which I want you to answer. I will read each
question through twice and give you an extra ten seconds answering
time, a fte r I have fin ished reading each question. But you can answer
the questions whenever you like".
182
PILOT QUESTIONS:
"Question one,On what day o f the week did the robbery take place?
Question two.In what month did the robbery take pi ace?
Question th ree .On what date did the robbery take place?
Question fo u r.What was the name o f the bank th a t was robbed?
Question five .In what town did the robbery take pi ace?
Question six.About how old was the ta ll man?
Question seven.About how old was the smaller man?
Question e igh t.What s o rt o f tro u se rs was the ta ll man wearing?
Question nine.What co lour was the ta ll man’s coat?
Question ten.What was grey th a t the smaller man was wearing?
Question eleven.What co lour was the smaller man’s hat?
Question tw elve.At around what time were they seen runn ing from the bank?
Question th irte e n .What co lour was th e ir getaway car?
Question fou rteen .What p a rtic u la r make was th e ir getaway car?
Question fifte e n .What was the number o f th e ir getaway car?
Question sixteen.The car sped o ff In the d irec tion o f which road?
Question seventeen.Where was the car found abandoned?
Question eighteen.What phone number are you asked to r ing? "
183
"PLEASE STOP WRITING NOW'
CHILDREN THANKED ’ LIVE’.
EXPERIMENT 1, PILOT RESULTS:
GENDER SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 26 452 17.384 4.089
_ 1
GIRLS 16 274 17.125
1
2.778
1
ALL 42 726 17.285
1
2.597
_____i
The maximum score possible was 22. Scores were d is tr ib u te d as follows:
FULL SAMPLE BOYS GIRLS
2 22 2 ® 22
4 @ 21 1 @ 21 3 @ 21
1 ® 20 1 ® 20
7 19 4 ® 19 3 ® 19
9 18 7 @ 18 2 @ 18
3 ® 17 3 ® 17
5 ® 16 1 @ 16 4 @ 16
1 15 1 @ 15
7 @ 14 5 ® 14 2 @ 14
3 @ 13 1 ® 13 2 @ 13
184
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
NEGATIVE FINDINGS
1) Despite substantia l e ffo r ts to ensure sub jec ts would a r r iv e at the prescribed venue and time, some a rrive d ten m inutes late, delaying the experiment. Some sub jec ts (who never did a rr iv e !) were sent to the wrong location.
2) In e v ita b ly the p ilo t overran . This resu lted in lesson -s ta rt noise outside the experim ent room which was unsa tis fac to ry .
3) I t was necessary to apologise to some fo rg iv in g s ta ff fo r the inconvenience the ove rru n m ight have caused.
4) In view o f the somewhat high mean score, resu lting In a ’ce iling e ffe c t’ [8] a second recorded reading o f the s to rywas th o u g h t unnecessary. (NB. Two readings o f the s to ry were incorporated in to the p ilo t in o rd e r to accommodate ch ild ren who m ight o therw ise be penalised on the te s t due to th e ir poor reading a b ility ).
POSITIVE FINDINGS
1) A fte r the un fo rtuna te late s ta rt, the experim ent proceeded according to plan.
2) All technical equipment functioned as hoped and the co n tin u ity o f the p re -recorded tape was appropria te .
3) The mean fo r groups in each year was high, suggesting th a t the comprehension o f audio-tape content was adequate. F u rth e r, sub jec ts were able to respond to audio-tape co n tin u ity .
8 A s itua tion where the overall score is so high, th a t i t fa ils to d iscrim inate between conditions o f learn ing o r performance, e.g., everyone does well.
185
In add ition to the m odifications described above, the fo llow ing changes were also made:
1) Two m inutes o f s ile n t reading seemed unnecessary as many o f the sub jec ts were dem onstrating s igns o f task-com pletion a fte r the f i r s t m inute. One m inute o f s ile n t reading was subsequently allocated in experim ent 1.
2) The term " lig h t-co lo u re d " was considered unnecessarily ambiguous and was replaced by "red check".
4) Two types o f "coat" are mentioned In the s c r ip t. This is avoidable. One was replaced by " ja cke t".
5) The two names "B arton" and "Hecton" are phonetica lly s im ila r and m ight be confused. This is avoidable. "Hecton Road" was the re fo re replaced by "Highway Road".
6) Some ch ild ren o ffe red one-word answers to those items which requ ired two. This could have been a re su lt o f fo rg e ttin g , bu t m ight be because sub jec ts th o u g h t th a t on ly one response was necessary. In view o f th is , s p lit answ er-lines w ili be provided fo r questions fou rteen and fiftee n .
7) Question 14, asked "What p a rtic u la r make was th e ir getaway car"? I t seems reasonable to answer "F o rd ". For th is reason, the s p lit- l in e answer was coupled w ith the modified question: "What type o f car was th e ir getaway car"? to prom pt the requ ired response: "Ford C ortina".
OTHER CHANGES
1) I t was necessary to design no tifica tion s lips to remind s ta ff to send s tuden ts to the experim ent room.
2) At least two o th e r assistants (to ta l th ree ) were requ ired to help assemble the fu rn itu re and assist d u rin g the experiments. These were la te r to prove inva luab le in chasing up fo rg e tfu l teachers.
REVISED STORY (Scoring items appear in ita lics ) POSSIBLE SCORE = 22
186
AMENDED STORY READS
"On the n ig h t o f Monday, January 16th, a robbery took place a t the
M idland Bank in Barton. E a rlie r in the evening, tw o men had been seen
ou ts ide the bank. One was ta ll and about th i r ty yea rs old, the o the r,
a smaller man In his ea riy twenties. The ta ll man was wearing re d
check tro u se rs and a navy b lue jacke t. The smaller man was th o u g h t to
be wearing a grey ra incoa t and a yellow hat.
At around 7-20pm, they were seen ru nn in g from the bank tow ards a
green Ford Cortina. The number o f the ca r is believed to be QMS 629A.
The car sped o ff in the d irec tion o f Highway Road and was la te r found
abandoned at Minster. I f you saw any th ing suspicious you rse lf, you are
asked to contact the local police, phone number: Barton 57883.
187
AMENDED QUESTIONS
"Question one,On what day of the week did the robbery take place?
Question two.In what month did the robbery take place?
Question three.On what date did the robbery take place?
Question four.What was the name of the bank tha t was robbed?
Question five,In what town did the robbery take place?
Question six.About how old was the ta lle r man?
Question seven.About how old was the smaller man?
Question eight.What so rt o f trousers was the ta lle r man wearing?
Question nine.What colour was the ta lle r man’s Jacket?
Question ten.What was grey tha t the smaller man was wearing?
Question eleven.What colour was the smaller man’s hat?
Question twelve.At around what time were they seen running from the bank?
Question th irteen .What colour was th e ir getaway car?
Question fourteen.What type o f car was th e ir getaway car?
Question fifteen .What was the getaway car’s reg is tra tion number?
Question sixteen.The car sped o ff in the direction o f which road?
Question seventeen.Where was the car found abandoned?
Question eighteen.What phone number are you asked to ring?"
188
PREPARATION FOR MAIN EXPERIMENTS
1) School’s senior management consulted about the experiments. Approval received.
2) Registration teachers approached to obtain approval to release ch ildren during reg istra tion period. Approval received.
3) Experiment dates circulated to reg istra tion teachers and other appropria te s ta ff.
4) Tape with experiment content pre-tested in p ilo t experiment together with experiment materials.
5) Registration teachers reminded to send appropriate sub jects to experiment room before reg is tra tion on the day o f each experiment.
6) Reminder-slips placed in reg istra tion teachers’ reg isters on the day o f each experiment.
7) Three ’ runners ’ available fo r v is itin g reg istra tion rooms to check appropriate subjects had le ft fo r the experiment on time.
8) Seating and experiment material organised in the experiment room p rio r to the experiment.
EXPERIMENT 1 (matching experiment, ta rge t-yea rs : 1 and 3) Methodology and rationale discussed above.
EXPERIMENT 2 (planets, ta rge t-yea r: 1)
Material to be mnemonlsed: Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jup ite r, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.
This material forms pa rt o f the f irs t-y e a r Geography syllabus.
Mnemonising th is material proved d iff ic u lt. I t was thought th a t the
names of each o f the planets m ight be fam iliar to the ch ildren. I f the
names were already known, a f ir s t - le t te r mnemonic would provide the
appropria te cues fo r the ch ildren to place the names o f the planets In
the correct order.
189
Among the options considered was a simple f ir s t - le t te r mnemonic
which employed the f i r s t le tte r o f each planet-name. This idea was
rejected. Whereas such a mnemonic would be easy to construct, i f the
learning material was to re flect real classroom practice, the Sun
would normally appear in any diagrammatic learning material, [9].
Such an Inclusion m ight present problems fo r the mnemonically
instructed sampie, as It is known th a t f ir s t - le t te r cueing is confused
when one cue -le tte r is shared by more than one learning item. A simple
f ir s t- le t te r mnemonic would there fore be inappropria te fo r th is
material, as both the Sun and Saturn, and Mercury and Mars, share
identical f i r s t le tte rs. Because o f these problems, i t was decided to
construct an acrostic which would o ffe r the learner a t least the f i r s t
two le tte rs o f each word o f the learning-m aterial.
I t was fu r th e r thought tha t a rhym ing acrostic m ight be more
e ffective as the rhyme would help cue the la tte r pa rt o f a somewhat
long lis t of a rb itra ry o r inherently unrelated words, (Machida and
Carlson, 1984; also see Bower and Bolton, 1969).
9 e.g., see the learning sheet fo r experiment 2, in the "Appendix" of th is study.
190
MNEMONISING PROCEDURE
For b rev ity , th is is reported in some detail here but a fu lle r
description can be found pp.345-356. Reference will be made to th is
procedure in subsequent experiments (where appropriate).
1) An item-bank of words was collected, a set fo r each le tte r being mnemonlsed.
2) From th is , e igh t words were extracted, one representing the Sun, the others, a planet each.
3) Given the orig inal b rie f tha t the mnemonic should embody at least the f i r s t two le tte rs o f each item comprising the learning material, and form a rhyme, a suitable mnemonic fo r Uranus and Pluto could not be Identified.
4) The e ffect o f th is mnemonic on the learning o f children unconnected with the experiments was encouraging. The w rite r had some doubts about the "UR" component o f the mnemonic, but when it was mentioned th a t th is is how one m ight w rite the term in a " lo ve -le tte r", "UR" was never again a problem.The term "p lu n k" was also a concern In tha t It Is known tha t meaningful material is generally more readilly learned than material lacking in meaning. I t was stressed tha t "p lunk" was ju s t a " fu n " word which rhymed with " ju n k ". The point was readily accepted by the ch ildren.
5) The outcome o f th is a c tiv ity was the sentence: "Six M er-ry Ve-getables Ea-ting Mars Ju -nk , Satur-day UR Ne-ver P lu -nk".
The acrostic actually extended beyond the orig inal des ign-b rie f, by
cueing three le tte rs o f two planets, (M ercury and Pluto) fo u r and five
in the cases o f Mars and Saturn respectively.
EXPERIMENT 3 (Design-process, ta rge t-yea r: 3)
Material to be mnemonlsed. S ituation, Brief, Investigation ,
Solutions, Best-soiution, Model, W orking-draw ing, Realisation,
Appraisal.
This material forms pa rt o f the th ird -y e a r Technology syllabus.
191
Much has been w ritten about the e ffect tha t the orig ination o r
ownership o f mnemonic material has on the recall o f adults, (e.g., see
e ither "F irs t- le tte r mnemonics" o r "The keyword mnemonic" In th is
study, pp. 144-157, and 127-135 respectively.
L ittle is known about orig ination effects connected with f i r s t -
le tte r mnemonics, especially in the classroom context, with ch ild -
Iearners. In te res t in how ch ildren respond to mnemonising requests has
been expressed fo r some time, (e.g., Rohwer, 1966; L ieury, 1980) with
requests tha t ""....future research could attempt to ascertain how much
tra in in g is needed to construct mnemonics of various types'".
(McLaughlin Cook, 1989). This s tudy o ffe rs no formal evidence
addressing the issue o f tra in in g , but researchers in the fie ld of
verbal mnemonics, and especially tha t o f acrostics, m ight be
encouraged by the follow ing Information.
BACKGROUND
On numerous occasions, w ith d iffe re n t learning materials, and groups
o f d iffe re n t ages, the w rite r has encouraged groups o f ch ildren to
design th e ir own f ir s t- le t te r mnemonics, to assist specific learning
needs. This is a device typical o f those used to fac ilita te the
learning o f a rb itra ry facts, names o r lis ts, which need to be learned
as part o f a sub ject’s knowledge-base.
The acrostic used in th is experiment was the response o f a th ird -
year C.D.T. group, to the learning o f a lis t o f words describ ing "The
design process’". This lis t, provides ch ild ren with a sequential o rder
o f im portant stages through which designs are conceived, investigated,
made and evaluated. The a rb itra ry nature of th is material tended to
create natural d ifficu ltie s fo r ch ild ren. Once the meaning o f the
192
words describ ing the design process had been learned, ch ild ren often
had to be prompted considerably before they could recall even most o f
the items in the correct order.
Without the mnemonic, even the most able candidates were noted to
display d iff ic u lty in recalling more than three o r fo u r o f the Items
at informal immediate re -test. The performance of less able candidates
was normally poorer. In all ab ility -ranges, i t was noticed tha t
candidates found it problematic to recall the lis t in the co rrec t
o rde r - th is being the ob ject o f the lis t.
Two years previously, I asked a group to design a solution to the
problem. The group were fam iliar w ith the mechanics o f how to appiy
f ir s t- le t te r mnemonics. This was th e ir solution:
"S -tup id B r-ickies Inve-nted So-me B -ricks A/-ade IV-ith Re-6
A -sp irins ."
I t can be seen that, although the learning material contains two words
beginning with the le tte r "s", the students responded by incorporating
a second cue -le tte r in the fou rth mnemonic Item, "some". S im ilarly,
the word ’Ib rick ies" also provides f i r s t and second le tte r cues fo r the
word '^ r ie f " , thus reducing the poss ib ility o f confusing the learning
items, "b r ie f" and "best-so lu tion ," e.g.,
(s -itua tion ) (b r- ie f) (inve -s tiga tlon ) (so -lu tion ) (b -es t solution)(m-odel) (w -o rk in g -d rawing) (re -a ll sat ion)(a-ppra isal).
Despite these problems, in a matter o f two minutes o r so, the group
had learned how to associate the mnemonic w ith the learning material.
Serial recall at immediate (inform al) post-test was impressive. All
bu t one o f a group o f 16 could recall each lis t item in its co rrect
serial position. On an informal basis, the mnemonic also proved an
193
effective aid at one and three week in te rva ls, with learning at the
three-week stage, showing lit t le deterioration.
Children, in each of the three experimental conditions, had not
yet encountered the learning-m aterial du ring lessons. This presented
an opportun ity to make the learning phase of th is experiment as real
as practicable, thereby re flec ting the manner in which the material
m ight normally be taught.
The acrostic was also tested in a small-scale p ilo t using
ch ildren un associated with the study. These tests suggested the
acrostic was o f an appropriate design.
EXPERIMENT 4 (h istorica l periods, ta rge t-ye a r: 1)
Material to be mnemonlsed: Tudor, S tuart, Georgian, Regency,
V ictorian, Edwardian.
This material forms pa rt o f the f irs t-y e a r H istory syllabus.
Using the methods fo r constructing an acrostic described in experiment
2, a range of acrostics was considered. From a range o f possib ilities,
the chosen mnemonic was:
"T-en S-wans G-et R-ed V-ests E-asy".
The firs t-y e a rs had not yet covered the learning material as pa rt o f
th e ir h is to ry course, which was convenient. All subjects were aware
however, th a t various periods in h is to ry were given names such as the
Iron-age o r the Bronze-age. In th is sense, the learning material fo r
experiment 4 had context. Given th a t i t formed a fu tu re part o f the
f irs t-y e a r course, it also had purpose and meaningfulness.
194
The acrostic was tested using a small-scale pilo t, with ch ildren
unassociated with the study. These tests suggested the acrostic was of
an appropriate design.
EXPERIMENT 5 (assessment-scale, ta rge t-yea r: 3)
Material to be mnemonlsed Performance, Function,
Value-for-money, Construction, Aesthetics, Safety.
This material forms pa rt o f the th ird -y e a r, Craft, Design and
Technology syllabus.
I t was decided to use a group-generated acrostic, constructed by a
previous year’s th ird -y e a r group, o f which E .-group had no knowledge.
This pa rticu la r mnemonic had proved so successful when used
inform ally, tha t It seemed reasonable to tes t it under experimental
conditions.
The group who collective ly designed the mnemonic did so as a
response to awkwardness o f th is pa rticu la r learning-m aterial which
contains a rb itra ry information which must be remembered in se ria l-
o rder. Given the problem, it took the group only a minute o r so, to
design the memorable:
"P-elleans F-ind V-indaloo C -u rry A -w fu lly S -a tis fy ing "
The acrostic was tested using a small-scale p ilot, with ch ildren
un associated with the study. These tests also suggested the acrostic
was o f an appropriate design.
195
EXPERIMENT 6 (de livery company, ta rge t-yea rs : 1 and 3)
Material to be mnemonlsed: Bedford, Luton, Aylesbury, Oxford,
S tra tfo rd , Rugby.
Unlike other experiments in th is study, experiment 6 was not designed
to tes t e ither immediate o r long-term stra tegy effic iency. Experiments
2,3,4,5 and the 7-series were designed fo r th is purpose. This
experiment was designed to discover:
1) The exact learning method used by each child involved in the study.
2) Why ch ild ren, instructed to adopt a specific s tra tegy, failed to do so.
3) Whether mnemonically instructed ch ildren o f two age-groups (11.5 mode v 13.5 mode) would be able to spontaneously mnemonise novel learning material. I f so, would any differences in ab ility between the two age-groups be apparent?
To obtain th is information, two additional approaches were used: a
b rie f questionnaire which was completed by each child immediately
follow ing the recall phase, and selective fo llow -up interview s with
f i r s t and th ird -y e a r E.-groups.
Because experiment 6 was designed to e lic it the exact learning
method of each child , it was inappropria te to use standard c u rr ic u la r-
material. C urricu lar-m ateria l appropriate to one year-group would have
been inappropria te to another. I t was there fore decided to design
learning-m aterial which would have some relevance to ch ild ren o f both
age-groups, and sim ilar to tha t used successfully in the matching-
experiment ("Crimewatch" s to ry ; experiment 1).
Although the crimewatch material could have been re-worked to
provide a more fam iliar but new scenario, i t was decided th a t a fresh
learning task m ight be both more challenging and more stim ulating.
196
RATIONALE
Common sense suggests tha t ch ildren enjoy tak ing pa rt in ac tiv ities
which perm it them to display a degree o f responsib ility in th e ir
decision-making, (e.g., Doise, 1985) Teachers and parents note
evidence o f th is from an early age, but as ch ildren mature. It is
typ ica lly manifested In ro le-p laying activ ities, where the child seeks
to gain some understanding of life as an adult, (e.g., Grusec and
Abramovitch, 1982).
This situation was used in developing the learning material fo r
th is experiment.
LEARNING MATERIAL
In six separate experiments, all ch ildren were asked to imagine they
were d rive rs fo r a de livery company. The day's task was to make
deliveries to six places, but to conserve both fuel and time, the
deliveries were to be made in a specific order. Just in case the lis t
was lost, it was suggested tha t the o rder o f the place-names was
committed to memory.
Children in the uninstructed control group were asked to learn
the place-names in the way they fe lt best. The rote group were asked
to memorise the material th rough repetition and the mnemonic group
were asked to design th e ir own f ir s t - le t te r mnemonic.
Obscure places and those with sim ilar f i r s t le tte rs o r phonetic
s im ila rity were not considered. Attempts were made to ensure the route
designed was realistic, and linked the de livery towns and cities
together using the sho rtes t/fas tes t route.
197
Previous experiments had suggested tha t six-item lis t-lea rn ing
was normally completed in about one-and-a-quarte r minutes, [10]. This
amount of learning time was again used in th is experiment.
The choice of design fo r the pup il-questionna ire was largely
dictated by the time available as it was impracticable to move the
experiment to another day o r time. Given th a t experiment 6 was longer
than the other experiments, it was considered appropriate to ask
children in each of the three experimental conditions a maximum of
three questions. B rie f as the questionnaire was, i t provided essential
evidence of each ch ild ’s learning in each o f the conditions. A
detailed discussion re lating to format and resu lts o f the interview s,
can be found on pp.266-275 of th is study.
The material was tested using a small-scale p ilo t, with children
unassociated with the study. These suggested the material was o f an
appropriate design.
EXPERIMENTS IN THE 7 SERIES
In the fo u r experiments in th is series, the long-term retention o f
material learned in experiments 2,3,4 and 5 was tested.
I t was considered inappropria te to tes t the ch ild ren ’s retention
o f both the learning material, (e.g., names) and the material’s serial
order, given tha t in some cases e igh t weeks had expired between
learning and subsequent recall.
I t was there fore decided to adopt the policy th roughout
experiments in the 7-series, o f supp ly ing names o r terms o rig ina lly
learned, but in a random order.
10 e.g., the m ajority o f ch ildren in the un instructed control group had normally completed the learning task a fte r th is period.
198
This e ffective ly precluded comparisons o f long-term word recall
between the d iffe re n t learning conditions, w hilst emphasising any
effects related to se ria l-o rde r recall. Had ch ildren in each condition
been required to recall both the names and o rder o f the information
learned earlier, recall o f the un instructed and rote conditions would
have probably been around the level o f "chance", (e.g., see the
"resu lts " o f experiments in the 7 series).
The range o f possible a lternatives appeared at the head o f each
long-term recall answer sheet. The method o f organising these was as
follows:
1) Items occupying the same serial position as those du ring
orig inal learning were avoided.
2) Adjoin ing items form ing the orig inal learning material were
separated wherever possible.
LEARNING BETWEEN INITIAL LEARNING AND LONG-TERM RECALL
The interval separating learning and long-term recall varied between
experiments, but not between experimental groups. As te s t-re -te s t
in te rva ls were consistent, no group benefitted from time as a function
o f learning.
In an attempt to make learning as real as was practicable, at
each encounter between the experimenter and the groups, the material
learned on previous occasions was mentioned. Typically, th is took a
few seconds and was in the follow ing form:
199
Just before children in each condition were dismissed follow ing
an experiment, the experimenter wouid say: "Do you remember the
information you learned the last time we met? The children responded,
and information was prompted o r corrected as necessary. This a c tiv ity
was designed to re flect the amount o f time a teacher m ight spend in
ju s t checking tha t a concept o r lis t learned du ring the previous
week’s lesson was s till "a live". Great care was taken to d is tr ib u te
th is learning time fa ir ly , so tha t no condition received a
d isproportionate amount o f time.
A typ ica l example fo r one o f the E.-groups would be: "Do you
remember the information you learned the last time (or a named
previous time) we met? (Experimenter re inforces response). Do you
remember tha t lit t le s illy-sentence I taugh t you to help you remember
th is? (Children tended to spontaneously recite the appropriate f i r s t -
ie tte r mnemonic). Typical time taken, around th ir ty seconds.
The allocation o f answer time fo r each set of material was d is tribu ted
as a resu lt o f both ind ividual p ilo t studies and also, the knowledge
gleaned from earlie r experiments.
THE STAFF SURVEY
I t was fe lt more appropria te to discuss the methodology and rationale
o f the s ta ff survey along with the items chosen and the results. These
can be found in the section called "S ta ff su rvey" o f th is study,
pp.293-325.
200
SUMMARY OR SECTION G
The precise content o f each experiment Is examined in tu rn , foliowed
by an ind iv idua l analysis o f results. The resu lts are displayed in
tabu la r form, and reveal in te r-g ro u p , in tra -g ro u p and gender
performance differences. Standard s ta tis tica l term inology has been
followed. Graphs re la ting to the more Important resu lts can be found
in the section marked "Appendix" o f th is s tudy.
Two o ther empirical aspects o f th is s tudy are also reviewed: The
pupil questionnaire undertaken as p a rt o f experiment 6, and the
in terv iew s designed to elaborate the information gleaned from the
questionnaires. For reasons described, only a limited number o f
sub jects from the experiment group were interviewed.
201
THE EXPERIMENTS:
COPIES OF THE AUDIO-TAPES USED IN EACH OF THE EXPERIMENTS ARE AVAILABLE FROM THE AUTHOR UPON REQUEST. ADDITIONALLY, EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE APPENDIX OF THIS STUDY.
IN THE INTEREST OF BREVITY, DURING THE DISCUSSION OF EMPIRICAL DATA, REFERENCES WILL BE INCLUDED ONLY IH SITUATIONS WHERE SUPPORTING EVIDENCE DOES NOT APPEAR ELSEWHERE IN THIS STUDY.
THE MAIN MEASURE USED TO IDENTIFY SIGNIFICANT RESULTS THROUGHOUT THIS REPORT, IS p = < 0.05.
VARIABLES
The following variables were held constant th roughou t the experiments:
1 ) The Experiment-room
2) The content of the learn ing material
3) The format o f the learn ing material
3) The con tinu ity o f the learn ing material
4) The de livery o f the learn ing material
5) The tim e-of-day o f the experiments
6) The iden tity o f the experimenter
The following abbreviations are used in th is section:
V - (versus) compared withp = probab ilitys.d. = standard deviationt - t-te s tF — Fisher F ra tiod f = degrees o f freedomYr. - yearc. - (c irca) around
relates to the above
Although I realise the most powerful test to adopt wouid have been a paired t-tes t, because the iden tities o f the ch ild ren were masked, it was not possible to pa ir the data. A two sample paired t- te s t and a one way analysis o f variance have been employed. Graphic representation of the analysis o f variance fo r each experiment may be found in the section marked "Appendix" o f th is s tudy . F u rthe r information relating to the sta tis tica l analysis o f resu lts may be found in G ravetter and Walinau, (1985) ’S ta tis tics fo r the Behavioural Sciences’. West Publishing Company: New York.
202
EXPERIMENT 1 (matching experiment)
PURPOSE: a) To establish i f each o f the th ree f i r s t and th ird -y e a r groups are re liab ly matched.
b) To discover any s ign ifican t In te r o r in tra group gender differences.
c) To discover any s ign ifican t In te r and in tra group perform ance-differences, especially year 1 v year 3.
d) To establish c r ite r ia which would assign the in tact groups in each year-group to one o f th ree conditions:
C.-GROUP, (CONTROL)
R.-GROUP, (ROTE)
E.-GROUP, (MNEMONICS).
N.B. Experiment 1 is d iffe re n t from the o ther experiments in tha t ch ildren are not requested to learn material In any specific way. I t is used to obtain an approximate idea o f ch ild ren ’s short-te rm recall in each of the six experimental groups, (e.g., th ree f irs t-y e a r and three th ird -y e a r groups).
MATERIAL: A "crim ew atch"-type sto ry .
Target groups: Year 1, x 3 groups; mean age, 11.5yrs.
Year 3, x 3 groups; mean age, 13.5yrs.
DELIVERY:
The learning material was delivered by an audio-tape recorder and
consisted o f a "crim ew atch"-type s to ry , In which a fic tit io u s robbery
is described. Eighteen questions relating to information contained in
the s to ry tex t were used to establish each group’s mean ab ility on a
common learning task.
203
Following the presentation o f the s to ry , fu r th e r recorded
ins truc tions advise children how to respond to the questions. The
question sheets were situated face-down under ch ild rens ’ chairs and
answered a fte r a b rie f Interpolated task [1].
Before commencing each experiment In th is series, (6 in ail)
ch ild ren were told th a t th e ir performance e ither on the day o f the
experiment, o r du ring subsequent experiments, would in no way
influence th e ir school career. Further, they were told th a t they would
not be asked to mark th e ir answer-sheets with th e ir name o r
o ther identifica tion.
METHOD:
On six separate occasions, each group in both year-g roups (e.g., year
1, X 3, year 3, x 3) heard an identical pre-recorded audio tape which
contained the follow ing information:
AUDIO-TAPE CONTENT:
"In fro n t of you, there is a card. Turn it over now. On the card
there is a s to ry , which I am going to read through once. A fte r I have
read the s to ry though once, you wili be asked to answer some questions
about the s to ry , when you can no longer see the card. When I have
fin ished reading the s to ry th rough, you will have a fu r th e r minute to
read the s to ry th rough qu ie tly on your own."
1 D is tribu ting o f answer-sheets. Time-taken: c. two minutes.
204
STORY
"On the n ig h t o f Monday, January 16th, a robbery took place at the
Midland Bank In Barton. Earlier in the evening, two men had been seen
outside the bank. One was ta ll and about th ir ty years old, the other,
a smaller man in his early twenties. The ta ll man was wearing red
check trousers and a navy blue jacket. The smaller man was though t to
be wearing a grey raincoat and a yellow hat.
At around 7-20pm, they were seen running from the bank towards a
green Ford Cortina. The number o f the car Is believed to be QMS 629A.
The car sped o ff In the direction o f Highway road, and was la te r found
abandoned at Minster. I f you saw anyth ing suspicious yourse lf, you are
asked to contact the local police, phone number: Barton 57883.
Minute fo r s iien t reading (tape running , no commentary)
Siren sounds time-up.
AUDIO TAPE STOPPED: Children instructed to exchange s to ry cards with
question sheets, placing s to ry cards face-down at the side o f th e ir
chairs. (Three supervisors in addition to the experimenter, check th a t
ch ild ren are follow ing correct procedure).
AUDIO-TAPE RE-STARTED
"You have been given a sheet o f paper. Turn it over now. On the sheet,
the re are some questions which I want you to answer. I will read each
question th rough tw ice and give you an extra ten seconds answering
time a fte r I have fin ished reading each question, but you can answer
the questions whenever you like.
205
Q1. On what day of the week did the robbery take place?
Q2. In what month did the robbery take place?
Q3. On what date did the robbery take place?
04. What was the name of the bank th a t was robbed?
05. In what town did the robbery take place?
06. About how old was the ta lle r man?
07. About how old was the smaller man?
08. What so rt o f trousers was the ta lle r man wearing?
09. What colour was the ta lle r man’s Jacket?
010. What was grey tha t the smaller man was wearing?
011. What colour was the smaller man’s hat?
012. At around what time were they seen running from the bank?
013. What colour was th e ir getaway car?
014. What type o f car was th e ir getaway car?
015. What was the getaway car’s reg istra tion number?
016. The car sped o ff in the direction o f which road?
017. Where was the car found abandoned?
018. What phone number are you asked to ring?
TOTAL TAPE-TIME = 11 MINUTES, SIXTEEN SECONDS
206
FIRST AND THIRD YEAR GROUPS COMPARED
GROUP Yr. SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D. .
1 41 569 13.878 3.401
GROUP 1 -------------------------------------------------------------- t 1.386 d f 79
3 40 595 14.875 3.059
_______________________________________________________________________________________ II
1 44 612 13.909 3.381
GROUP 2 -------------------------------------------------------------- t 3.845 d f 84
3 42 701 16.682 3.303
_______ II
1 34 449 13.205 6.137
GROUP 3 -------------------------------------------------------------- t 1.378 d f 75
3 43 631 14.674 2.993
_________________________________________________________________________________________ I— — j
DISCUSSION;
Although the scores o f g roups 1 and 2 are not s ig n ifica n t, at the level o f p < 0.05 ( t < 1.671), Group 2’s in tra -g ro u p score is h igh ly s ign ifican t. On a common sh o rt- te rm memory task, the o lder ch ild ren in each group perform ed b e tte r than younger ch ild re n . In one case only however, (e.g., group 2) d id th is become s ign ifica n t. In tra group f irs t-y e a r scores fa il to reach a level o f s ign ificance.
FIRST-YEAR GROUPS COMPARED
207
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
GROUP 1 41 569 13.878 3.401
GROUP 2 44 612 13.909 3.381
GROUP 3 34 449 13.205 6.137
F 6.27 / p 0.003
t SCORES
GROUP 1 V GROUP 2 .. ... 0.042 —— d f 83
GROUP 2 V GROUP 3 .. ... 0.645 ------ d f 76
GROUP 3 V GROUP 1 .. ... 0.600 ------ d f 73
DISCUSSION
Assuming a level o f s ta tis tica l s ign ificance o f p < 0.05, ( t <1.671) the re were no s ig n ific a n t d iffe rences. On a one way analys is o f variance, th is re s u lt was s ig n ifica n t.
208
FIRST-YEAR
GROUP 1
GENDER DIFFERENCES
SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 266 14 4
________1
GIRLS 22 303 13.772
1
2.778
_________ 1
" t 0.214 ------ d f 391
GROUP 2 SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 20 309 15.45 2.854
_________ 1
GIRLS 22 303 13.772
1
3.617
_________ 1
" t 1.657 ------ d f 40
i
GROUP 3 SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 17 226 13.294 3.937
__ _______1
GIRLS 17 223 13.117
1
4.535
_ i
^ t 0.122 ------ d f 32
1
DISCUSSION OF FIRST-YEAR GENDER-DIFFERENCES
The resu lts o f the f ir s t-y e a r matching experiment suggested an acceptable d is tr ib u tio n o f recall a b ility between the th ree in tac t groups.
Somewhat unpred ic tab ly , [2 ] boys performed s lig h tly be tte r than g ir ls , bu t the d iffe rence was In s ig n ifica n t and la rge ly a ttr ib u ta b le to the re la tive ly high boys' score In R .-group.
2 Re: G irls ’ e a rlie r m aturation and cogn itive development, (see S ta in tho rp , 1989 fo r d iscussion).
THIRD YEAR GROUPS COMPARED
209
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
GROUP 1 40 595 14.875 3.059
________1
GROUP 2 42 701 16.261
1
3.464
_____ 1
GROUP 3 43 631 14.674
1
2.993
______ 1
F 3.88 / p 0.023
1
t SCORES
GROUP 1 V
GROUP 2 V
GROUP 3 V
GROUP 2 ...
GROUP 3 ...
GROUP 1 ...
,.. 1.917
,.. 2.262
------ d f 80
------ d f 83
------ d f 81
DISCUSSION OF THIRD-YEAR RESULTS
Given th a t considerable e ffo r t is made to match the f ir s t - y e a r in take fo r academic a b ility , i t is perhaps s u rp r is in g th a t group 2, ( ia te r termed ro te -g rou p ) performed b e tte r than the o th e r two groups. The high score o f group 2 however, was exc lus ive ly a ttr ib u ta b le to the g ir ls ’ resu lt, (h igh mean o f 17.523). Using the measure o f p > 0.05 i t < 1.671) however, in te r-g ro u p d iffe rences were considered acceptable a lthough data re la ting to subsequent experim ents should be in te rp re te d w ith th is anomaly in mind.
210
THIRD-YEAR
GROUP 1
GENDER-DIFFERENCES
SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 20 298 14.9 2.211
_______ 1
GIRLS 20 297 14.85
1
3.718
________ 1
" t 0.052 ------ d f 38
1
GROUP 2 SCRIPTS SCORE . MEAN S.D.
BOYS 21 315 15 3.625
_____ ____!
GIRLS 21 368 17.523
1
2.770
_ ______ 1
t 2.534 ------ d f 40
1
GROUP 3 SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 289 15.210 2.607
_________i
GIRLS 24 342 14.25
1
3.204
_______ _i
t 1.057 ------ d f 41
1
DISCUSSION:
As noted p rev ious ly , g ir ls in g roup 2 ( la te r called R .-g roup) were responsible fo r ra is ing group 2’s overa ll score.In te r-g ro u p scores are affected by th is re s u lt and subsequent data should be in te rp re te d w ith th is anomaly in mind.
For sc ie n tif ic purposes, the low e s t-sco ring group in each year-
group was assigned to the experimental cond ition .
211
The th re e groups in each year were subsequently assigned to the
fo llow ing conditions:
GROUP 1 = (C) CONTROL (UNINSTRUCTED LEARNERS)
GROUP 2 = (R) ROTE (INSTRUCTED ROTE-LEARNERS)
GROUP 3 = (E) EXPERIMENT (INSTRUCTED FIRST-LETTER
MNEMONIC USERS)
GENERAL DISCUSSION
FIRST YEAR
The range o f mean scores o f all f i r s t -y e a r groups fa ll between 13.117
(GROUP 3 GIRLS) and 15.45. (GROUP 2 BOYS). When boys’ and g ir ls ’
scores in each group are amalgamated, the re are no s ig n ific a n t
d iffe rences at the p < 0.05 level. An acceptable match o f the th re e
in ta c t groups was noted.
THIRD YEAR
As p rev ious ly noted, group 2’s h ighe r score (e.g., mean = 16.261 v
Group 1, mean = 14.875 v group 3, mean = 14.674) a t p < 0.05 ( t <
1.671) resu lted in a s ta tis tica lly s ig n ifica n t re su it a ttr ib u ta b le
almost e n tire ly to the g ir ls high score. Given th a t the scores o f
g roups 1 and 3 were rem arkably s im ilar, i t was decided to re ta in the
in ta c t character o f the groups ra th e r than reorgan is ing the ch ild re n
fo r a p u re r match. To do so would lead to a number o f adm in is tra tive
problems given the overa ll sampie-size.
212
EXPERIMENT 2 (planets experiment)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED"APPENDIX".
PURPOSE: The sh o rt-te rm aim was to te s t an experim enter-generated,n ine-item , f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic in im m ediate-recall against ro te -in s tru c te d and u n ins truc ted learners. The long-te rm aim, was to re -te s t each group a t a two-weeks p o s t-te s t in o rd e r to Id e n tify any long-te rm fa cu lta tive e ffec ts o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic ove r o th e r learn ing conditions.
Target Year: 1 (mean age 11.5 y rs )
T a rge t-g roups: C .-group (u n in s tru c te d )
R .-group ( in s truc te d to rote-1 earn m ateria l)
E .-g roup ( in s truc te d to use experim entergenerated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics).
EACH GROUP TESTED SEPARATELY OH CONSECUTIVE DAYS:
E .-g roup Wednesday 10th MayR .-g roup Thursday 11th MayC .-g roup F riday 12th May
CURRICULAR/SUBJECT AREA: Geography
MATERIAL: The planets com prising the solar-system .
SEQUENTIAL ORDER? Yes
MATERIAL TO BE MNEMONISED: SUN, MERCURY, VENUS, EARTH,
MARS, JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE, PLUTO.
SAMPLE:
BOYS GIRLS TOTA
C.-GROUP: 17 23 40
R.-GROUP: 20 22 42
E.-GROUP: 18 20 38
TOTALS: 55 65 120
213
CONDITIONS:
Each group hears a common p re -recorded tape which provides
Inform ation about procedure and also sub jec t-m a te ria l to be
remembered. At the d e p a rtu re -p o in t [1 ] the learn ing o f each group is
manipulated in the fo llow ing ways:
C.-Group given identica l T.O.T., (tim e -on -task) bu t merely asked to remember the learn ing material in the way they fe lt best. P os t-d e p a rtu re -p o in t in s tru c tio n s delivered ’ live ’ , fa ith fu lly re lated to prepared s c r ip t.
R .-group given Identical T.O.T. bu t asked to rehearse(rote-1 earn) the learn ing material in it ia lly o v e rtly (aloud, w ith experim enter) and then co ve rtly (s ile n tly , alone) fo r the prescribed learn ing period.
E .-g roup given Identical T.O.T. bu t ins truc ted to use an experim enter-generated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
N.B. A lthough considerable e ffo r t was made to match the actual tim e- on -task fo r each condition th ro u gh o u t the experiments the mnemonic group unavoidably requ ired a small amount o f ex tra discussion time in o rd e r to receive mnemonic ins truc tions .
METHOD:
C hildren en te r experim ent room. They are welcomed and reminded th a t
th e ir p rogress at school w ill in no way be affected by the re su lts o f
these experiments. Learning cards are d is tr ib u te d face-down on
c h ild re n ’s w ork-boards.
1 Place in the experiment where each condition Is Ins truc ted to operate a d if fe re n t time-matched learn ing s tra tegy .
214
AUDIO-TAPE STARTED
"In fro n t o f you the re is a card. Turn i t ove r now. On the card is a
p ic tu re o f the Sun and the p lanets which make up o u r Solar-System [2].
You m ight have seen th is p ic tu re before as It is a top ic f irs t-y e a rs
cover in Geography. I want you to look at the o rd e r o f the planets
v e ry ca re fu lly fo r ha lf-a-m lnute . T ry to remember the names o f the
p lanets and the o rd e r the planets are in ".
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP.
* * DEPARTURE-POINT * * [3]
All post-departu re -p o in t s c r ip ts are de livered ve rb a lly ,
by the experim enter and are fa ith fu lly related to p re
prepared sc rip ts , one fo r each experimental condition .
C.-GROUP SCRIPT: (D elivery time = 35 seconds)
"You m ight have found i t d if f ic u lt to remember both the names and
o rd e r o f the planets. There was a lo t to remember in qu ite a sh o rt
time.
To help you w ith th is problem, I want you to look a t the sheet
again. This time, I w ill g ive you ju s t ove r one m inute more to iearn
the inform ation. Don’t fo rg e t, you have to learn and remember the
names o f the planets and the o rd e r they are In.
START NOW."
CHILDREN STOPPED AFTER PRESCRIBED TIME.
TOTAL T.O.T. (tIm e-on -task) = 1 MINUTE 45 SECONDS
2 The lea rn ing -ca rd contained a p ic to ria l representa tion o f the So lar- System a copy o f which is in the appendix.3 Place in the experiment where each group receives d iffe re n t tim e- matched learn ing ins truc tions .
215
R.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time = 1 m inute)
"You m ight have found i t d if f ic u lt to remember both the names and the
o rd e r o f the planets. There was a lo t to remember In qu ite a sh o rt
time.
One way In which you can Improve yo u r chances o f being able to
remember th is in form ation, is by saying It over and over again in you r
mind qu ie tly . I w ill g ive you an example o f what I mean, bu t instead
o f saying i t q u ie tly to myself, as I want you to do, I w ill say It
a loud."
EXPERIMENTER READS ALOUD TWICE:
"M ercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ju p ite r, S aturn , Uranus,
Neptune, P luto."
"Now, I want you to say the o rd e r o f the planets ove r and o ve r qu ie tly
to you rse lf, fo r the next th re e -q u a rte rs o f a m inute.
START NOW."
CHILDREN STOPPED AFTER PRESCRIBED TIME.
TOTAL T.O.T. = 1 MINUTE 45 SECONDS
216
E.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry -tim e = 1 m inute, 15 seconds)
"You m ight have found i t d if f ic u lt to remember the
names and o rd e r o f the planets. Don’t w o rry . I ’m going to show you an
easy way to remember them.
You have been given a new sheet o f paper, tu rn i t o ve r now. On
the card, the re Is a fu n n y sentence. I am going to read It th rough
once, and then I want us all to read i t th rou gh toge the r aloud tw ice.
S -ix M -e rry Vregetables _E-ating M -ars J -u n k ;
S -a tu rday UR N -ever_P -lunk"!
N.B. Six (Sun), M e r-ry (M ercury), Ve-getables (Venus), Ea-ting
(E arth ), Mars (Mars), Ju -n k (Ju p ite r), S a tu r-day (S a tu rn ),
UR (U ranus), Ne-ver (Neptune), P lu -nk (P luto).
"One o f the f i r s t th in g s you w ill notice about the fu n n y sentence is
th a t i t ’s a rhyme and i f you look ca re fu lly a t the p ic tu re below, you
w ill also notice th a t the f i r s t two le tte rs o f each word In the rhyme
are also the f i r s t two le tte rs o f a planet.
SIX .............. SUN
MER-RY .......... MER-CURY
VE-GETABLES .... VE-NUS
EA-TING ......... EA-RTH
MARS ............. MARS
JU-NK ........... JU-PITER
SATUR-DAY ...... SATUR-N
UR ................. UR-ANUS
NE-VER .......... NE-PTUNE
PLU-NK .......... PLU-TO
217
Just remember th a t U-R Is not spe lt YOU ARE bu t how you
m ight w rite i t In a love le tte r!
Take ha lf a m inute to iearn the rhyme by saying It q u ie tly over
and ove r to yourse lf.
START NOW."
CHILDREN STOPPED AFTER PRESCRIBED TIME.
TOTAL T.O.T. = 1 MINUTE 45 SECONDS
IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING EACH GROUP’S LEARNING ACTIVITY, LEARNING-SHEETS ARE PLACED FACE-DOWN UNDER SUBJECTS’ CHAIRS
AUDIO-TAPE RE-STARTED:
QUESTIONS COMMON TO ALL GROUPS:
"U nder yo u r seat th e re is another sheet. Pick It up now. Don’t w rite
any th ing on the sheet u n til you are to ld . A t the top o f the sheet is
the Sun. There are nine spaces below th is , numbered one to nine, one
space fo r each planet. I want you to t r y to remember the names o f all
the p lanets in th e ir co rrec t o rde r. I f you can’t, don’t w o rry , ju s t do
yo u r best. I w ili g ive you one m inute to do th is . START NOW.
AUDIO-TAPE STILL RUNNING......
SIREN SOUNDS AFTER ONE MINUTE
AUDIO-TAPE ENDS
SCRIPTS COLLECTED IN SILENCE
CHILDREN THANKED ’ LIVE’ FROM THE FLOOR
END.
218
RESULTS:
For in te r-g ro u p measures, n = c.40, p - < 0.05 ( f = > 1.671) is used and fo r in tra -g ro u p measures, n - C.20, p = < 0.05 ( t = > 1.684.
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D
C.-GROUP 40 284 7.1 2.211
_________1
R.-GROUP 42 282 6.714
1
2.490
E.-GROUP 38 272 7.157
__1
2.134
F 0.14 / p 0.869
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE .......... 0.741 — d f 80
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 0.850 — d f 78
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 0.116 — d f 76
DISCUSSION:
On a one way analysis o f variance, th is re s u lt is s ig n ifica n t. Given th a t one o f the main concerns about the use o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics is related to the time i t takes sub je c ts to learn and use them in re lation to o the r learn ing methods, i t is in te re s tin g to note th a t E.- group, who were assigned to th is cond ition as the poores t learners, demonstrate s lig h tly su p e rio r, b u t not s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ifica n t recall on the set lea rn ing task. F u rth e r, th is is achieved in a m atched-fo r-tim e s itua tion a lthough th is re s u lt was not s ign ifica n t fo r the experim ent group.
A dd itiona lly , i t appears th a t the e leven -year-o lds form ing E .-group, were able to use the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic under ins truc tion . This con tras ts w ith some experim ental evidence which suggests more elaborate lea rn ing s tra teg ies (mnemonics) are large ly beyond the scope o f pre-ado iescent learners.
Perform ance-d ifferences between C (u n in s tru c te d ) and R ( ro te - learners) groups were not s ig n ifica n t, suggesting possib ly th a t the un ins truc ted learners in C .-g roup were em ploying some learn ing methods as e ffec tive as ro te -iea rn ing .
219
GENDER DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 17 129 7.588 2.197
GIRLS 23 155 6.739
____ 1
2.151
t 1.223 — d f 38
_ 1
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 20 148 7.4 1.984
GIRLS 22 134 6.090
_ 1
2.478
_______ 1
t 1.879 — d f 40
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN
1
S.D.
BOYS 18 129 7.166 1.979
_________ 1
GIRLS 20 143 7.15
1
2.264
1
t 0.023 — d f 36
DISCUSSION:
Conducive w ith the "m atching -experim en t" resu lts , and somewhat co n tra ry to developmental th e o ry , the boys had a s lig h t tendency to o u t-p e rfo rm the g ir ls . The re su lt fo r R .-group was s ig n ifica n t. I t may be remembered th a t the boys in R .-g roup displayed recall s u p e r io r ity over the g ir ls in the in itia l matching experim ent, (experim ent 1).
220
EXPERIMENT 3 (design-process experiment)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED"APPENDIX".
PURPOSE: The sh o rt-te rm aim was to te s t the e ffectiveness o f a g ro up generated nine-item , f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic In immediate- reca ll against ro te -in s tru c te d and un in s truc ted learners.The long-te rm aim was to re -te s t each group at a tw o-weeks pos t-te s t In o rd e r to id e n tify any long-te rm fa cu lta tive e ffects o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic ove r o the r lea rn ing conditions.
Target Year: 3 (mean age 13.5 y rs )
T a rge t-g roups: C .-group (u n in s tru c te d )
R .-group (to ld to rote-1 earn m ateria l)
E .-g roup (to ld to use a g roup-generated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic)
EACH GROUP TESTED SEPARATELY OH CONSECUTIVE DAYS:
E .-g roup .... Wednesday 17th May R .-group .... Thursday 18th May C .-group .... F riday 19th May
CURRICULAR/SUBJECT AREA: C ra ft, Design & Technology.
MATERIAL: The design Process.
IS SEQUENTIAL ORDER REQUIRED? Yes.
MATERIAL TO BE MNEMONISED: SITUATION, BRIEF,
INVESTIGATION, SOLUTIONS, BEST-SOLUTION, MODEL, WORKING-
DRAWING, REALISATION, APPRAISAL.
221
SAMPLE:
BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
C.-GROUP: 18 14 32 I
R.-GROUP: 22 20 42 1
E.-GROUP: 19 22 41 1
TOTALS: 59 56 1 115 1
CONDITIONS:
Each group hear a common p re -recorded tape which prov ides Inform ation
about procedure and also sub ject-m ate ria l to be remembered. A t the
d e pa rtu re -p o In t the learn ing o f each group Is manipulated In the
fo llow ing ways:
C.-Group given Identical T.O.T., (tIm e-on-task) bu t merely asked to remember the learn ing material In the way the y fe lt best. P ost-departu re -p o in t In s tru c tio n s de livered ’ live ’ bu t fa ith fu lly related to prepared sc r ip t.
R .-group given Identical T.O.T. bu t asked to rehearse (ro te - learn) the learn ing material In it ia lly o v e rtly (a loud) and then co ve rtly (s ile n tly ) fo r the prescribed learn ing period.
E .-g roup given identica l T.O.T. bu t to ld to use a g roup-generated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
METHOD:
Sub jects en te r experiment room, are welcomed and reminded th a t th e ir
performance In these experiments w ill In no way a ffec t th e ir school
career. Learning cards, p re -d is tr lb u te d face-down upon work boards.
222
AUDIO-TAPE STARTED.
"In fro n t o f you there is a card. Turn It over now. On the card there
is some information you may have seen before in one o f the design
areas. I f you haven’t don’t w orry, I will explain It to you now. Look
at the card and follow it th rough with me care fu lly as I explain.
Before products like shoes, cars, clothes and fu rn itu re are made,
the designer’s ideas deveiop stage-by-stage th rough what is called the
DESIGN PROCESS.
The s ta rt o f th is process is iden tify ing the SITUATION where
there is a need fo r a product.
This is foliowed by the design BRIEF o r the problem.
Then, research takes place: th is is called INVESTIGATION.
Next, various SOLUTIONS o r Ideas are thought out.
One will be the BEST SOLUTION.
Now, a MODEL o f the newly designed product m ight be made,
followed by a technical o r WORKING DRAWING.
Next, comes the making o f the product: th is is called the
REALISATION.
Finally, the product Is ca re fu lly assessed to see i f it
could have been made better o r be tte r designed. The name
fo r th is Is APPRAISAL.
You won’t be asked today to explain what the words
w ritten in capitals mean, but I do want you to remember
these words and especially the o rder they are In.
To make th is job easier fo r you, look at the lis t below.
223
The learn ing card reads:
1) SITUATION
2) BRIEF
3) INVESTIGATION
4) SOLUTIONS
5) BEST-SOLUTION
6) MODEL
7) WORKING-DRAWING
8) REALISATION
9) APPRAISAL
Look at the l is t ve ry ca re fu lly fo r one minute. T ry to
remember the names and the o rd e r o f the names. START NOW."
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP
TAPE-TIME TO HERE: 4 MINUTES 45 SECONDS
**DEPARTURE-POINT**
All p o s t-d e p a rtu re -p o in t s c r ip ts are de livered
ve rb a lly by the experim enter, and are fa ith fu lly related to
p re -p repared sc rip ts , one fo r each experimental condition.
C.-GROUP SCRIPT (d e live ry time = 30 SECONDS)
"You m ight have found i t d if f ic u lt to remember all the words and the o rd e r o f the words th a t you have ju s t been asked to learn. There was a lo t to learn In a sh o rt amount o f time.
To help you w ith th is problem, I want you to look at the sheet again. This time, I w ill g ive you Just under two m inutes more time to learn and remember the names o f the va rious stages in the design process and th e ir co rrec t o rde r. In w hatever way you feel Is best.START NOW." (time one minute, fo rty -f lv e -s e c o n d s )
WHEN TIME IS UP.........
EXPERIMENTER SAYS: "PLEASE STOP WRITING NOW."
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES, 15 SECONDS.
224
R.-GROUP SCRIPT (d e live ry time = 1 m inute, 15 seconds)
"You m ight have found It d if f ic u lt to remember all the words and the o rd e r o f the words th a t you have ju s t been asked to learn. There was a lo t to learn In a sh o rt amount o f time.
One way In which you can Improve yo u r chances o f being able to remember th is Inform ation, Is by saying what you want to remember over and over again, q u ie tly . In yo u r mind. I w ill g ive you an example o f what I mean."
EXPERIMENTER SAYS ALOUD TWICE:
"SITUATION, BRIEF, INVESTIGATION, SOLUTIONS, BEST-SOLUTION, MODEL, WORKING-DRAWING, REALISATION, APPRAISAL."
"Now, I want you to say the names o f the design process ove r and over to you rse lf BUT QUIETLY as you have ju s t been shown fo r the next th re e -q u a rte rs -o f-a -m ln u te . START NOW."
WHEN TIME IS UP.........
EXPERIMENTER SAYS: "PLEASE STOP WRITING NOW."
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
E.-GROUP SCRIPT (d e live ry time = 2 MINUTES)
"You m ight have found It d if f ic u lt to remember the co rre c t o rd e r o f
the various stages In the design process. Don’t w orry , I am going to
show you an easy way o f doing th is . Under yo u r seat Is another sheet,
p ick It up now."
PAUSE
"On the sheet Is a s llly -sentence . I am going to read It th rough
once, and then I want us all to read It th ro u gh toge the r aloud tw ice."
"STUPID BRICKIES INVENTED SOME BRICKS MADE WITH RED ASPIRINS."
"Now, I want you learn the s illy sentence by saying It q u ie tly over
and over to yourse lf. I w ill g ive you ha lf a m inute to do th is ."
225
"Now, look at the lis t below. You w ill notice th a t the f i r s t
le tte r o f each s llly -sen tence word Is also the f i r s t le tte r o f one o f
the stages In the design process. I f you can remember the s l l ly -
sentence, you will almost ce rta in ly be able to remember the stages o f
the design process In the co rre c t o rder.
S-TUPID ........ S-ITUATION
B-RICKIES ..... B-RIEF
I-NVENTED I-NVESTIGATION
S-OME .......... S-OLUTIONS
B-RICKS ........ B-EST SOLUTION
M-ADE ......... M-ODEL
W-ITH .......... W-ORKING-DRAWING
R-ED ........... R-EALISATION
A-SPIRINS A-PPRAISAL
Jus t remember th a t the re are two S’s and the SITUATION Is
the FIRST stage In the process."
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
QUESTIONS COMMON TO ALL GROUPS:
The Ins tru c tio n s which Immediately fo llow , were de livered
’ liv e ’ to each group.
"U nder you r cha ir Is another sheet. Only when you are
to ld , exchange yo u r present sheet w ith the new sheet.
Make sure no one can see the p r in t on e ith e r sheet as you
do th is ."
ALL GROUPS PROCEEDED THROUGH THE ANSWERING-PHASE, HEARING THE FOLLOWING RECORDING.....
226
RE-START TAPE
"You have a new sheet o f paper. Turn it over now. On the sheet, you
will see nine spaces numbered one to nine. Don’t w rite anyth ing yet.
Only when I te ll you , I want you to w rite In these spaces the various
stages of the DESIGN PROCESS you have ju s t learned In the co rre c t
o rder. I f you have d if f ic u lty , don’t w orry, ju s t do your best. I will
give you one minute to do th is. START NOW."
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME-UP
SCRIPTS COLLECTED IN SILENCE
END.
227
RESULTS:
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-GROUP 32 196 6.125 2.814
1
R.-GROUP 42 296 7.047
1
2.339
1
E.-GROUP 41 199 4.853
1
2.278
F 12.28 / p 0.000
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE .......... 1.538 — d f 72
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 4.328 — d f 81
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 2.135 — d f 71
DISCUSSION:On an analysis o f variance, th is re su lt is s ig n ifica n t. At level o f s ign ificance adopted two resu lts are s ig n ifica n t, R v E and E V C. The ch ild ren ins truc ted to use the n ine-ltem f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic appear to have been handicapped by having to remember the learn ing material and the mnemonic In the time-matched condition . I t was hypothesised th a t one o f the fo llow ing fac to rs m ight be responsible fo r th is resu lt:
F irs t, because o f the add itiona l lea rn ing load, f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics do not p rov ide learners w ith immediate benefits when compared w ith a lte rna tive learn ing conditions, (e.g., see experiments in the 7 series o f th is s tudy and also see Cox, 1991).
Second, the mnemonic was too d if f ic u lt fo r the ch ild re n to manipulate in the time allocated.
T h ird , the mnemonic was too complex o r ambiguous fo r the ch ild ren to use e ffec tive ly .
Fourth , ch ild ren com prising the mnemonic group were un fam ilia r w ith the mnemonlsing process.
This p a rtic u la r mnemonic was the re s u lt o f co llabora tive design by one o f my previous C.D.T. groups (in troduced to these ch ild re n fo r the f i r s t time) and proved an Immediate, e ffe c tive aid to recall.
I t seems reasonable to assume th a t th e re Is an Im portant lin k between ownership and understand ing o f the mnemonic and its Immediate effectiveness. C learly, the a c tiv ity o f spontaneously design ing a f i r s t - le tte r mnemonic engages the c h ild re n ’s cognition in a problemso lv ing mode. This a c tiv ity m ight have an e ffe c t s im ila r to the mnemonic Itse lf, by a ttach ing additional meaning to the learn ing material th ro u gh semantic re la tionsh ips.
C V R g roup ’s score was not s ta tis tic a lly s ig n ifica n t, bu t does suggest th a t the un ins truc ted group were adopting some form o f cogn itive o r mnemonic learn ing s tra te g y approaching the e ffic iency o f rote rehearsal, (assuming th a t the ro te g roup were fo llow ing ins truc tion s).
228
GENDER DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 18 97 5.388 2.811
GIRLS 14 99 7.071 2.520
t 1.757 — d f 30
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 22 157 7.136 2.201
GIRLS 20 139 6.95 2.479
t 0.258 — d f 40
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 91 4.789 2.163
GIRLS 22 108 4.909 2.372
t 0.168 — d f 39
DISCUSSION:
Assuming a level o f s ign ificance a t p < 0.05( f > 1.684) There is a s ig n ific a n t C .-g roup gender d iffe rence . I t Is hypothesised th a t th is is due to the g ir ls ’ a b ility to employ su p e rio r cogn itive stra teg ies due to m aturational fac to rs .
229
EXPERIMENT 4 (historical periods)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED"APPENDIX".
PURPOSE: The sh o rt-te rm aim was to tes t the e ffectiveness o f anexperim enter-generated six-item , f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic In Immediate-recall against ro te -in s tru c te d and un ins tru c te d learners. The long-term aim, was to re -te s t each group at a two-weeks po s t-te s t In o rd e r to Id e n tify any long-te rm fa cu lta tive e ffects o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic over o the r learn ing conditions.
Target Year: 1 (mean age 11.5 y rs )
Targe t-g roups: C .-group (u n in s tru c te d )
R .-group (to ld to rote-1 earn m ateria l)
E .-g roup (to ld to use experim entergenerated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics)
EACH GROUP TESTED SEPARATELY ON CONSECUTIVE DAYS:
C .-g roup Wednesday 7th JuneR .-g roup Thursday 8th JuneE .-g roup F riday 9th June
CURRICULAR/SUBJECT AREA: H istory
MATERIAL: The periods o f the Modern age.
IS SEQUENTIAL ORDER REQUIRED? Yes.
MATERIAL TO BE MNEMONISED:
TUDOR, STUART, GEORGIAN, REGENCY, VICTORIAN, EDWARDIAN.
SAMPLE:
BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
C.-GROUP: 13 20 33
R.-GROUP: 17 21 38
E.-GROUP: 19 18 37
TOTALS: 49 59 118
230
CONDITIONS:
Each group hear a common pre -recorded tape which prov ides Inform ation
about procedure and also sub ject-m ate ria l to be remembered. A t the
depa rtu re -p o in t, the learn ing o f each group Is manipulated In the
fo llow ing ways:
C.-Group given Identical T.O.T., (tim e -on -task) bu t merely asked to remember the learn ing material In the way they fe lt best. P os t-d e p a rtu re -p o ln t Ins tru c tio n s de livered ’ liv e ’ bu t fa ith fu lly related to prepared sc rip t.
R .-group given Identical T.O.T. bu t asked to rehearse (ro te - learn) the learn ing material In it ia lly o v e rtly (aloud) and then co ve rtly (s ile n tly ) fo r the prescribed learn ing period.
E .-group given Identical T.O.T. bu t to ld to use an experim entergenerated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
METHOD:
Subjects en te r experim ent room, are welcomed and reminded th a t th e ir
performance In these experiments w ill In no way a ffec t th e ir school
career.
AUDIO-TAPE STARTED.
"In fro n t o f you, the re is a card. Turn It ove r now. On the card the re
Is some Inform ation which you may have seen before. I t Is p a rt o f the
f ir s t-y e a r H istory course. I f you haven’t, don’t w orry , I w ill explain
It to you now.
231
On the card is an h is to rica l ch a rt which gives dates and
inform ation about h is to rica l ages and periods. Look at the ch a rt
ca re fu lly as I explain It to you now. As you can see, man’s h is to ry Is
d iv ided up In to fo u r main ages: The Classical Age, The Dark Ages, The
Middle Ages and The Modern Age. These fo u r main ages are fu r th e r
d iv ided Into various periods; s ta rtin g w ith Greek, then Roman,
Anglo-Saxon and so on, r ig h t up to the Edwardian period.
At the side o f these periods are some dates. These te ll
us at what time In the past each period took place.
What I want you to learn today Is the names o f the six periods
which make up the Modern Age, and the p a rtic u la r o rd e r o f these
periods. I w ill g ive you ha lf a m inute to learn the names and the
o rd e r o f the periods o f the Modern Age. START NOW."
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP
TAPE-TIME TO HERE: 2 MINUTES 35 SECONDS
**DEPARTURE-POINT**
All post-departu re-po l n t s c r ip ts are de livered ve rb a lly by the
experim enter, and are fa ith fu lly related to p re -p repared sc rip ts , one
fo r each experimental condition.
C-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time = 35 seconds)
"You m ight have found It d if f ic u lt to remember all the names and the o rd e r o f the names th a t you have ju s t been asked to learn. There was a lo t to learn In a sh o rt amout o f time.
To help you w ith th is problem, I want you to look at the sheet again. This time, I w ill g ive you ju s t under one -and -a -h a lf m inutes’ ex tra time to learn and remember the names and the p a rtic u la r o rd e r o f the periods o f the Modern Age In whatever way you feel Is best. START NOW."
WHEN TIME IS UP........
EXPERIMENTER SAYS: "PLEASE STOP NOW."
232
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
R.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time = 1 m inute, 15 seconds)
"You m ight have found i t d if f ic u lt to remember all the names and the o rd e r o f the names th a t you have ju s t been asked to learn. There was a lo t to learn in a sh o rt amount o f time.
One way In which you can Improve you r chances o f being able to remember th is Inform ation, Is by saying what you want to remember over and over again q u ie tly . In yo u r mind. I w ill g ive you an example o f what I mean:
EXPERIMENTER SAYS ALOUD TWICE:
"TUDOR, STUART, GEORGIAN, REGENCY, VICTORIAN, EDWARDIAN."
"Now, I want you to say the names o f the periods In the Modern Age over and ove r to you rse lf, bu t QUIETLY as you have ju s t been shown fo r the next th ree q u a rte rs o f a minute. START NOW."
WHEN TIME IS UP........
EXPERIMENTER SAYS: "PLEASE STOP NOW."
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
E.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time = 1 m inute, 30 seconds)
"Sometimes we can help ourselves to remember lis ts . Often, once we can
remember the f i r s t le tte r o f a word, the word ju s t ’ pops’ In to ou r
minds. You w ill notice th a t the f i r s t le t te r o f each s llly -sen tence
word Is also the f i r s t le tte r o f a period In the Modern Age. This
s llly -sen tence ; ’Ten Swans Get Red Vests Easy’ , also helps you to
remember the periods In th e ir co rre c t o rde r. I w ill g ive you ha lf a
m inute to learn the s llly -sen tence by saying It q u ie tly ove r and over
to yourse lf. START NOW.
WHEN TIME-UP........
233
"Now, ju s t to check th a t you know how to use th is sentence to help you
remember the periods, what does the ’T’ In ten help you remember?
(w ait fo r response; co rrec t, advise o r pra ise) The ’S’ In swans?..etc.
QUESTIONS COMMON TO ALL FIRST-YEAR GROUPS:
TOTAL TAPE TIME: 2mlnutes, 16 seconds
ANSWERING TIME: 1 minute, 15 seconds
AUDIO-TAPE RE-STARTED........
"You have been given a new sheet. Turn It ove r now. Don’t w rite
anyth ing u n til you are to ld . On the sheet, the re are six spaces; one
fo r each o f the periods which make up the Modern Age.
When I te ll you, I want you to w rite down the six periods which
you have ju s t learned, which make up the Modern Age. Remember, th a t It
is Im portant to w rite these periods down In th e ir co rrec t o rde r. I f
you fin d th is d if f ic u lt , don’t w orry , ju s t do you r best. I w ill g ive
you on e -a n d -a -q u a rte r m inutes to do th is . START NOW."
AUDIO-TAPE STILL RUNNING........
SIREN SOUNDS AFTER ONE-AND-A- QUARTER MINUTES
"PLEASE STOP WRITING NOW."
AUDIO TAPE ENDS.
SCRIPTS COLLECTED IN SILENCE, CHILDREN THANKED.
END.
234
RESULTS:
For in te r-g ro u p (c.40) scores, p < 0.05 ( t > 1.671) is used as the measure o f s ign ificance . For in tra -g ro u p scores, the measure used is: p < 0.05 ( t > 1.684).
GROUP_________ SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN_______ S.D.
C.-GROUP 33 119 3.606 1.937
R.-GROUP 38 167 4.394
1
1.581
E.-GROUP 37 177 4.783
1
1.579
F 10.00 / p 0.000
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE .......... 1.887 — d f 69
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 1.066 — d f 73
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 2.798 — d f 68
DISCUSSION:On an analysis o f variance, th is re s u lt is s ig n ifica n t. An in te re s tin g re su lt is the poor perform ance o f the con tro l group. D uring the matching experiment, (experim ent 1) where a ll groups were set a learn ing task w ithou t lea rn ing in s tru c tio n s , the re were no s ig n ific a n t d iffe rences between the th re e experimental conditions. The poor showing o f the un ins tru c te d lea rners in th is experim ent suggests tha t;
a) C hildren In the ins tru c te d rote-1 earn ing condition (R .-g roup ) were com plying w ith In s tru c tio n s to rote-1 earn. Evidence from o th e r research suppo rts the hypothesis th a t rehearsal Is a va luable learn ing aid. I t Is also known th a t spontaneous rehearsal [1 ] Is not engaged by younger and inexperienced learners. Given these facts , i t seems reasonable to suggest th a t a t least some members o f the u n in s tru c te d group were fa llin g to adopt more sophistica ted learn ing s tra teg ies such as ro te learn ing as an aide-memoire.
b) A lthough the mnemonic g ro up 's score was not s ig n ific a n t ( t ) 2.660) v is -a -v is the R v E re su lt, the E v C re su lt Is s ig n ifica n t. I tis hypothesised th a t th is suggests E .-g roup Immediately benefltted from using a smaller mnemonic conta in ing on ly six Items, whereas they found the n ine-ltem mnemonic d if f ic u lt to m anipulate In the time available.
c) E leven-year-o lds are able to u tilise a p ro v id e d f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic and produce learn ing su p e rio r to th a t produced by ch ild ren with s im ilar recall under time-matched conditions.
1 Rehearsal engaged In tu it iv e ly by the ch ild , w ithou t p r io r Ins truc tion .
235
d) Even at the level o f immediate reca ll, acrostics produce learn ing superio r to th a t achieved In an u n in s tru c te d lea rn ing condition.
GENDER DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN
BOYS 13 49 3.769
S.D.
1.804
GIRLS 20 70 3.5 2.012
t 0.389 — d f 31
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 17 70 4.117 1.580
GIRLS 21 96 4.571 1.560
t 0.772 — d f 36
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 90 4.736 1.649
GIRLS 18 87
t 0.187 — d f 35
4.833 1.5
DISCUSSION:
At the p < 0.05 level o f s ign ificance, (e.g., t 1.684) th e re were no s ig n ifica n t gender d iffe rences to re p o rt.
236
EXPERIMENT 5 (assessment-scale experiment)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED"APPENDIX".
PURPOSE: The sh o rt-te rm aim was to te s t the e ffectiveness o f ag rou p -generated six-item , f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic In Immediate-recall against ro te -in s tru c te d and u n ins truc ted learners. The long-term aim, was to re -te s t each group at a two-weeks pos t-te s t In o rd e r to Id e n tify any long-te rm fa cu lta tive e ffects o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic ove r o th e r learn ing conditions.
Target Year: 3 (mean age 13.5 y rs )
T a rge t-g roups: C .-group (u n in s tru c te d )
R .-group (to ld to rote-1 earn m ateria l)
E .-group (to ld to use a studen t-genera ted f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics)
EACH GROUP TESTED SEPARATELY ON CONSECUTIVE DAYS:
C .-g roup Wednesday 14th JuneR .-g roup Thursday 15th JuneE .-g roup F riday 16th June
CURRICULAR/SUBJECT AREA: C raft, Design and Technology.
MATERIAL: A s Ix -po In t assessment scale.
IS SEQUENTIAL ORDER REQUIRED? Yes.
MATERIAL TO BE MNEMONISED:
PERFORMANCE, FUNCTION, VALUE-FOR-MONEY, CONSTRUCTION,
AESTHETICS, SAFETY.
SAMPLE:
BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
C.-GROUP: 21 18 39
R.-GROUP: 14 18 32
E.-GROUP: 18 24 42
TOTALS: 53 60 113
237
CONDITIONS:
Each group hear a common p re -recorded tape which provides Inform ation
about procedure and also sub ject-m ate ria l to be remembered. At the
departu re-po l n t the learn ing material Is manipulated In the fo llow ing
ways:
C.-Group given Identical T.O.T., (tIm e-on -task) bu t asked to remember the learn ing material In the way they fe lt best. P ost-departu re-po l n t In s tru c tio n s de livered ’ liv e ’ bu t fa ith fu lly related to prepared sc rip t.
R .-group given Identical T.O.T. bu t asked to rehearse (ro te - learn) the learn ing material In it ia lly o v e rtly (aloud) and then cove rtly (s ile n tly ) fo r the prescribed learn ing period.
E .-group given Identical T.O.T. bu t to ld to use an experim entergenerated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
METHOD:
S ub jects en te r experim ent room, are welcomed and reminded
th a t th e ir p rogress at school w ill In no way be affected by
the resu lts o f these experiments. Learn lng-ca rds are p re -
d ls tr lb u te d face-down upon work boards.
AUDIO-TAPE STARTED........
" In f ro n t o f you, the re Is a card. Turn It ove r now. On the card,
th e re Is some Inform ation you may have seen before In one o f the
design areas. I f you haven’t, don’t w orry , I w ill explain It to you
now.
Look at the card and follow It th ro u gh w ith me ca re fu lly as I
explain. A fte r p roducts like shoes, cars, clothes and fu rn itu re have
been made, companies must assess o r check th e ir p roducts fo r qua lity .
I f th e ir p roducts are o f poor q u a lity , the pub lic w ill buy from
someone else!
238
Below, you w ill see six headings under which products can be
assessed. This Is called an assessment scale. Some o f the words look
d if f ic u lt and complicated, bu t they are not rea lly . I will explain
what they mean.
* PERFORMANCE means; how well a p ro du c t w orks o r perform s d u rin g
reg u la r use. For example, a ca r's engine sh o u ld n 't need repa irs fo r
the f i r s t few years o f Its life .
* FUNCTION means; does the p roduct do what the maker claims It
should do? For example. If Ford say a car In th e ir Fiesta range should
do more than fo r ty miles to the gallon, then It should!
* VALUE-FOR-MONEY means; Is the p ro duc t good value fo r the money
spent?
* CONSTRUCTION means; Is the p roduc t well constructed and
s tro n g ly made?
* AESTHETICS, Is the des igner's word fo r appearance o r looks.
* SAFETY, Is the p roduct safe when In re gu la r use?
"You won’t be asked today what the s ta rred words mean, bu t I do want
you to learn and remember the words th a t are s ta rred and the
p a rtic u la r o rd e r o f the names. I w ill g ive you ha lf a m inute to do
th is . START NOW."
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME-UP.
LEARNING TIME TO HERE: 2 m inutes, 35 seconds
239
**DEPARTURE-POINT**
All post-departu re-po l n t s c r ip ts are de livered ve rb a lly , by the
experim enter, and are fa ith fu lly related to p re -p repared sc rip ts , one
fo r each experimental condition.
C.-GROUP SCRIPT: (de live ry time = 35 seconds)
"You m ight have found it d if f ic u lt to remember all the words and the o rd e r o f the words th a t you have ju s t been asked to learn. There was a lo t to learn In a sh o rt amount o f time.
To help you w ith th is problem, I want you to look at the sheet again. This time, I will g ive you ju s t under two m inutes more time, to learn and remember the names and the p a rticu la r o rd e r o f the names In the Assessment Scale, In whatever way you feel Is best. START NOW."
WHEN TIME IS UP........
EXPERIMENTER SAYS: "PLEASE STOP NOW."
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
R.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time = 1 minute, 15 seconds)
"You m ight have found It d if f ic u lt to remember all the words and the o rd e r o f the words th a t you have ju s t been asked to learn. There was a lo t to learn In a sh o rt amount o f time.
One way In which you can Improve you r chances o f being able to remember th is Inform ation, Is by saying what you want to remember over and ove r again, q u ie tly In yo u r mind. I w ill g ive you an example o f what I mean:
EXPERIMENTER SAYS ALOUD TWICE:
"PERFORMANCE, FUNCTION, VALUE-FOR-MONEY, CONSTRUCTION, AESTHETICS, SAFETY.
Now, I want us all to say these words th ro u gh toge the r aloud tw ice:
PERFORMANCE, FUNCTION, VALUE-FOR-MONEY, CONSTRUCTION, AESTHETICS, SAFETY."
"Now, I want you to say the names o f the Assessment Scale ove r and ove r to yo u rse lf bu t q u ie tly as you have ju s t been shown, fo r the next th re e -q u a rte rs o f a m inute. START NOW."
WHEN TIME IS UP........
EXPERIMENTER SAYS: "PLEASE STOP NOW."
240
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
E.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time: = 1 m inute, 30 seconds)
"T u rn yo u r new sheets ove r now. Sometimes, we can help ourselves
remember lis ts . Often, once we can remember the f i r s t le tte r o f a
word, the word ju s t ’ pops’ In to ou r minds! Look at the s llly -sen tence
below:
PELICANS FIND VINDALOO CURRY AWFULLY SATISFYING.
You w ill see th a t the f i r s t le tte r o f each word In the s llly -sentence .
Is also the f i r s t le tte r o f a word In the Assessment Scale.
I w ill read the sentence th ro u gh aloud once, then, I want you to
learn It by saying It o ve r and over q u ie tly to yo u rse lf fo r h a lf-a -
m lnute."
EXPERIMENTER SAYS TWICE:
"Pelicans fin d v inda loo c u rry aw fu lly s a tis fy in g ."
’ LIVE’ PROMPT: "Now, learn It yo u rse lf."
TIME HALF-A-MINUTE
241
WHEN TIME HAS EXPIRED, EXPERIMENTER SAYS:
"Now, ju s t to check th a t you know how to use th is sentence, what does
the ’C’ In C u rry help you to remember? (w ait fo r response; co rrec t,
advise o r pra ise) The 'V In Vindaloo? ....etc.
Now, le t’s say the sentence ove r toge the r a fina l time ju s t to
get It In to o u r minds:
Pelicans Find Vindaloo C u rry A w fu lly S a tis fy in g ."
TOTAL LEARNING TIME = 2 MINUTES
QUESTIONS COMMON TO ALL FIRST-YEAR GROUPS:
TOTAL TAPE TIME: 2 m inutes, 22 seconds
ANSWERING TIME: 1 m inute, 15 seconds
AUDIO-TAPE RE-STARTED........
"You have been given a new sheet. Turn It over now.
Don’t w rite any th ing u n til you are to ld . On the sheet, the re are
six spaces; one, fo r each stage o f the Assessment Scale you have ju s t
learned. Only when I te ll you, I want you to w rite down the six stages
In the Assessment Scale In the co rre c t o rde r. I f you have d if f ic u lty
doing th is , don’t w orry , ju s t do yo u r best. I w ill g ive you one-and-a -
q u a rte r m inutes to do th is . START NOW."
AUDIO-TAPE STILL RUNNING........
SIREN SOUNDS AFTER ONE-AND-A-QUARTER MINUTES.
"PLEASE STOP WRITING NOW."
AUDIO TAPE ENDS.
SCRIPTS COLLECTED IN SILENCE, CHILDREN THANKED.
END.
242
RESULTS:
For in te r-g ro u p (c.40) scores, p < 0.05 ( t > 1.671) is used as the measure o f s ign ificance. For in tra -g ro u p scores, the measure used is: p < 0.05 ( t > 1.684).
GROUP_______ SCRIPTS SCORE______ MEAN______ S.D.
C.-Group 39 185 4.743 1.675
. — 1
R.-GROUP 32 164 5.125
1
1.316
E.-GROUP 42 198 4.714 1.722
F 0.97 / p 0.384
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ......... 1.051 — d f 69
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 1.123 — d f 72
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 0.077 — d f 79
DISCUSSION:
On an analysis o f variance, th is re s u lt is s ig n ifica n t. A lthough resu lts did not reach levels o f s ign ificance on the t-tes ts , ( t < 1.671) i t is w orth no ting , th a t R .-g rou p ’s s lig h tly be tte r performance was also reported In the "m atching experim ent" (experim ent 1) discussion.
I t Is the re fo re , perhaps not s u rp r is in g , th a t th is Is also re flected in R .-g roup ’s score here.
GENDER DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 21 92 4.380 1.703
________ 1
GIRLS 18 93 5.166
1
1.536
" t 1.503 — d f 37
1
243
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN
BOYS
GIRLS
14
18
68
72
BOYS
GIRLS
18
24
78
120
4.857
t 1.739 — d f 30
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN
4.333
S.D.
1.456
1.325
S.D.
1.527
1.802
t 1.265 — d f 40
DISCUSSION:
Using the measure, (p < 0.05 ( t > 1.684) R .-g roup ’s score was s ign ifica n t. The trend fo r boys in th is group to learn more than the g ir ls also fea tu red In p revious experiments.
244
EXPERIMENT 6 (Delivery company experim ent)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED"APPENDIX."
EXPERIMENT FORMAT
Experim ent 6 comprised o f th ree In te rre la ted components:
1) A learn ing phase under timed te s t conditions
2) A questionnaire completed by a ll sub jec ts Id e n tify in g each c h ild ’s specific learn lng-m ethod. (see "pup il questionna ire" pp.258-265)
3) Selected fo llow -up In te rv iew s w ith both E .-g roups designed to extend the range o f Inform ation obtained from the questionnaires, (see "pu p il In te rv iew s" pp.266-275)
PURPOSE:
1) To establish how many o f the m nem onlca lly-lnstructed ch ild ren (e.g., E.-Groups In years one and th ree ) would be able to apply th e ir knowledge o f mnemonlsing to:
a) A novel s itua tion using factua l learn ing material w ith in a meaningful context,
b) A novel s itua tion under the pressure o f a time constra in t.
2) To obtain d ire c t feedback from m nem onlca lly-lnstructedch ild ren about:
a) The actual f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic used to remember Inform ation ( I f any).
b) A lte rn a tive learn ing s tra teg ies adopted by m nem onlca lly-lnstructed ch ild ren , used In pre fe rence to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics.
c) Both E .-g roups ’ ra ting o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics as learn ing aids.
245
3) To obtain d ire c t feedback from ro te -in s tru c te d groupsrelated to:
a) A lte rna tive s tra teg ies adopted by the ro te - ins truc ted groups ( i f any).
b) The ir understand ing o f the usefulness o f ro te - rehearsal In fa c ilita tin g recall In th is and previous experiments.
c) The ir performance comparative to C. (u n in s tru c te d ) and E. ( f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic In s tru c ted ) groups.
4) To obtain d ire c t feedback from the un ins truc ted groups related to:
a) The methods they spontaneously adopted to learn material th ro u gh o u t th is s tudy.
b) The ir performance comparative to R. (Rote- In s truc ted ) and E. ( f i r s t - le t te r mnemonlc- In s truc ted ) groups.
5) To assess q u an titive d iffe rences ( I f any) In f i r s t -le tte r mnemonic mnemonlsing a b ility between f i r s t (mean age, 11.5 years) and th ird year (mean age, 13.5 years) sub jects.
6) To assess qua lita tive mnemonlsing d iffe rences ( I f any) between f i r s t and th ird -y e a r subjects.
Target Years:
1, (mean age: 11.5 y rs and 3, mean age 13.5 y rs )
Targe t-g roups: C .-group (u n in s tru c te d )
R .-group (Ins truc ted to rote-1 earn m ateria l)
E .-group (In s truc ted to use f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics)
246
DATES OF TEST AND SAMPLE USED:
FIRST-YEAR SAMPLEboys g ir ls ALL
E.-group.. Wednesday 21st June 19 16 34
R.-group... Thursday 22nd June 16 23 39
C .-g roup..... F riday 23rd June 16 21 37
THIRD-YEAR SAMPLEboys g ir ls ALL
C .-group.. Wednesday 28th June 17 24 41
R.-group... Thursday 29th June 18 21 39
C .-g roup..... F riday 30th June 21 21 42
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT AND METHOD
Unlike the previous experiments, (e.g., 2 - 5 ) the learn ing task In
experiment 6, was not designed to d iffe re n tia te between the q u a lity o f
learn ing methods bu t to enable ch ild ren in each experimental condition
s u ffic ie n t o p p o rtu n ity to use the in s tru c te d learn ing methods.
The learn ing phase was Immediately followed by a b r ie f
questionnaire designed to probe the spec ific le a rn in g - s tra teg ies o f
each ch ild In each experimental condition.
F u rth e r, If a d if fe re n t lea rn ing - s tra te g y was used by
Ind iv idua ls on previous occasions, ch ild ren had an o p p o rtu n ity to
specify the nature o f th is a lte rna tive . For a more detailed account o f
the choice o f approach and materials both fo r th is experim ent and the
questionnaire , see the section "Research methodology", (p p .166-174).
247
MATERIAL TO BE RECALLED
For the learn ing material to be re levan t to both o f the ta rg e t ye a r-
groups, a p ractica l, a lbe it hypothetica l s itua tion was used. C hildren
were asked to Imagine they were d r iv e rs fo r a de live ry company,
requested to de live r p roducts to a va r ie ty o f locations In a spec ific
o rd e r, the reby economising on both fuel and time. The names and o rd e r
o f the venues are as follows:
Bedford - Luton - Ay lesbury - Oxford - S tra tfo rd - Rugby
For fu r th e r discussion see "Choice o f m ateria ls" In the "Research
Methodology" section; pp .166-174.
CONDITIONS:
Both C.-Groups given Identical tIm e-on-task as o the r conditions, bu t (as on previous occasions) and Ins truc ted to remember the names and the o rd e r o f names o f towns in whatever way they fe lt best.
Both R.-Groups given Identical tIm e-on-task as o the r conditions, bu t (as on previous occasions) ins tru c te d to rote-1 earn the sequential o rd e r o f the town names.
Both E.-Groups given Identical tIm e-on-task as o the r cond itions but Ins truc ted to mnemonlse the sequential o rd e r o f the town names, by app ly ing th e ir knowledge o f th is process gained d u rin g two p rev ious tr ia ls .
EXPERIMENT FORMAT
The form at o f experiment 6 d if fe rs from th a t o f p revious experiments
In th a t Inform ation In s tru c tin g each group how to proceed w ith
learn ing names and Inform ation were de livered before the learn ing
phase.
248
METHOD:
C hildren en te r experiment room and are reassured th a t th e ir
performance w ill in no way a ffec t th e ir school career. They are also
to ld th a t on th is occasion, they w ill be requ ired to In itia l th e ir
s c r ip ts and add the number o f th e ir "fa m ily " (re g is tra tio n group).
They were to ld th a t th is was to make i t easy fo r the experim enter to
fo llow -up resu lts should th is be desired.
The fo llow ing s c r ip ts were de livered ’ liv e ’ to each group
immediately p r io r to the learn ing phase. In each case, the learn ing
phase was delivered v ia an aud io -reco rd ing . Each s c r ip t was read
verbatim .
C.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time 46 seconds approx.)
" In the past, when I have asked you to remember names o r inform ationfo r me, I have asked you to do th is in w hatever way you feel is best.You have been asked to remember names o r Inform ation fo r me th ree times now, and you w ill have probab ly tr ie d ou t more than one way o f remembering names in th e ir co rrec t o rder.
In a few moments, once again I am going to ask you to remember some names and inform ation in the co rrec t o rde r. Remember how you have done th is in the past and choose w hatever you th in k is the best way to help you do th is ."
R.-GROUP SCRIPT: (d e live ry time 46 seconds approx.)
" In the past, when I have asked you to remember names o r inform ationfo r me, I have to ld you to say what you want to remember o ve r-a n d -o ve rq u ie tly to you rse lf. You have been asked to remember names o r in form ation fo r me th ree times now, and a lthough you m ight normally use th is method to remember th ings , you m ight s til l have found it usefu l.
In a few moments, once again I am going to ask you to remember some names and inform ation in the co rre c t o rde r. Just learn the inform ation as I have shown you before, by repeating It o ve r-a n d -o ve r, q u ie tly to yo u rse lf."
249
E.-GROUP SCRIPT: (de live ry time 46 seconds approx.)
" In the past, when I have asked you to remember names o r inform ation fo r me, I have given you a s illy -sen tence to help you. The f i r s t le tte r o f each s llly -sen tence word was the same as the f i r s t le tte r o f a name th a t you had to remember.
Today, I want you to make up a s illy -sen tence o f y o u r own when you are asked to learn some names in th e ir co rrec t o rde r. Keep your s illy -sen tence ve ry simple. Choose words fo r you r s illy -sen te nce th a t begin w ith the same le tte r as the words you have to remember. You wil not have a lo t o f time, so make one up q u ick ly ."
Each group, a fte r hearing the ’ liv e ’ In s tru c tio n s related to th e ir
experim ent-cond ition, heard a common p re -reco rded audio tape.
TAPE CONTENT:
"In fro n t o f you, the re is a card. Turn i t over now. On the card is
some inform ation which I w ill read th ro u gh to you. Follow i t th rough
w ith me ca re fu lly .
I want you to imagine th a t you are a d r iv e r fo r a de live ry
company. On you r f i r s t day at work, you have been asked to make six
de live ries in the Midlands area. In o rd e r to save time and pe tro l,
yo u r company has to ld you to make you r de live ries to various places in
a p a rtic u la r o rd e r which should also help you to get back w ithou t
being late.
Here are the names o f the places which you have to d e live r to in
the co rre c t o rder:
1) BEDFORD
2) LUTON
3) AYLESBURY
4) OXFORD
5) STRATFORD
6) RUGBY
250
Just in case you lose th is lis t, i t m ight be best to pu t the place-
names and the p a rticu la r o rd e r o f them in to you r memory. I w ill g ive
you o n e -a n d -a -q u a rte r minutes to do th is . START NOW."
WHEN TIME-UP SIREN SOUNDS.
THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS DELIVERED LIVE:
"Please tu rn you r cards over and p u t them face-down a t the side o f
yo u r cha ir."
When task completed:
RE-START TAPE.
"U nder you r cha ir is a new sheet. Pick i t up now. On the sheet, you
w ill see the names o f all the six towns th a t you have been asked to
make de live ries to, bu t they are not in the r ig h t o rder. Only when I
te ll you, I want you to w rite these place names In the six spaces
numbered one to six in the o rd e r th a t the de live ries are to be made. I
w ill g ive you one m inute to do th is . START NOW."
WHEN TIME-UP, SIREN SOUNDS.
DELIVER LIVE:
“ PLEASE STOP WRITING NOW. SCRIPTS COLLECTED BY ASSISTANTS AND
QUESTIONNAIRES ISSUED TO EACH SUBJECT."
251
**DEPARTURE-POINT**
C.-GROUP’S ’ LIVE’ SCRIPT:
"The last th in g I want you to do today, is to answer th is ve ry b r ie f questionnaire. Take as long as you need to answer each o f the questions. S ta rt w ith question 1.
Please can you explain to me exactly how you tr ie d to remember the names o f the de live ry places in the co rre c t o rder? Question repeated, (when sub jec ts had fin ished w rit in g )
Now, can we move to question 2? T ry to th in k back to how you remembered names and inform ation fo r me before. I f you used a d iffe re n t way o f remembering when you learned th in g s fo r me before, t r y to remember what it was."
ALL SUBJECTS THANKED ’ LIVE’ FROM THE FLOOR
END.
R.-GROUP’S ’ LIVE’ SCRIPT:
"The last th in g I want you to do today, is to answer th is ve ry b r ie f questionnaire. Don’t w orry If you d id n ’t remember th in g s exactly the way I asked you to. I t doesn’t m atter. Just answer honestly. Take as long as you need to answer each o f the questions. S ta rt w ith question 1.
Did you say the names o f the de live ry places over and o ve r again in o rd e r to remember them in the co rrec t o rd e r o r not? (repeat question and wait fo r sub jec ts to complete)
Now, move on to the next question. I f you did not, how did you remember them? (repeat question and wait fo r ch ild ren to complete)
Now, move on to question 2. You have been ta u g h t to remember names and inform ation tw ice before by saying what you need to remember q u ie tly o ve r-a n d -o ve r again in yo u r mind, did you fin d th is : not ve ry he lp fu l, fa ir ly he lp fu l, he lpfu l o r ve ry he lpfu l? Just t ic k which b racke t you th in k is r ig h t fo r you."
ALL SUBJECTS THANKED ’ LIVE’ FROM THE FLOOR
END.
252
E.-GROUP’S 'L IVE ' SCRIPT:
The last th in g I want you to do today, is to answer th is ve ry b r ie f questionnaire . Don’t w orry i f you d id n ’t remember th in g s exactly the way I asked you to. I t doesn’t m atter. Just answer honestly. Take aslong as you need to answer each o f the questions.
S ta rt w ith question 1. Did you use a s illy -sen tence to help you remember the names? Please tic k e ith e r yes o r no (repeat question and wait fo r sub jec ts to complete). I f you did use^a s illy -sen tence , w ritein the space exactly what i t was. (repeat question and wait fo rsub jec ts to complete).
I f you used another way o f remembering the names in the co rrec t o rd e r, w rite here b r ie f ly what you d id. (repea t question and wait fo r sub jec ts to complete). Now move on to question 2. You have been ta u g h t to remember names o r inform ation tw ice before using a s llly -sen tence to help you. Did you fin d using a s illy -sen tence to help you remember,e ithe r... Not ve ry he lp fu l, fa ir ly he lp fu l, he lp fu l o r ve ry he lp fu l?Just t ic k whichever you th in k is r ig h t fo r you." (repeat question andwait fo r sub jec ts to complete).
ALL SUBJECTS THANKED LIVE FROM THE FLOOR.
END.
253
RESULTS:
GROUP Yr.SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D
1 37 201 5.432 1.263
C.-GROUPS ---------------------------------------------- ] t 0.960 D.F. 77
3 42 238 5.666 0.890
___ II
1 39 207 5.307 1.089
R.-GROUPS ------------------------------------•----------] t 1.411 D.F. 76
3 39 220 5.641 0.999
_______ JI
1 34 186 5.470 1.368
E.-GROUPS ----------------------------------------------] t 2.003 D.F. 73
3 41 243 5.926 0.462
______ II
DISCUSSION:
As predicted, de libera te ly imposed ’ce iling e ffe c ts ’ produced high scores fo r sub jec ts in each year and experim ental cond ition . Using the measure o f s ign ificance p rev ious ly estab lished, E .-g ro ups ’ score is s ign ifican t. I t is hypothesised th a t th is re s u lt re fle c ts the o lde r ch ild rens a b ility to incorporate newly learned cog n itive s tra teg ies in to th e ir regu la r learn ing schemes.
254
FIRST-YEAR GROUPS COMPARED
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-Group 37 201 5.432 1.263
R.-GROUP 39 207 5.307 1.089
E.-GROUP 34 186 5.470 1.368
F 2.07 / p 0.131
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE .......... 0.463 — D.F. 74
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ...... 0.566 — D.F. 71
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 0.122 — D.F. 69
DISCUSSION:
As above.
255
FIRST-YEAR GENDER-DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 16 85 5.312 1.529
GIRLS 21 116 5.523 1.005
^ T 0.506 — D.F. 35
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 16 90 5.625 1.053
GIRLS 23 117 5.086 1.059
" T 1.567 — D.F. 37
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 105 5.526 0.818
GIRLS 16 81 5.062 1.784
T 1.016 — D.F. 33
DISCUSSION OF FIRST-YEAR GENDER-DIFFERENCES
Although C .-g roups ’ score fa iled to show any gende r-d iffe rences o f sign ificance, i t is in te res tin g to note a small bu t s ig n ifica n t d iffe rence in the scores o f R. and E. groups. In both cases, the boys ou tperfo rm the g ir ls when th e ir s tra te g y options are re s tr ic te d . This could be in te rp re te d to suggest th a t p red icted m aturation e ffects, favou rin g g ir ls ’ learn ing were removed by spec ify ing which le a rn in g - s tra teg ies they were to adopt. A d if fe re n t explanation may sim ply be th a t the boys found the learn ing material more meaningful o r re levant, re su lting in th e ir b e tte r performance.
256
THIRD-YEAR GROUPS COMPARED
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-GROUP 42 238 5.666 0.890
______1
R.-GROUP 39 220 5.641 j
1
0.999
______1
E.-GROUP 41 243 5.926
1
0.462
F 3.11 / p 0.048
, 1
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ......... 0.119 — D.F. 79
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 1.651 — D.F. 78
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 1.664 — D.F. 81
DISCUSSION OF THIRD-YEAR RESULTS
As p red icted , de libera te ly imposed ’ce iling e ffe c ts ’ produced high scores fo r sub jec ts in each year and experimental cond ition .
257
THIRD-YEAR
C.-GROUP
GENDER-DIFFERENCES
SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 21 119 5.666 0.942
1
GIRLS 21 119 5.666
1
0.835
_________1
T 0.000
R.-GROUP
— D.F. 40
SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN
1
S.D.
BOYS 18 100 5.555 1.065
1
GIRLS 21 120 5.714
1
0.933
1
T = 0.497
E.-GROUP
— D.F. = 37
SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN
1
S.D.
BOYS 17 99 5.823 0.705
_ _1
GIRLS 24 144 6
1
0
______ _ 1
" T 1.237 — D.F. 39
1
DISCUSSION OF THIRD-YEAR GENDER-DIFFERENCES
As w ith the f ir s t -y e a r C .-group resu lts , gender scores are rem arkably s im ila r and are not s ta tis tica lly s ign ifica n t. Unlike f ir s t -y e a r scores however, th ird -y e a r R. and E. groups fa il to show performance d iffe rences fa vo u ring the boys. In fac t, the converse is tru e , bu t the scores were not s ta tis tica lly s ig n ifica n t. The o lder ch ild ren seem less affected by the p rescrip tio n o f the s tra te g y to use.Whereas the manipulation o f learn ing material using stra teg ies, benefited the younger boys more than the younger g ir ls , m aturation e ffec ts a t the o lde r age had levelled o ff. Conversely, the re su lt could suggest th a t the o lder g ir ls found the learn ing task more re levan t o r rea lis tic than the younger sample.
258
PUPIL QUESTIONNAIRE
Although In te r-g ro u p [1] performances were assessed a t Immediate re
te s t fo llow ing each experiment, (e.g., expts: 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) and at
long-te rm re -te s t, d u ring the 7-series, (e.g., expts: 7a, 7b, 7c and
7d) ce rta in fea tu res o f in tra -g ro u p [2] recall remained unexamined.
W hilst the te s t performances, p rovided comparative inform ation
re la ting to the th ree lea rn ing -cond ltions , (e.g., u n in s truc ted , ro te
and mnemonic) these fa iled to p rov ide more spec ific evidence
ind ica ting :
a) The precise learn ing-m ethods both u n ins tru c te d groups were adopting.
b) Whether groups in ins truc ted conditions (e.g., rote and mnemonic) were fo llow ing in s tru c tio n s to adopt the spec ifica lly requested I ear n i n g - s t rateg y .
c) That p rev ious ly ins tru c te d f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic users could cons truc t th e ir own mnemonics a fte r tra in in g .
Immediately fo llow ing the "d e live ry company" experiment, (e.g.,
experim ent 6, 6 separate experim ents) all ch ild ren were asked to
complete a b r ie f questionnaire. On th is occasion, by agreement w ith
all ch ild re n , it was decided to break the prev ious convention o f
anonym ity, by coding each c h ild ’s answ er-sheet and questionnaire .
The questionnaires were designed to e lic it the fo llow ing
in form ation:
C.-GROUP (u n ins tru c te d learners)
1) The exact method each ch ild used to learn the place names.
2) The method/s used by each ch ild on prev ious learn ing occasions, i f d if fe re n t from 1.
1 Performance d iffe rences between experimental conditions.2 Performance d iffe rences between ch ild ren w ith in a specific experimental group.
259
R.-GROUP (ins truc te d ro te -le a rne rs )
1) Whether ro te -in s tru c te d ch ild ren adhered to th e ir ins truc tions .
2) Any a lte rna tive methods used o th e r than ro te -lea rn ing .
3) A u s e r-ra tin g fo r the ro te-m et hod ( fo u r-p o in t scale).
E.-GROUP (in s truc te d to co n s tru c t and apply a f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic)
1) The precise form o f the f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic constructed.
2) The precise learn ing-m ethod employed If i t was o the r than a f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic.
3) A u s e r-ra tin g fo r f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics ( fo u r-p o in t scale).
260
RESULTS:
C.-GROUP, YEAR 1 ( UNINSTRUCTED LEARNERS)
The va rious learn ing-m ethods employed by the ch ild ren fe ll rough ly in to one o f the f iv e categories lis ted below. For convenience, percentage to ta ls are taken to one decimal place. The resu lts were as follows:
key: b = boys 9 = g ir ls n = to ta l sample
b g n %
Rehearsal 7 9 16 43.2
Using f i r s t - le t te rs as cues 4 7 11 29.7
"P ic tu r in g " o r mental imaging 2 2 4 10.8
Grouping s tra tegy 1 3 4 10.8
A more formal typ e o f mnemonic 2 0 2 5.4
16 21 37
DISCUSSION:
As expected, the younger un in s truc ted lea rners (mode 11.5 years) favoured rehearsal as the p rinc ipa l means o f learn ing. There were no s ig n ific a n t gender-d iffe rences.
The second most popu lar lis t-lea rn ln g -m e thod was to use f i r s t - le tte r cueing. This re su lt is in te res tin g as It demonstrates two im portan t points:
F irs t, a t least some e leven-year-o lds realise the necessity and value o f engaging a more re liab le form o f I earn I n g -s t rateg y than rehearsal alone.
Second, e leven -year-o lds ’ are able to make an approp ria te response to th is p a rtic u la r typ e o f learn ing s itua tion .
Developmentalists have argued th a t the more complex mnemonic form s (e.g., in te rac tive imaging o r f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics) emerge as spontaneous responses to learn ing on ly In o lde r ch ild ren and adults . Observations related to th is experim ent however, tend to su p p o rt the metacog ni t iv e approach, where the c h ild ’s re p e rto ry o f le a rn ing - s tra teg ies is seen to be increm enta lly acquired and only loosely linked to ch ild re n ’s m aturation.
A lthough the re are gende r-d iffe rences in fa vo u r o f the g ir ls , the main sample-size p reven ts the in ference o f e ith e r re liab le o r valid generalisations, a lthough i t is consistent w ith developmental views o f gende r-cogn itive m aturation, id e n tify in g the e a rlie r m aturation o f g ir ls .
261
C.-GROUP YEAR 3 {UNINSTRUCTED LEARNERS)
key: b = boys g = g ir ls n = to ta l sample
b g n %
Rehearsal 9 11 20 47.6
Using f i r s t le tte rs as cues 4 4 8 19.0
"P ic tu r in g " o r mental imaging 0 3 3 7.1
Grouping s tra te g y 2 1 3 7.1
A more formal typ e o f mnemonic 6 2 8 19.0
21 21 42
DISCUSSION:
Again, when requested to learn items o f a rb it ra ry Inform ation, the dominant le a rn in g -s tra te g y adopted by the o lde r u n ins truc ted group was rehearsal.
As in the case o f the younger u n in s tru c te d learners, gender- d iffe rences were not s ign ifica n t, bu t o f p a rtic u la r in te res t. Is the re la tionsh ip between age-d iffe rences and the choice o f more complex mnemonic form s o th e r than the popular f i r s t - le t te r cueing used by the younger ch ild ren .
Again, the size o f the sample p reven ts s ta tis tica l genera lisations to be made, bu t what is w orthy o f note, is the re la tionsh ip between more sophisticated lea rn ing -s tra teg ie s [3 ] and gender. Given a matched sample, the boys were th ree times as like ly to engage more formal lea rn ing -s tra teg ie s (some type o f mnemonic) than the g ir ls . This re su lt is d if f ic u lt to explain and co n tra ry to normal p red ic tions o f the re la tionsh ip between gende r-cogn itive development and s tra tegy deployment which would fa vo u r the performance o f g ir ls . This descrepancy m ight be a useful su b je c t o f subsequent research.
3 eg., acronyms, acrostics, etc.
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THE RESPONSE OF THE MNEMONIC GROUPS
I t was hypothesised th a t a number o f the ch ild ren in both o f the m nem onic-instructed groups would, fo r some reason, fa il to mnemonise the material as requested. The questionna ire fo r E .-g roup, was the re fo re designed to d iscover the exact mnemonic constructed by mnemonic-users in th is p a rticu la r experim ent and, add itiona lly , the learn ing-m ethods used by non-mnemonisers. The responses o f non- mnemonisers, fe ll broadly Into one o f th ree categories:
R ote-repetltion, (rehearsal)
F irs t- le tte r cueing and
"p ic tu r in g " o r imaging the learn ing material.
I t w ill be recalled th a t the w orking de fin itio n fo r the term "mnemonics" in th is paper is a broad one, bu t i t seems approp ria te to d is tingu ish between a lte rna tive learn ing-m ethods fo r both the younger and o lder E .-groups. In o rde r to d iscover any e ffects mnemonic in s tru c tion m ight have had in in fluenc ing learning-m ethods.
In addition , both m nem onic-instructed groups were also asked to rate the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics as an aid to learn ing.This exercise was completed by asking the ch ild ren to choose from a fo u r-p o in t scale. This avoided "average" responses often associated w ith su rveys inc lud ing m id -po in t responses.
STRATEGIES USED:
E.-GROUP, YEAR 1 (INSTRUCTED TO USE A SELF-GENERATED FIRST-LETTER
MNEMONIC)
key: b = boys g = g ir ls n = to ta l sample
b 9 n %
FIRST-LETTER MNEMONIC OR OTHER 10 8 18 51.4
Rehearsal 5 3 8 22.8
Using f i r s t le tte rs as cues 2 5 7 20.0
"P ic tu r in g " o r mental imaging 2 0 2 5.7
19 16 35
Below, fig u re s in the "b " and "g " columns, are percentages o f th e ir respective gender to ta ls , whereas percentages In the "to ta l sample" column are combined "b " and "g " to ta ls representing an overall percentage. For convenience, percentage to ta ls are taken to one decimal place.
263
SURVEY
Question: Have you found s illy -sentences.
b 9 all
NOT VERY HELPFUL 5.2 0 2.8
FAIRLY HELPFUL 15.7 25.0 20.0
HELPFUL 63.1 31.2 48.5
VERY HELPFUL 15.7 43.7 28.5
DISCUSSION:
Taken together, these resu lts demonstrate tw o im portan t fin d in g s which, to the w r ite r ’s knowledge, have not been demonstrated elsewhere.
F irs t, a fte r lim ited in s tru c tion on how to mnemonise a rb it ra ry material in the form o f lis ts , over 50% o f the younger mnemonic group, (n = 35, conta in ing ch ild ren w ith an age o f mode 11.5 years) were able to mnemonise the learn ing-m ateria l.
Second, they were able to mnemonise the learn ing-m ateria l w ith in a prescribed learn ing-tim e. The time allowed fo r mnemonlsing, would not be considered incompatible w ith the amount o f time th a t teachers m ight o ffe r th e ir classes to learn s im ilar c u r r ic u la r - information.These fin d in g s have im portant im plications which will be discussed la te r, [4].
There was a th ird im portant fin d in g :
Those ch ild ren who e ith e r fa iled o r were unable to mnemonise the lea rn ing-m ate ria l, were more like ly to employ another s tra te g y such as f i r s t - le t te r cueing o r imaging instead o f rehearsal. The d iffe rence is not o f in tra -g ro u p sign ificance, bu t is d iss im ila r to the u n in s tru c te d g roup ’s s tra tegy-response and may well be the re su lt o f a the m nem onic-group’s more mnemonically ’educated’ metacognition. C erta in ly the in itia l matching tr ia ls did not suggest th a t E .-group were more able learners - in fa c t the co n tra ry !
The su rvey also produced im portan t inform ation. Over 70% o f the younger mnemonic group found f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic In s truc tion e ith e r he lp fu l o r ve ry he lp fu l. This tends to suggest th a t they found mnemonic Ins truc tion a useful addition to th e ir normal learn ing sk ills . In re trospect. It would have been useful to know If these and the ch ild ren in o the r groups were p re v io u s ly aware o f how to design and apply acrostics. This po in t was subsequently followed up d u rin g a series o f selected in te rv iew s w ith members o f both mnemonic groups.
4 Under the heading o f "Conclusions and d iscussion", pp.327-330
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E.-GROUP, YEAR 3 {INSTRUCTED TO USE A SELF-GENERATEDFIRST-LETTER MNEMONIC)
key: b = boys g = g ir ls n = to ta l sample
b g n %
FIRST-LETTER MNEMONIC OR OTHER 7 7 14 34.1
Rehearsal 5 9 14 34.1
Using f ir s t - le t te rs as cues 4 7 11 26.8
"P ic tu r in g " o r mental Imaging 1 1 2 4.8
17 24 41
The mnemonic-group were also asked to ra te the u t i l i ty o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics on a fo u r-p o in t scale. The resu lts are given as percentage fo r each gender except in the "to ta l sample" column, where the to ta ls o f both genders are combined.
SURVEY
Question: Have you found s illy sentences.
b g all
NOT VERY HELPFUL 5.8 12.5 9.7
FAIRLY HELPFUL 35.2 54.1 46.3
HELPFUL 52.9 16.6 31.7
VERY HELPFUL 0 20.8 12.1
DISCUSSION:
The th ird -y e a r fin d in g s are fa r less conclusive. A lthough around one th ird o f the to ta l sample, (n = 41) successfu lly mnemonlsed the learn ing-m ateria l as requested, an Identical number adopted rehearsal to learn the material, (14 v 14).
The number employing f i r s t - le t te r cueing, a more sophisticated s tra te g y than rehearsal, was ju s t under one th ird , and as expected, s lig h tly h ighe r than the younger group. Accounting fo r these s tra tegy-
265
d iffe rences between the younger and o lde r ch ild ren was investiga ted th ro u gh the use o f s tru c tu re d in te rv iew s w ith represen ta tive samples.
A lthough the resu lts o f th is d iscussion are given elsewhere, [5] i t appears th a t the o lde r mnemonic-group seem less re lia n t upon the use o f p ro v id e d lea rn ing -s tra teg ie s , and have both the a b ility and the knowledge to engage and apply th e ir own ta sk -a p p ro p ria te lea rn in g - methods, re levan t to learn ing requirem ents.
A lthough it m ight be concluded th a t th is response to le a rn lng - demands was somewhat naive, (g iven the general h igh ly s ig n ifica n t resu lts in fa vo u r o f mnemonics provided by th is s tu d y ) the fa c t th a t the younger mnemonic-group adhered to m nem onic-instructions and the o lde r group often considered a lte rn a tive stra teg ies, suggests th a t the o lde r ch ild re n had considerably more autonomy and d iscre tion re la ting to the choice and in tu it iv e application o f lea rn ing -s tra teg ies .
R.-GROUP YEAR 1 {INSRUCTED TO ROTE-LEARN)
DISCUSSION:
Asked i f they adopted rehearsal as a le a rn in g -s tra te g y , a ll o f the younger ro te - in s tru c te d group said they had adhered to in s tru c tio n s to rote-1 earn the material as requested.
This group were also asked to Id e n tify (from a fo u r-p o in t scale) w hether in s tru c tio n s to ro te -re hearse had assisted th e ir learn ing . In re trospect, th is in s tru c tio n was ambiguous and m ight have been m is in te rp re ted by the ch ild ren . These deta ils are available, bu t will not be discussed.
R.-GROUP YEAR 3 {INSRUCTED TO ROTE-LEARN)
DISCUSSION:
All except two (one boy and one g ir l) o f the o lde r ro te -in s tru c te d group conformed to using the le a rn in g -s tra te g y requested, (n = 39). For s im ila r reasons as those given above, the responses to the fo u r- po in t scale w ill not be reviewed.
5 Under the heading o f "Pupil questionna ire ", pp.258-265
266
INTERVIEWS
These in te rv iew s were designed to extend the inform ation obtained from the questionnaires related to experim ent 6, (d e live ry company experim ent) and add itiona lly , obta in more complete Inform ation about both mnemonic g roups ’ a ttitud es tow ards the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics.
To achieve a balanced sample, ch ild ren In both o f the mnemonic g roups were randomly assigned to one o f two groups:
1) Mnemonic Ins truc ted non-users (N)
2) Mnemonic Ins truc ted users (U)
The purpose o f these In te rv iew s was p rim a rily to establish:
a) How d if f ic u lt the ch ild ren rated co ns truc ting a f i r s t - le tte r mnemonic.
b) Why ch ild ren Ins truc ted in the use o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, fa iled to co n s tru c t and apply a mnemonic to aid the learn ing o f novel material.
c) How long i t took m nem onlca lly-instructed users to con s tru c t and apply th e ir own f ir s t - le t te r mnemonic.
In an Ideal s itua tion , i t would have been valuable to In te rv iew a ll the ch ild re n from each experimental condition (c.300), bu t given the lim ited resources o f the experim enter and the fa c t th a t th is aspect o f the s tu d y was forced to be completed near the end o f the summer term , i t was necessary to make the In te rv iew s more selective.
In te rv ie w in g a ve ry small group o f ch ild ren representing each cond ition , in each yea r-g roup (e.g., c.6), was considered and re jected . A lthough th is approach would have provided a rich source o f in form ation re la ting to the learn ing s tra teg ies o f spec ific ch ild ren , i t was th o u g h t th a t a ve ry small sample would se rious ly re s tr ic t the p o ss ib ility o f meaningful genera lisations being made.
The fina l decision was to focus a tten tion on both the experimental groups In years 1 and 3. This approach would o ffe r a more rep resen ta tive Ins igh t in to the actual mnemonic procedure adopted by all ch ild re n ins truc ted how to use f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, inform ation which is at present unavailable.
267
METHODOLOGY
Three types o f in te rv iew were considered:
U nstruc tu red [1 ], sem i-s truc tu red [2 ] and s tru c tu re d .
The chosen methodology was a s tru c tu re d approach. This method was a compromise between Informal and formal approaches, and was adopted fo r the fo llow ing reasons:
a) I t would p rov ide a clear d irec tion to each In te rv iew and be less In tim ida ting to the less a rticu la te ch ild ren .
b) I t would obta in the maximum amount o f inform ation re la ting to specific questions in the sh o rtes t amount o f time.
c) The Inform ation obtained from s tru c tu re d In te rv iew s Is more readily coded and disseminated.
A lthough the in te rv iew s fo r each ta rg e t-g ro u p were related to key questions, the re was freedom fo r e ith e r the Inves tiga to r o r the ch ild , to pursue o th e r deta ils o f mutual in te res t.
The key questions fo r f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic users in both ye a r- groups were:
1) How long did i t take you to th in k o f the s illy -sentence?
2) Did you fin d i t d if f ic u lt to th in k o f a s llly-sentence?
A question re la ting to the c h ild ’s q u es tio nna ire -ra ting o f f i r s t - le tte r mnemonics:
3) Could you make up and use a s illy -sen tence on yo u r own now, w ithou t being shown how?
The key questions fo r the m nem onic-instructed non-use rs in each yea r- group were:
1) Please can you te ll me why you weren’t able to use a s illy sentence to help you learn the place names?
A question re la ting to the c h ild ’s q u es tio nna ire -ra ting o f f i r s t - le tte r mnemonics.
2) I f a teacher asks you to remember a lis t o f names o r words d u rin g a lesson, how do you normally go about it?
T w e n ty -fo u r candidates were o r ig in a lly selected, tw elve from each ye a r-g roup , six m nem onic-instructed non-users and six mnemonic- ins tru c te d users respective ly . Of those o r ig in a lly chosen fo r
1 Where interview ees contro l the d irec tion o f discussion in terchangeably w ith the inves tiga to r.2 Where on ly a rough fram ework o f questions is provided.
268
in te rv iew , absence and u n ava ilab ility o f some th ird -y e a rs forced a minor m odification to the intended sample, (see below).
IDENTIFICATION
To fa c ilita te ide n tifica tio n , each o f the ch ild ren In terview ed has
been g iven a code. This immediately fo llow s the ch ild 's In itia l.
For example, "B IDS", represents the in itia l o f a ch ild (B) in a
f ir s t-y e a r group (1) who used a se lf-cons truc ted f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonic, (U -se r) to learn the d e live ry company (experim ent 6) place
names, referenced as ch ild number 3.
"M3N1 " represents the in itia l o f a ch ild (M) In a th ird -y e a r
group, (3) who has fo r some reason, fa iled to employ a f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonic as Ins truc ted , (N-on user) referenced as ch ild number 1.
269
SAMPLE
FIRST-YEAR n = 12
USERS
CODE
K1U1L1U2B1U3J1U4C1U5M1U6
NON-USERS
R1N1C1N2M1N3W1N4M1N5N1N6
THIRD-YEAR n = 12
USERS
CODE
T3U1M3U2F3U3N3U4J3U5
NON-USERS
M3N1D3N2A3N3T3N4C3N5R3N6S3N7
In th e in te res ts o f b re v ity fo u r In te rv iew s are reported here, one mnemonlc-user and one who did not use a mnemonic In each yea r-g rou p . The o th e r tra n s c r ip ts may be found In the section o f th is s tu d y marked "Append ix".
270
FOUR INTERVIEW RESPONSES
B1U3
Q.: B., ( re fe rr in g to o rig ina l s c r ip t) when I asked you to remember these place names, you made up the s illy sentence; "B reakfast Loonies Ask O rrib le S tupid R iddles." I gave you a m ln u te -a n d -a -q u a rte r to make up th is s illy sentence. Do you remember w hether It took you a long while to make up? Were you s tru g g lin g fo r time?
A.: Well, I th o u g h t o f Bedford; I used to live near there , and I thou gh t o f b reakfast th ings . Then I th o u g h t o f b reakfast lo llipops.Then I tho ugh t th a t w ouldn’t go ve ry nice! So I said, B reakfast Loonies etc., and i t took me about a m inute.
Q.: So you needed the fu ll time to actua lly do it?
A.: Well, round about, yes.
Q.: You pu t down here ( re fe rr in g to o rig ina l s c r ip t) you found the s illy sentences "h e lp fu l" in helping you to remember th ings . Can you explain why?
A.: Well, I found them a b it he lp fu l, I could remember Bedford, Luton and A ylesbury, bu t then I had to go to the ridd le .
Q.: So what did the r id d le o r s illy -sen tence do? Did It help p u t thewords in the r ig h t order?
A.: Yes, it helped me pu t them in the r ig h t o rd e r as well, as I could remember the f i r s t th ree.
Q.: Do you use s illy sentences o r m ight you use s illy -sen tences at all to help you remember o the r th in g s at school?
A.: No.
Q.: Do you th in k they would be useful In examinations, to help you remember th in g s in the r ig h t o rder?
A.: Yes, p robab ly, i f I had to remember something like the o rd e r o fthe numbers on i t o r something; It would help me there .
271
M1N3
Q.: M., a l it t le while ago, ( re fe rr in g to o rig ina l s c r ip t) I asked you to remember some place names in the co rre c t o rd e r, and to help you do th a t, I said you could make up a s illy -sen tence o f you r own in the same so rt o f way I had shown you in the past. When I gave you the chance to make up a s illy -sen tence o f you r own, you d id n 't in fa c t do it. That doesn 't m atter, bu t can you explain why you d id n 't?
A.: Because I could remember i t in my mind.
Q.: You answered the f i r s t th ree le tte rs o f the words "s tuck in my m ind". What do you mean?
A.: From the le tte rs , the words stayed in my mind.
Q.: You said th a t you found the s illy -sen tences I 'd given you In the past "h e lp fu l" . Can you ju s t develop th a t a l it t le b it fu r th e r?
A.: I t could help you remember the le tte rs o f what the words m ight be.
Q.: I f you were asked to remember names, facts. Inform ation o r a lis t o f something fo r a su b jec t in school, say, before we did th is so rt o f th in g , how would you normally do it?
A.: Read th ro u gh i t and t r y and remember what i t is; cover the sheet by p u ttin g my hand ove r it.
Q.: Who ta u g h t you to do th is?
A.: My s is te r.
272
T3U1
Q.: T., ( re fe rr in g to o rig ina l s c r ip t) a l it t le while ago, I asked you to remember some place names, and asked you to imagine th a t you were w ork ing fo r a d e live ry company. You were to make up a s illy -sen tence o f yo u r own to help you remember the place names In the co rre c t o rde r. You made up qu ite a nice one; "Big L illy And Olive S tarted R unning". I gave you a minute and a q u a rte r to do th is . About how long w ith in th a t time did it take you?
A.: About ha lf a m inute.
Q.: Did you fin d i t d if f ic u lt to make up a s illy -sen tence o r did i t come fa ir ly easily?
A.: I t came easy.
Q.: When you were asked (re fe rr in g to the questionna ire) whether you found the s illy -sentences in the past ve ry he lp fu l, he lp fu l, fa ir ly he lp fu l o r not ve ry he lp fu l, you answered "h e lp fu l" . Can you explain what you mean by th is please - Why did you fin d them helpfu l?
A.: Because the f i r s t le tte rs , you can ju s t pu t them down and you can remember the res t o f the words from them.
Q.: So you pu t down the f i r s t le tte rs and then you could remember the res t o f the words from the s illy -sen tence f i r s t le tte rs?
A.; Yes.
Q.: I f a teacher in school asked you to remember a lis t o f th in g s o r some names in a certa in o rde r, how would you go about doing th is . T.?
A.: Just pu t the f i r s t le tte rs down o f w hatever you want to remember and then you can remember the res t o f the words from it.
Q.: But you wouldn’t make up a s illy-sentence?
A.: I don’t know. I t depends.
Q.; I f you wanted to make up a s llly -sen tence to remember some Inform ation o r a lis t, would you now know how to do it? Would you be able to go about i t fa ir ly easily?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Do you th in k you m ight be able to make up a s iiiy -sen tence to help you w ith examination work?
A.: Yes.
273
M3N1
Q.: M., ( re fe rr in g d ire c tly to o rig ina l s c r ip t) on you r sheet, you said you d id n ’t use a s illy sentence. Can you te ll me why th a t Is, please?
A.: At the time, I cou ldn ’t th in k o f one. I th o u g h t i t would be easier to look at the le tte rs .
Q.: So, you needed more time to actua lly work one ( f i r s t - le t te r mnemonic) out?
A.: Yes, I cou ldn ’t th in k o f one.
Q.: Do you remember ge tting any o f the words fo r a s llly -sen tence , o r cou ldn ’t you get any at all?
A.: Well, I th ough t o f something fo r ’ B’ bu t I cou ldn ’t get itfo llow ing on to ’ L’.
Q.: You answered you found s illy -sen tences " fa ir ly he lp fu l"?
A.: I t ’s easier fo r me to look at the le tte rs ; i t ’s easier thanremembering the sentence. Sometimes i t ’s he lp fu l, i f you’ve already got one, bu t i t ’s ha rde r to th in k o f one.
Q.: So, i f a teacher gave you one, you th in k you’d be okay?
A.: Yes.
Q.: How do you remember lis ts normally? Do you have a p a rtic u la r way o f remembering lis ts?
A.: I ju s t go over i t (the lis ts ) in my mind.
274
RESULTS
In te re s tin g as these réponses are, they are to be in te rp re ted w ith caution fo r the fo llow ing reasons:
1) The sample size Is small. I t Is the re fo re inapp ropria te to use these p a rticu la r resu lts fo r any more than a guide fo r hypotheses. The responses are th e re fo re discussed In broad terms and no specific recommendations are made.
2) Because the In te rv iew er was known to the ch ild ren the re is a p ro b a b ility th a t the answers the ch ild ren have given are d is to rted by th e ir own involvem ent. C learly th is can increase su g g e s tib ility , bu t valid argum ents fo r a fam ilia r In te rv iew er m ight include a more relaxed atmosphere and less fee ling o f in tim idation.
3) Discussed in the section on "metacogn ition" in th is s tu dy , are some o f the problems ch ild ren experience when asked to in trospec t th e ir own memory a c tiv ities . I t would be p ruden t to In te rp re t the c h ild re n ’s responses In the lig h t o f the natural d if f ic u lt ie s ch ild ren may have in expressing what is essentia lly abs trac t term inology.
Mnemonic In s tru c te d users:
The o lder ch ild ren had a tendency to make up a mnemonic w ith more ease and speed, (e.g., 3U1; 3U3; 3U4). C hildren from both groups said they would be able to con s tru c t a mnemonic themselves in fu tu re bu t few gave the impression th a t th is would be th e ir p re fe rred response to lis t o r fa c t learn ing , (e.g., 1U2; 1U3; 1U5) a lthough some re fe rred to f i r s t - le t te r cueing, (e.g., 1U5; 3U1) and rehearsal, (e.g., 3U2; 3U3;3U4). Perhaps not s u rp r is in g ly , the mnemonic users responded favou rab ly tow ards the use o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, both in the questionna ire and the In te rv iew . Again, perhaps not s u rp r is in g ly , more able ch ild ren were predom inantly represented amongst the mnemonic users. This is conducive w ith evidence In the lite ra tu re which suggests a pos itive re la tionsh ip between cogn itive m aturation and s tra te g y -a cq u is ition .
275
M nem onic-instructed non-users :
The main reasons o ffe red fo r not using a se lf-generated mnemonic fe il in to two broad categories:
a) In s u ff ic ie n t time fo r mnemonic construc tion , (e.g.,1N1; 1N2; 1N4; 1N5; 1N6; 3N1; 3N2;
b) Adoption o f a more p re fe rred learn ing method, (e.g.,1N3; 3N3; 3N4; 3N5; 3N6; 3N7).
The predominance o f younger ch ild ren represented in category ’a’ above, again re flec ts the im portant re la tionsh ip between m aturation and s tra te g y acquis ition . The o lde r ch ild ren who reported not using a mnemonic were fa r more like ly to do so as a re su lt o f adopting a d iffe re n t form o f le a rn in g -s tra te g y . Perhaps not s u rp r is in g ly , m nem onic-instructed non-users had a tendency to respond negative ly tow ards mnemonics in both the questionnaires and also these in te rv iew s. Asked why th is was, typ ica l reponses were: " I got muddled up by them ", ( IN I; 1N5; 1N6; ) o r, " I ’d fo rg e t them ", (1N2; 3N7).
Asked how they would go about remembering a l is t o f names th a t a teacher had asked them to learn, most reported rehearsal as th e ir favoured choice, (e.g., 1N1; 1N2; 1N5; 3N3; 3N4; 3N5; 3N6 and 3N7) a lthough a few mentioned f ir s t - le t te r cueing, (e.g., 1N4; 1N6; 3N1;3N2). This con tras ts w ith most mnemonic users in both yea r-g roups, who favoured more complex stra teg ies, such as f i r s t - le t te r cueing. There appears to be a clear re la tionsh ip between ch ild ren In the m nem onica lly-instructed groups who did use an acrostic as requested and those who did not. Typ ica lly , ch ild ren who fa iled to co n s tru c t a mnemonic e ith e r found the exercise "too hard" o r irre le va n t. In view o f more favoured regu la r a lte rna tives. Non-users tended to be represented by a la rg e r number o f lower achievers. Children who constructed a mnemonic as requested were represented by a la rg e r number o f h igher achievers. Such observations are consisten t w ith the lite ra tu re , (e.g., see Kail, 1979).
No o b jec tive c r ite r ia was used to establish these tre n d s o the r than the researcher’s personal knowledge o f the ch ild re n ’s a b ility .
276
EXPERIMENTS 7a and 7b (Planets 2 and historical periods 2)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED "APPENDIX'
PURPOSE: To te s t the long term e fficacy o f n ine (p lane ts) and six-ltem ,(h is to rica l pe riods) experim enter-generated f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, on a recogn ition te s t a t 2 re ten tion In te rva ls , aga inst ro te and un In s tru c te d lea rn ing conditions. Graphs d isp lay ing a comparison between Immediate and long -te rm recall fo r each condition can be found on page 290.
Target Year: 1 (mean age 11.5 y rs )
Targe t-g roups: C .-group (u n in s tru c te d )
R .-group (to ld to recall ro te -learned m ateria l)
E .-group (to ld to recall mnemonic m ateria l)
N.B. Unlike all p revious experim ents experim ents in the 7 series invo lved recognition in add ition to recall.
DATES OF TEST AND SUBJECTS USED:
EXPERIMENT 7a (p lanets 2)boys g ir ls
E .-g rou p Wednesday 5th Ju ly 8 17 20
R .-g roup Thursday 6th Ju ly 8 16 19
C .-g roup Wednesday 7th Ju ly 8 17 19
No. WEEKS RE-TEST "
277
EXPERIMENT 7b (h is to rica l periods 2)boys g ir ls
E .-g roup ..... Wednesday 5th Ju iy 4 17 20
R .-g roup..... Thursday 6th Ju ly 4 18 19
C .-g roup ..... F riday 7th Ju ly 4 17 19
No. WEEKS RE-TEST
MATERIAL TO BE RECALLED:
1) The o rd e r o f the planets com prising o u r so lar system ( LEARNED IN EXPERIMENT 2)
2) The h is to rica l periods which comprise the Modern Age ( LEARNED IN EXPERIMENT 4)
PROCEDURE:
Each f ir s t -y e a r group heard an identica l audio-tape which contained in s tru c tio n s about how to respond to the two answer sheets p rovided.
METHOD:
Subjects en te r experim ent room, are welcomed and reminded th a t th e ir performance on the te s t w ill in no way a ffec t th e ir school career.
AUDIO-TAPE STARTED.
"In f ro n t o f you, th e re is a card. Turn i t o ve r now. Do not w rite a ny th ing u n til you are to ld .
The second time you learned inform ation fo r me, I asked you to learn the names o f the planets which make up o u r solar system, and also, the p a rtic u la r o rd e r o f the planets. Near the top o f the card, you w ill see the names o f all the planets in ou r so lar system, BUT THEY ARE NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
Below these names, the re are nine spaces. A t the top o f these spaces, the "Sun" has been w ritte n . ONLY WHEN I TELL YOU, I want you to w rite the names o f the planets, in th e ir co rrec t o rd e r from the Sun. I w ill g ive you one m inute to do th is . START NOW."
TAPE RUNNING........
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP
278
EXPERIMENTER SAYS:
"A t the bottom o f th is sheet, where i t says "house", c irc le e ith e r B, D o r R. Where i t says "sex", c irc le e ith e r "B" o r "G". Where i t says " fam ily ", (fo rm ) pu t you r fam ily number, and where It says " In it ia ls ", p u t the f i r s t le tte r o f you r C hristian and surnames.
Now I want you to change th is sheet w ith the one under you r cha ir, making sure to p u t the new sheet face-down on to you r work board. Now please lis ten to the tape again."
RE-START TAPE.
"In f ro n t o f you, the re is a card. Turn i t ove r now. Do not w rite any th ing un til you are to ld .
The th ird time you learned inform ation fo r me, I asked you to learn the periods which make up the Modern Age. On the card, you w ill see the names o f all the periods which make up the Modern Age, BUT THEY ARE NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
Below these names, the re are six spaces, one fo r each period o f the Modern Age. Only when I te ll you, I want you to w rite the names o f these periods in th e ir co rre c t o rder. I w ill g ive you one m inute to do th is .START NOW."
TAPE STILL RUNNING........
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP
AUDIO-TAPE ENDS
Experim enter repeats in s tru c tio n s about the iden tifica tion o f sc rip ts ,(see above).
SCRIPTS COLLECTED IN SILENCE, CHILDREN THANKED
END.
279
RESULTS OF PLANETS RE-TEST (experim ent 7a)
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-Group 36 119 3.305 2.079
R.-Group 35 109 3.114 2.616
E.-Group 37 299 8.081 2.097
F 74.32 / p 0.000
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE .......... 0.341 — d f 69
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 8.913 — d f 70
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 9.729 — d f 71
DISCUSSIONOn an analysis o f variance, th is re s u lt is h ig h ly s ig n ifica n t. Using the measure o f p < 0.05 ( t > 1.671), th e re are two h igh ly s ig n ifica n t resu lts to rep o rt: R v E and E v C. These resu lts are in te rp re ted to suggest the foi low ing:
1 ) On a long-term recognition task , ch ild re n ins tru c te d how to use f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, dem onstrated considerably b e tte r performance than e ith e r ch ild re n in s tru c te d to learn material in th e ir regu la r manner o r ch ild re n in s tru c te d to ro te -rehearse mater i ai.
2) Although mnemonically in s tru c te d ch iid re n have d if f ic u lty in dem onstrating immediate lea rn ing bene fits [1 ] using a more sophisticated acrostic, (e.g., o f nine items, as opposed to six) on a long-te rm recogn ition task, acrostics can considerably fa c ilita te recall.
3) Children as young as eleven, can manipulate qu ite sophisticated mnemonics (acrostics) e ffe c tive ly .
4) Children in the mnemonic g roup a c tu a liy recall nearly one item more in the recognition tes t, (7.157 v 8.081) w h ils t the un ins truc ted and rote-1 earners recall on ly c .ha lf o f what they were able to at immediate fre e -re ca li re -te s t.
1 In fac t, a t immediate re -te s t, E .-g roup perform ed on ly as well as C and R groups.
GENDER DIFFERENCES
280
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 17 57 3.352 2.084
GIRLS 19 62 3.263 2.073
t 0.128 — d f 34
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 16 69 4.312 2.866
GIRLS 19 40 2.105 1.860
t 2.744 — d f 33
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 17 135 7.941 1.609
GIRLS 20 164 8.2 2.039
" t 0.423 — d f 35
DISCUSSIONThere is one s ig n ifica n t re su lt to report. In the ro te condition , boys well ou t-perfo rm ed the g ir ls . This tre n d is conducive w ith e a rlie r experiments (e.g., experim ent 1; experim ent 2, Planets). Given th a t the boys in R .-group in it ia lly learned th is material more e ffe c tive ly . I t Is perhaps not s u rp ris in g th a t th is material has also been retained and was recalled more e ffe c tive ly .
As in experiments 1, 2 and 4, the re are no s ig n ifica n t gender d iffe rences in E .-group.
281
EXPERIMENT 7b (Historical periods 2)
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-Group 36 48 1.333 1.333
R.-Group 37 69 1.864 1.662
E.-Group 37 193 5.216 1.694
F 74.30 / p 0.000
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ......... 1.503 — d f 71
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ...... 8.592 — d f 72
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL ..10.864 — d f 71
DISCUSSIONOn an analysis o f variance, th is re s u lt Is h ig h ly s ig n ifica n t. H ighly s ig n ifica n t resu lts ( t > 3.460; d f > 60; p < .001) are reported fo r R v E and E v C scores. These re su lts are in te rp re ted to suggest the fo llow ing :
1) A lthough younger ch ild re n are able to manipulate and apply qu ite sophisticated mnemonics (e.g., n ine-item acrostics, see "experim ent 2 ") fo llow ing lim ited in s tru c tio n , younger ch iid ren can manipulate mnemonics conta in ing few er items more easily.
2) On an identica l, time-matched learn ing task, a rb it ra r i ly related material learned several weeks p rev ious ly , is almost to ta lly fo rgo tten by ch ild ren adopting th e ir regu la r method o f learn ing . The mnemonic group however, w h ils t perform ing poorly at immediate re -te s t, [2 ] produced considerably b e tte r perform ance (e.g., R V E; R V C) on the recogn ition task, around tw o -a nd -a - ha lf times as well!
GENDER DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 26 1.368 1.384
GIRLS 17 22 1.294 1.272
t 0.166 — d f 34
2 Possibly due to the fa c t th a t they had to learn both the learn ing material and the mnemonic. C hildren in a lte rna tive learn ing cond itions spent the whole time focusing on the learn ing material presented.
282
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 18 33 1.833 1.740
GIRLS 19 36 1.894 1.585
'' t 0.112 — d f 35
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 17 91 5.352 1.531
GIRLS 20 102 5.1 1.813
" t 0.452 — d f 35
DISCUSSIONUsing the measure o f significance, p < 0.05 ( t > 1.684) There were no s ign ifican t gender differences to report.
EXPERIMENTS 7c and 7d (design process 2, and assessment-scaie 2)
EXAMPLES OF ALL MATERIALS CAN BE FOUND IN THE SECTION MARKED "APPENDIX.
PURPOSE; To tes t the long-term e fficacy o f g roup-genera ted n ine Item,(design process) and six-ltem , (assessment scale) f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics a t d if fe re n t re - te s t In te rva ls , aga inst ro te and un ins truc ted learn ing conditions. Graphs d isp lay ing a comparison between Immediate and long -te rm recall fo r each condition can be found on page 291.
Target Year: 3 (mean age 13.5 y rs )
Target groups: C.-group (un ins truc ted )
R.-group (told to recall ro te-learned material)
E.-group (told to recall mnemonic m ateria l)
283
EXPERIMENT 7c (design process 2)boys g ir ls
E .-g roup Wednesday 12th Ju ly 8 16 14
R .-g roup Thursday 13th Ju ly 8 19 21
C .-g roup F riday 4th Ju ly 8 21 19
No. WEEKS RE-TEST "
EXPERIMENT 7d (assessment scale 2)boys g ir ls
E .-g roup Wednesday 12th Ju ly 4 16 14
R .-g roup Thursday 13th Ju ly 4 19 21
C .-g roup F riday 14th Ju ly 4 21 19
No. WEEKS RE-TEST "
MATERIAL TO BE RECALLED:
1 ) The o rd e r o f the va rious stages in the design process (LEARNED IN EXPERIMENT 3).
2) The o rd e r o f the assessment scale (LEARNED IN EXPERIMENT 5).
PROCEDURE:
Each th ird -y e a r group heard an identica l audio-tape which contained in s tru c tio n s about how to respond to the two answer sheets p rovided.
METHOD:
S ub jects en te r experim ent room, are welcomed and reminded th a t th e ir performance on the te s t w ill in no way a ffe c t th e ir school career.
284
AUDIO-TAPE STARTED.
"In fro n t o f you, th e re is a card. Turn i t over now. Do not w rite anyth ing un til you are to ld .
The second time you learned Inform ation fo r me, I asked you to learn the names o f the va rious stages in the design process, and also, the p a rticu la r o rd e r o f these stages. Near the top o f the card, you w ill see the names o f all the various stages In the design process, BUT THEY ARE NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
Below these names, the re are nine spaces, one fo r each stage in the design process. ONLY WHEN I TELL YOU, I want you to w rite these names th e ir co rrec t o rder. I w ill g ive you one m inute to do th is . START NOW."
TAPE RUNNING........
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP
EXPERIMENTER SAYS:
"A t the bottom o f th is sheet, where i t says "house", c irc le e ith e r B, D o r R. Where i t says "sex", c irc le e ith e r "B" o r "G". Where It says "fam ily ", (form ) p u t yo u r fam ily number, and where i t says " in it ia ls " , p u t the f i r s t le tte r o f you r C hris tian and surnames.
Now I want you to change th is sheet w ith the one under yo u r cha ir, making sure to pu t the new sheet face-down on to you r work board. Now please listen to the tape again."
RE-START TAPE.
"In fro n t o f you, the re is a new card. Turn It ove r now. Do not w rite anyth ing un til you are to ld .
The th ird time you learned inform ation fo r me, you were asked to learn an assessment scale, which could be used to assess the q u a lity o f a p roduct. On the card, you w ill see the names o f all the stages used in the assessment scale, BUT THEY ARE NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
Below these names, the re are six spaces, one fo r each stage. Only when I te ll you, I want you to w rite these various stages in th e ir co rrec t o rder. I w ill g ive you one m inute to do th is . START NOW."
TAPE STILL RUNNING........
SIREN SOUNDS WHEN TIME UP
AUDIO-TAPE ENDS
Experimenter repeats in s tru c tio n s about the ide n tifica tion o f sc rip ts ,(see above).
SCRIPTS COLLECTED IN SILENCE, CHILDREN THANKED
END.
285
RESULTS OF
GROUP
DESIGN PROCESS RE
SCRIPTS SCORE
-TEST
MEAN
(experim ent 7c)
S.D.
C.-Group 30 53 1.766 1.584
R.-Group 40 43 1.075 1.126
E.-Group 40 101 2.525 2.872
F 7.84 / p 0.001
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ..... d f 68
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 2.973 — d f 78
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 1.305 — d f 68
DISCUSSION:On an analysis o f variance, th is re s u it is s ig n ifica n t. Using the c r ite r ia p rev ious ly established fo r t- te s ts , the scores fo r C v R and R V E and are also s ig n ifica n t. I t is hypothesised, th a t the un ins truc ted group were adopting a range o f s tra teg ies spontaneousiy, which were almost as e ffe c tive as the mnemonic used here. The poorer re su lt o f C .-group, is in te rp re te d as evidence th a t o lde r ch ild ren , under in s tru c tion to e ith e r re s t r ic t th e ir normal re p e rto ry o f s tra teg ies o r learn ing w ithou t th e aid o f more sophisticated s tra teg ies, wili d isp lay impoverished lea rn ing .
GENDER DIFFERENCES
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 16 38 2.375 1.408
GIRLS 14 15 1.071 1.486
t 2.466 — d f 28
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 7 0.368 0.751
GIRLS 21 33 1.571 1.178
" t 3.804 — d f 38
286
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 21 58 2.761 2.974
GIRLS 19 43 2.263 2.1 ZO
" t 0.553 — d f 38
DISCUSSION:Using the measure o f s ign ificance, p < 0.05 ( t > 1.684) the re are two s ig n ifica n t resu lts to rep ort, C .-group boys v g ir ls and R .-group boys v g ir ls .
C .-group g ir ls performed b e tte r than C .-group boys a t immediate re te s t a lthough the re su lt was not s ig n ifica n t. I t is d if f ic u lt to explain why at long-term recognition re -te s t gender perform ance shouid be reversed.
R .-group gender d iffe rences were h igh ly s ign ifica n t. This is also somewhat d if f ic u lt to explain. A lthough th is trend was noted fo llow ing the un ins truc ted matching experiment, d iffe rences were not s ig n ifica n t, (e.g., t 0.258). F u rthe r, the re appears to be no in tra -g e n d e r performance tre n d , except on both experiments which tested long-te rm recall using rote learn ing as the dependent variab le .
In experiment 5, (assessment scale experim ent) R .-group boys performed s lig h tly b e tte r than the g ir ls , (e.g., boys mean = 4.857 v g ir ls mean 4, t 1.739). I f the resu lts o f the two long-te rm recall tests are taken toge ther, they suggest th a t whereas boys de rive more immediate benefit from rote rehearsal, g ir ls de rive more long-te rm benefits. I t is hypothesised th a t th is anomaly is related to co gn itive m aturation and m ight be investiga ted em pirica lly as a separate issue.
No gender d iffe rences fo r E .-g roup are reported.
287
RESULTS OF ASSESSMENT SCALE RE-TEST (experim ent 7d)
GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-Group 30 32 1.066 1.030
R.-Group 40 52 1.3 1.417
E.-Group 40 174 4.35 2.393
F 123.19 / p 0.000
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE .......... 0.765 — d f 68
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 6.936 — d f 78
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 7.034 — d f 68
DISCUSSION:On an analysis o f variance, th is re su lt is h igh ly s ig n ifica n t. I t is im portan t to note a rep lica tion o f the acrostic span-e ffec t, also observed in resu lts re la ting to the younger ch ild ren investiga ted . Like th e ir e leven-year-o ld co un te rpa rts , the th ir te e n -y e a r-o ld s demonstrate more e ffe c tive manipulation o f sh o rte r acrostic material. This e ffe c t may be a fu n c tio n o f the actual mnemonics employed, and so w ill need to be addressed in more detail th ro u gh subsequent investiga tions.
Again, in te r-g ro u p d iffe rences were v e ry h igh ly s ig n ifica n t. There were no s ig n ific a n t d iffe rences between the un in s truc ted and ro te groups’ performance.
GENDER DIFFERENCES
288
C.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 16 20 1.25 0.968
GIRLS 14 12 0.857 1.059
^ t - 1.062 — d f 28
R.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 19 17 0.894 0.787
GIRLS 21 35 1.666 1.727
t 1.786 — d f 38
E.-GROUP SCRIPTS SCORE MEAN S.D.
BOYS 21 84 4 2.600
GIRLS 19 90 4.736 2.073
0.983 — d f 38
DISCUSSION:The tren d fo r C .-group boys to perform b e tte r than the g ir ls was also noticed here and was s ta tis tica lly s ig n ific a n t.
R .-group g ir ls ou t-perfo rm ed the boys on the long -te rm recall task, b u t the level o f s ign ificance was not as g reat. This re su lt Is in te rp re te d to suggest th a t g ir ls o f th is age, (mode 13.5 years) are able to rehearse w ith g reater beneficia l e ffec t, especially o ve r longterm re tention in te rva ls . I t is hypothesised th a t th is is a re s u lt o f cog n itive m aturation, the g ir ls p robab ly m an ipu la ting the rehearsed inform ation in a qu a lita tive ly d if fe re n t way from the boys.
No E .-group gender d iffe rences were apparent.
289
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE LONG-TERM RECALL RESULTS:
1) Argum ents re la ting to tim e-on -task and f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, seem applicable o n ly to Immediate recall, where a comparison between mnemonic and two a lte rn a tive learn ing cond itions produces s im ila r resu lts .
2) In each o f the long-te rm recall experim ents, recall improvements resu lting from mnemonic in te rven tio n was v e ry s ig n ifica n t. T yp ica lly mnemonic learners could recall around tw ice th a t o f un in s tru c te d and rote groups and in one case, learn ing was th ree times superio r.
3) As p red ic ted , f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics which invo lve less processing (e.g., s ix-item s) seem to be more e ffe c tive than longer ones. This e ffec t is especially noticeable in experim ent 7c, (long -te rm recall o f experim ent 3, design process) where even the mnemonic g roup could recall on ly an average o f 2.5 items o f th e o r ig in a lly learned 9.
4) Acrostics constructed by the teacher/experim enter appear more e ffec tive than those constructed by the class o r ind iv idua ls . Consistent w ith the lite ra tu re , (see pp.69-76 o f th is s tu d y ) young ch ild ren ty p ic a lly experience d if f ic u lty in knowing what is like ly to be an e ffec tive o r ine ffec tive mnemonic. The poorest acrostic used in th is s tudy was one designed by a g roup o f ch ild re n , (Design process, experim ent 3, pp.220-228). The acrostic has a number o f id io syn c ra tic and confusing components which have produced an unexciting re s u lt fo r th is p a rtic u la r mnemonic. Suggested gu ide lines fo r g roup and teachergenerated acrostics are discussed in detail under the heading o f "Mnemonising material ", pp.349-358.
5) A comparison between un in s truc ted and rote lea rne rs ' long -te rm recall reveals l it t le d iffe rence between the tw o as aide-memoirs. An im portan t re su lt seems to be th a t unless ch ild ren in these age-groups are de libera te ly in s tru c te d to use some form o f learn ing method, a considerable amount o f material o r ig in a lly learned is fo rgo tten . For example, the mean combined score fo r f ir s t - y e a r groups on the in it ia l p lanets experim ent, (experim ent 2) was around 7 items, (ou t o f a possible 9) b u t a t 6 week re -te s t, th is had been more than haived in both the un in s tru c te d and ro te learn ing conditions. The mnemonic g ro u p ’s score ac tua lly increased a t re -te s t, from 7.157 a t immediate p o s t-te s tto 8.081 at 6 weeks re -te s t! These tre n d s were ev iden t in all o f the long-te rm recall experim ents com prising the 7 series.
THERE FOLLOWS EIGHT GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS OF RECALL IN EACH CONDITION FOR EXPERIMENTS:
2, (tab le 1) 7a, (tab le 5)3, (tab le 2) 7b, (tab le 6)4, (tab le 3) 7c, (tab le 7)5, (tab le 4) 7d, (tab le 8)
290a
t a b l e 1
PlanetsE xperim ent 2
Control Rote
Im m ediate Recall
Experiment
Table 1
290b
T A B L E 2
Historical PeriodsE xperim ent 4
Control Rote Experim ent
Table 2
Im m ediate recall
290c
TABLE 3
Design ProcessE xperim ent 3
Control Rote Experiment
Im m ediate Recall
Table 3
290d
T A B L E -4-
Assessment ScaleE xp erim en t 5
Control Rote Experiment
Table 4
Im m ediate Recall
291a
T A B L E S
Planets Experim ent 2E xperim ent 7a
Control Rote Experim ent
Long-Term Recall
Table 5
291b
T A B L E e
Historical Periods 2E xperim ent 7b
Control Rote Experiment
Table 6
Long-Term Recall
291c
T A B L E 7
Design Process 2E xperim ent 7c
Control Rote Experiment
Table 7
Long-Term Recall
291 d
T A B L E &
Assessment Scale 2E xperim ent 7d
Control Rote Experim ent
Table 8
Long-Term Recall
292
SUMMARY OR SECTION ~7
The resu lts o f a su rve y related to the use o f mnemonics undertaken in
seven secondary schools is reviewed.
293
THE STAFF SURVEY
Many aspects o f knowledge re la ting to the use and application o f
mnemonics w ith in schools a t p resent remain un ad dressed. A lthough the
main focus o f research in th is s tu dy has been the effec ts o f mnemonics
upon classroom learn ing , experimental data per se, fa ils to p rov ide
evidence re la ting to the contexts, range and scale o f mnemonics
p resen tly used in secondary schools. I t is hoped th a t these resu lts
w ill go some way tow ards c la r ify in g these issues.
As in most research, compromises have been necessary in o rd e r to
accommodate the lim ita tions o f the resources and time available.
CHOICE OF APPROACH:
A fte r seeking advice from the Head and senior management o f the s tudy
school about the typ e and s ty le o f questionna ire to use. I t was
decided to employ a fixe d -a lte rn a tive design, [1 ] as th is would be
re la tive ly easy and qu ick to complete, and fa c ilita te subsequent
coding. I t was considered necessary to lim it the questions to e igh t.
This number was considered to be " ju s t palatable", as s ta ff in ail
schools can a ffo rd l it t le time fo r unscheduled work.
1 Where respondees are requ ired to choose from a selection o f specified responses.
294
In o rd e r to Improve the take -up o f s ta ff, a b r ie f statement o f
purpose was attached to the fro n t sheet which read:
Dear Colleague,
I am a fu ll- t im e p rac tis in g teacher. As the sub jec t o f
a research degree (Ph.D), I have chosen to s tudy ways in which
classroom learn ing can be improved by the use o f simple techniques.
The main aims o f the work are:
a) To fin d ou t what recall s tra teg ies (mnemonics) fellow teachers use in the classroom.
b) To develop a range o f mnemonics to help ch ild ren remember facts and inform ation more e ffe c tive ly .
Your personal knowledge gained th ro u gh teaching experience will make a
valuable addition to th is s tudy. I w ill be pleased to share the
resu lts w ith you r school upon conclusion and add itiona lly , c re d it
ind iv idua l members o f s ta ff i f they feel th a t naming th e ir
co n tribu tio n is appropria te .
Thank you, in an tic ipa tion , fo r yo u r help.
Yours fa ith fu lly ,
Stephen D. Booth
To improve the questionna ire ’s general appearance, the paper was
p rin ted on one side on ly.
295
CHOICE OF AGE-GROUP
I t was decided to ta rg e t secondary schools fo r the fo llow ing
reasons:
a) Schools ca te ring fo r th is age-group are more like ly to o ffe r inform ation re levan t to the ta rg e t-g ro u p s o f th is s tudy ,(e.g., ages 11-14 years).
b) At a pragm atic level, my Head Teacher was able to use a number o f contacts to improve the "ta ke -u p " o f questionnaires.
296
PREPARATION:
1) Northampton Education Department’s mainframe com puter used to
id e n tify potentia l ta rge t-schoo ls (secondary). Six schools
randomly assigned.
2) F irs t d ra ft prepared and discussed w ith Senior Education
Inspecto r represen ting the A u th o rity .
3) Small-scale p ilo t completed to check operational v a lid ity .
4) Second d ra ft prepared and p rin ted .
5) Headmaster o f the s tudy school w rote to Head Teachers
requesting su p po rt on my behalf.
6) Good response, communication w ith Head Teachers followed by
de live ry o f su rveys.
7) Surveys coilected and inform ation disseminated.
297
THE QUESTIONS
Questions 1, 2 and 3 were designed to e lic it the ye a r-g roups to which
mnemonics had been in troduced by each teacher, ( i f any) and deta ils o f
those most re g u la rly used, toge the r w ith the sub jec t material o r
Inform ation they were designed to accompany.
I t was th o u g h t useful to know which o f these mnemonics were
considered most useful. This was addressed in Question 4.
Data re la ting to c h ild re n ’s a ttitu d e s toward the use o f mnemonics
in classroom learn ing is unavailable. A lthough th is is a fea tu re
subsequent stud ies may address in more deta il, i t was possible to
obta in teachers ’ perception o f how ch ild ren genera lly responded to
using mnemonics. This inform ation was obtained by asking teachers to
ra te how they th o u g h t ch ild ren had responded to using mnemonics. A
fo u r-p o in t scale was used in an e ffo r t to a ve rt m id-range responses.
I t was considered im portant to obta in more complete knowledge
re la ting to the number o f mnemonics ( i f any) teachers had used d u ring
th e ir careers and also the sub ject-a reas in which they had been used.
Questions 6 and 7 respective ly , addressed these points.
There is l it t le o r no o b jec tive data re la ting to:
a) The o rig in o f the mnemonics teachers use.
b) The techniques and s ty le employed by teachers to teach ch ild ren about mnemonics.
c) How teachers acquired spec ific mnemonics.
d) How teachers learned to apply specific mnemonics.
298
In te re s tin g as these areas o f research are, i t was on iy p racticab le to
address the sub jec t o f application. Question 8, probed th is aspect o f
teachers ’ mnemonic knowledge.
A space fo r additional co n tribu tio n s was included and all
c o n tr ib u to rs were informed th a t named co n tribu tio n s would be c red ited .
I have decided to subm it the names o f schools which con tribu ted
to th is aspect o f the s tudy at th is stage. These are accredited in the
s tu d y and i t seems somewhat a r t if ic ia l to mask the names here.
CODE
D 1 ) Daventry School, Daventry.C 2) Campion School, Bugbrooke.H 3) S ir C hris topher Hatton School, W ellingborough.P 4) Pemberton School, Rushden.B 5) Beanfield School, Corby.M 6) Montagu School, K e ttering .L 7) Lodge Park School, Corby. (STUDY SCHOOL)
Some o f the items classified in the su rvey m ight be considered "ru le s "
as opposed to mnemonics. I t is worth re ite ra tin g the in itia l broad
b r ie f which c lassifies mnemonics as "schemes designed to assist
learn ing and reca ll".
299
I feel It inappropria te to discuss the actua l number o f respondees in
each school. At present, many innovations compete fo r s ta ff time and I
would not wish some o f the poorer ta ke -u ps to re fle c t any school's
response.
Each had a s ta ff o f c.60, and the take -up was in the region o f
25-30%, except in the s tu d y school where the take -up was c.100%. The
most im portan t fac to rs govern ing take -up , were perhaps not
s u rp r is in g ly , the sup po rt o f the Head Teacher and the specific
regional and national pressures each school was experiencing at the
time [2].
I t w ill be clear th a t because ta ke -up was so (p re d ic ta b ly )
lim ited, the re is no accurate method o f assessing what percentage o f
teachers use mnemonics as p a rt o f th e ir re gu la r teaching programmes.
I t is like ly th a t teachers who use mnemonics would be more w illing to
respond, bu t i t is more than conceivable th a t even teachers who
re g u la rly employ mnemonics, were e ith e r unable o r unw illing to
respond. For these reasons, i t was decided to use th is material as a
resource, from which inference and broader generalisations could be
obta ined, ra th e r than using the material to make specific
generalisations, which in any case, was never the purpose o f th is
aspect o f the s tudy.
Because the take -up in the s tu d y school was c.100%, these su rve y
resu lts were analysed in detail.
2 For example, in te r-schoo l ac tiv itie s . Government in itia tive s , school productions.
300
SAMPLE:
The master computer belonging to the Northam ptonshire Education
Department was used to assign fiv e ta rge t-schoo ls from the A u th o r ity ’s
secondary school pool.
In addition , two fu r th e r schools were randomly assigned as
reserves. Of the fiv e schools approached, fo u r o ffe red support, so i t
was decided to e n lis t both reserve schools and also Involve s ta ff a t
the s tudy school. This would p rov ide more comprehensive inform ation
about the regu la r use o f mnemonics w ith in the school cu rricu lu m and
w ith an expected take -up o f c.100% at the s tudy school, o ffe r an
in s ig h t in to regu la r mnemonic practice using an in tac t [3] g roup o f
teachers.
I t could not the re fo re , be claimed th a t the su rve y schools were
pu re ly randomly assigned, bu t nonetheless, the re was a s trong element
o f ob jec tive ta rg e tin g Involved In iden tifica tion .
3 The normal population o f a group o r in s titu tio n .
301
IDENTIFICATION
In o rd e r to achieve a more precise analysis o f the su rvey resu lts , all the questionnaire responses have been d iv ided in to one o f fo u r groups:
F irs t choice mnemonic o f teachers at the s tu d y school
Other than f i r s t choice mnemonic o f teachers a t the s tu d y school
F irs t choice mnemonic o f the teachers at all o th e r schools surveyed
Other than f i r s t choice mnemonic o f the teachers at all o th e r schools surveyed
For convenience, the su rvey resu lts from the s tu dy school are discussed separate ly, and compared w ith resu lts from the o th e r fiv e schools th a t con tribu ted . Mnemonics o rig in a tin g from the s tu d y school, are accompanied by the le tte r "S", those o rig in a tin g from the o the r schools, w ith the le tte r "O".
For example, 14-S "O.I.L.R.I.G.", ind icates item 14 o rig in a tin g from the s tudy school, 29-0, "BODMAS", item 29 from a source o the r than the s tudy school.
In addition , the number o f times each mnemonic has been cited w ith in a category, appears below the main reference which is in bold type. Each member o f s ta ff in each school th a t con tribu ted has been given a number w ith an accompanying le tte r to fa c ilita te cross- re fe rencing .
For example, the fo llow ing c ita tion :
4 -0 " I before E exceptP2 a fte r C"......................Spelling ru lesP9D304
Ind icates the item was cited by 4 s ta ff from 3 d if fe re n t
schools,
P = Pemberton
D = Daventry
0 = Campion
302
THE SURVEY
Some teachers use recall " t r ic k s " (s tra teg ies) in o rd e r to im prove the chances o f th e ir pup ils being able to remember fac ts and knowledge. An example would be, "E very Good Boy Deserves Food", a sentence used by music teachers to teach stave notation.
There are many such remembering s tra teg ies. You may well know them as mnemonics.
There is i it t le d ire c t evidence to suggest how w idespread is the use o f mnemonics o r where and when they are used in schools.
PLEASE OFFER ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS, EITHER BY TICKING THE BOX PROVIDED, OR BY MAKING A COMMENT IN THE SPACE PROVIDED
School:
Age: ) 18-25 ) 26-35 ) 36-45 ) 46-55 ) 56-65
Sex: ) M ) F
Number o f years as a teacher:
) 0-5 ) 6-10 ) 11-15 ) 16-20 ) 21 +
PAGE 1
303
Q1) Have you ever used a mnemonic (m em ory-aid) as p a rt o f you r lessons?
( ) YES
( ) NO
Q2) With which yea r-g roups have you used mnemonics? Please tic k , as appropria te :
) 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6i ) 6ii
03) Please g ive examples o f the mnemonics you have used/use the most re g u la rly , ( i f any) ?
a)
This helps to teach
b)
This helps to teach
c)
This helps to teach
PAGE 2
304
Q4) Please Indicate which o f the th ree mnemonics you have found the most useful in a id ing you r ch ild re n ’s memory?
( ) a ) b ) c
Q5) I f you have taugh t ch ild ren to use mnemonics in o rd e r to help them remember, was the a c tiv ity received w ith :
( ) S trong reservation?( ) Caution?( ) In te res t?( ) Enjoyment?
Q6) Roughly how many d if fe re n t pieces o f fac t/in fo rm a tio n have you tr ie d to help ch ild ren remember by teaching them a mnemonic?
) 1-3 ) 4-8 ) 9-15 ) 15+
Q7) For which sub jects have you used mnemonics ( i f any) ?
EnglishMathematicsScienceHumanitiesDesign & TechnologyExpressive A rtsForeign LanguagesReligious EducationEconomic AwarenessO the r/s , please specify
PAGE 3
305
Q8) I f you personally use mnemonics to help you remember fac ts o r Inform ation, did you learn how to use the mnemonic/s:
( ) By in tu itio n?
( ) During you r own schooldays?
( ) From a colleague?
( ) As a re su lt o f reading?
O ther/s? Please specify.
( )
( )
I f you have any o the r comments you feel may be he lp fu l to th is s tudy, please w rite them here.
Many thanks fo r yo u r kind help in completing th is questionnaire .
I f you would like to discuss any o f the responses o r comments you have made in more deta il, o r a lte rna tive ly , share ideas o r in form ation, please do not hesitate to contact me.
Stephen Booth House T u to rLodge Park Comprehensive SchoolShetland WayCorbyN orthants Tel: Corby 203817
PAGE 4
306
SURVEY AT STUDY SCHOOL
Although the o the r schools ta rge tted fo r the su rvey provided v ita l
inform ation about the mnemonics teachers ac tua lly use in th e ir
classrooms, the number o f re tu rn s reduced both the v a lid ity and
re lia b ility o f any ensuing generalisations.
Fortuna te ly , a ll o f the s ta ff a t the s tu d y school completed the
questionna ire , p rov id ing an inva luable source o f inform ation about the
mnemonic habits o f an e n tire teaching s ta ff w ith in a sta te
comprehensive school. C learly, r ich as th is inform ation is, i t can
serve on ly as a useful ind ica to r o f c u rre n t mnemonic practice.
MNEMONICS CITED BY STAFF AS THEIR FIRST CHOICE:
MNEMONIC THIS TEACHES
1-S "SOHCAHTOA"; PronouncedLI "S ock-a -toe -a "......................T rigonom etryL2L12L19
2-S "R.O.Y.G.B.I.V."/L10......"V.I.B.G.Y.O.R.".....................Sequential o rd e r o f spectra lL11 co loursL17
3-S "Never Eat ShreddedL13 Wheat"................................Points o f the compassL14L15
4-S "E very Good Boy L20 Deserves Food /Fun /L21 Football", e tc Treble c le f notationL22
5-S "Many Naughty L4 Rabbits EatL7 Green RhubarbL8 Stems".................................C haracte ris tics o f liv in g
th in g s
307
6-S "R ichard Of York L3 Gave (gained)L9 Battle In Va in"....................... Sequential o rd e r o f spectra lL11 co lours
7-S "Big Elephants AreL6 U g ly " .................................To aid the spe lling o f
BEAUTIFUL
8-S "Real Old Yokels L32 Gorge Beef InL11 Volumes"................... Sequential o rd e r o f spectra l
co lours
9-S "S tup id B rick ies L34 Invented Some
B ricks Made w ithRed A sp irin s ........................An aid to teaching the Design
process in sequential o rd e r
10-S "Pelicans Find L34 Vindaloo C u rry
A w fu lly S a tis fy in g " .................An aid to the teaching o f as ix -p o in t assessment-scaie fo r C.D.T.
11-S "H.A.K.E. &L24 D.R.A.K.E".............................F a t/W ater soluble vitam ins
12-S "WE"...................................West & East (exp lo ra tion)L25
13-S "DRAPERS VAN M.M.T".................An aid to the teachingL26 o f French verbs
14-S "OILRIG"............................. Teaches fac ts about oxidationL28
15-S "D.O.G.E.W.U.F."L30 Pronounced
"d o g g y -w u ff" ........................ Aids the recall o f Germanprepositions
16-S "HOMES"..............................Great lakes o f CanadaL31
308
17-S ” ’C’ a noun not aL5 v e rb " Aid to English Grammar
18-S "VAIN AZ UHO".L23 pronounced: "Vain
as yo u " An aid to the teaching o fGerman accusative prepositions
19-S "Not on the lis t.L27 On the l is t w ithou t
Mst’ .On the lis t w ith’ is t ’ .................................An aid to teaching pe rfec t
tense in German
20-S "X is a -c ross "....................... Labeliing graph axesL16
21-S " I f in doubt, ieaveL33 i t o u t" .................................Prevention o f ove r-use o f
commas, fu ll stops, apostrophes etc.
22-S "Along the c o rr id o r,L29 up the s ta irs " An aid to teaching g rid
references
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
OTHER THAN FIRST CHOICE
23-S "Richard Of York Gave L4 (gained) Battle InL7 Va in" Sequential o rd e r o f spectra lL8 co loursL11L18L23
24-S "ROY G B IV" Sequential o rd e r o f spectra lL11 coloursL16L28L31
309
25-S " I before E exceptL5 a fte r C"............................. An aid to spe llingL32L33
26-S "BODMAS" O rder o f operations inL1 mathematicsL12L19
27-S "Naughty ElephantsL6 S q u irt W ater" Points o f the compassL13 (sequentia l)
28-8 "TRIMLEGS" Aid to the teaching o f theL I3 ind u s tria l location theo ryL14
29-S "SOHCAHTOA"; PronouncedL1 "S ock-a -toe -a ".......................T rigonom etryL12
30-8 "Many Naughty L4 Rabbits Eat
Green RhubarbStems" C haractoris tics o f liv in g
th in g s
31-S "OILRIG" Teaches fac ts about oxidationL16
32-S "'H ' pencils H orrid L9 fo r A rt, ’ B’ pencils
Best" An aid to the selection o fA rt-a p p ro p ria te pencil lead.
33-S "Most ElephantsL3 P re fer Buns" Methane, Ethane, P araffin
Butane
34-S "C.O.D.S.L.I.P"...................... An aid to the teaching o f theL4 p rope rties o f gases
35-S "Elsie Feels Lone ly"............... An aid related to the teachingL10 o f magnetic fie ld s in
inducto rs .
310
36-S "Catherine Never CanL10 Manage A Live Zebra"................An aid to the teaching th a t
e lectro-m agnetic fie ld s lead the c u rre n t in induc to rs
37-S "All Cows Eat Grass" An aid to the teaching o fL20 bass-stave notation
38-S "Never Eat SreddedL29 Wheat" Compass positions
39-S "FACE" Spaces in the tre b le c le fL20
40-S "Good Able B r ie f" ..................Key s igna tu resL21
41-S "Four Children Get L21 Dates At Eliza
Brown’s " .............................O rder o f Sharps and fla ts
42-S "BASMOQ-NPN"........................ Provinces o f CanadaL31
43-S "D r & Mrs VANDERTRAMP".............Aid to the teaching o f e treL27 ve rbs
311
RESULTS FROM THE STUDY SCHOOL
The average age o f mnemonic users was (mode) between 36 and 45, com prising 17 maie and 16 female s ta ff. 63.5% o f mnemonic users had more than 16 years ' teaching experience and the 33 mnemonic users, represented 55% o f the tota i s tudy school s ta ff.
The fo llow ing tab le indicates the d is tr ib u tio n o f mnemonic use amongst d if fe re n t yea r-g roups w ith in the s tu dy school. F igures are expressed as percentages o f the to ta l responses fo r each ye a r-g ro u p by mnemonic users. F igures in brackets are the to ta l number o f times th a t yea r-g ro up was cited by teachers.
YEAR %
1 17 (23)
2 14 (19)
3 18 (24)
4 20 (27)
5 18 (24)
6i 6.5 (9)
6ii 6 (8)
In common w ith the resu lts from the o the r schools, "SOHCAHTOA" was found to be the most useful mnemonic, bu t un like the o th e r schools,(where the mnemonic fa iis to fea tu re at a ii!) "ROY G BIV" o r Its near d e riva tives is th o u g h t to be the second most useful. The p re fe rre d a lte rna tive mnemonic to teaching the spectra l co lours is "R ichard Of York Gained Battle in Vain" which overa ll fea tu res as the most popu lar mnemonic. The two o the r firs t-c h o ic e mnemonics w orthy o f mention are "Never Eat Shredded Wheat" (compass w ork) and "E very Good Boy Deserves Food". C uriously, the la tte r fa ils to fea tu re at all as a mnemonic th a t is used by s ta ff in o the r schools.
S tudy school s ta ffs ’ perception o f how th e ir ch ild ren received mnemonics as an aid to learn ing is in te rp re te d as follows. Assuming th a t s trong reservation and caution are considered negative responses, and in te res t and enjoym ent, positive , 90.5% o f s ta ff though th e ir s tuden ts responded pos itive ly to the use o f mnemonics as lea rn ing aids.
Responding to the number o f d if fe re n t mnemonics s ta ff had used to help teach material, 64.5% had used between 1 and 3 mnemonics, 29% between 4 and 8, and 6.5% more than 9.
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Clearly, some o f the mnemonics c ited, could be assigned to two o r more sub jec t-a reas [4 ], bu t fo r convenience, each mnemonic has been assigned to the more dominant su b je c t-u se r. In all, 43 d if fe re n t mnemonics were cited by s ta ff from the s tudy school, b road ly related to the fo llow ing sub ject-a reas:
English: = 4
Maths: = 2
Science: = 10
Geography: = 8
Mod. Lang. = 5
Music: = 5
C .D .T./A rt = 3
37
In id e n tify in g how they had learned to apply mnemonics, the responses were d is tr ib u te d as fo llows: 20.5% "by In tu itio n ", 50% d u rin g th e ir own schooldays, 16% from a colleague, 11.5% as a re su lt o f reading and 2%, Girl Guides.
DISCUSSION:
The su rvey undertaken at the s tudy school suggests th a t a number o f teachers had se lective ly employed mnemonic/s a t some time. Because o f the w r ite r ’s association w ith the s tudy school, i t was possible to ensure 100% re tu rn s . The s tudy school is a rguab ly a typ ica l 11-16 comprehensive and although the responses obtained could not be considered "rep resen ta tive ", such a fu il response provides a rich and useful source o f data.Around ha lf the s ta ff had used a mnemonic at some time in a va rie ty
o f c u rr ic u ia r areas. T yp ica lly , these are used to teach a rb it ra ry material, which tends to have few "n a tu ra l" associations. Examples o f th is would be "A -ll C-ows E -at G -rass", an acrostic fo r teaching the space-names o f the bass c le f or, the acronym: "H.O.M.E.S." used to help cue the names (no t the o rd e r) o f the f iv e g reat lakes.
A lthough the re were some fam ilia r mnemonics, such as the acrostic "R -ichard O -f Y -o rk G-ave (gained) B -a ttie I-n V -a in " [5 ] and the rhyme " ’ I ’ before ’E’ except a fte r ’C’ " the re were a number which were less fam ilia r.
4 For example, "R ichard Of York Gained Battle In Vain" can be used to help teach the spectra l co lours in e ith e r science o r a r t/g ra p h ic domains.5 Used to teach the spectra l colours: R-ed, O-range, Y-eilow, G-reen, B-lue, I-n d ig o and V-io le t.
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I t w ill be noted th a t the re appears to be a decline in the use o f mnemonics in the s ix th form. The main explanation fo r th is would appear to be th a t whereas most s ta ff teach s tuden ts up to and inc lud ing year 5, a smaller percentage teach the s ix th form.
I t was beyond the scope o f th is s tu d y to obtain more detailed inform ation re la ting to th is p a rtic u la r age-group. This would make a useful focus fo r subsequent work, along w ith a s tudy re la ting to p re secondary mnemonic use.
SURVEY RESULTS FROM THE OTHER SCHOOLS
FIRST CHOICE MNEMONICS:
MNEMONIC THIS TEACHES
1-0 "SOHCAHTOA"; PronouncedCl "sock -a -to e -a "....................... T rigonom etry02H7D4B2P6P13P14
2-0 "Richard o f York Gave PI (gained) Battle InP3 Vain Sequential o rd e r o f theP5 spectra l coloursP4H8
3 -0 "BODMAS" O rder o f precedenceC2CIOC12H4
4 -0 " I before E exceptP2 a fte r C".............................. Spelling ru lesP9D3C4
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5 -0 "Never Eat ShreddedD6 Wheat" Points o f the compassB3C6
6 -0 "S igns Of Happiness,H6 Come A fte r HavingH4 Tankards Of A le"......................Trigonom etryC13
7-0 "Men Very Early Make P8 Jugs Which ServeMl Useful Needs and
Purposes" Sequential o rd e r o f theplanets from the Sun
8 -0 "Some Old Hags Can’t H5 Always Heed The ir
Own A dvice"......................... T rigonom etry
9 -0 "Please Come OutD1 For Goodness’ Sake"................C lassification in biology
10-0 "Wufdoge"; pronouncedM2 "Woof Doggy"..........................Prepositions in German
ta k in g accusative case
11-0 "Red Man V. Tramps Verbs tak in g e tre inH2 pe rfe c t tense in French
12-0 "F.A.C.E"..............................Space notes in the tre b leHI c le f
13-0 "Never Enter Church P7 Eating Salmon
Sandwiches AndRaspberry Y o gu rt................... Aids the spe lling o f
"necessary"
14-0 "Chin-Knee-Toe,D5 Make-a-Bow, See-
It-G o " Throw ing Javelin, Shot,Discus
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15-0H3 ! V.W.HATCH :
.The le tte rs stand fo r aspects o f H it le r ’s rise to power
16-0 The Five Ws: "Who C3 did What, Where When
and W hy"?............................. A way o f summarisingh is to rica l data
17-0 "PIE" - One’s PIE (e tc ) PieP12
18-0 "A.D.V.E.N.T".........................French verbsD2
19-0 "E very Good BoyC5 Deserves Favour"....................Line notation in the tre b le
cle f
20-0P13
PORT TALBOT RAILWAY100 ,PTR
100 (Simple in te res t)
21 -0L11P4
ROY G B IV"...........................Sequential o rd e r o f thespectra l co lours
22-0 "The 3 P’s, Preserve B1 life . P revent
worsening. Promotere c o v e ry "............................P rinc ip les o f f i r s t aid
23-0P15
TFSWA". Method o f approach toso lv ing problems. In form ation (main p o in ts / data from question)Formula (to be sta ted) S u bstitu tion (in fo rm ula) show w orking, show answer
24-0PIG
'2 a’s SEPARATE 2 e’s " ............. Spelling o f SEPARATE
25-0 "In 1492, Columbus".................H istorical datesP11
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MNEMONICS OTHER THAN FIRST CHOICE
26-0 "R ichard o f York Gave P8 (gained) Battle InH8 Vain................................... Sequential o rd e r o f theMl spectra l coloursMlB1C6
27-0 " I before E exceptP10 a fte r C" Spelling ru lesP11
28-0 "PIE" - One’s PIE (e tc ) PieP11Cl
29-0 "BODMAS" O rder o f precedenceH7H8
30-0 "SOHCAHTOA"; PronouncedPI 5 "sock -a -to e -a "......................T rigonom etry
31-0 "Never two Ss C4 toge ther: Never Dear
S ir, Yours s incere ly in s ig n in g -o ff ale tte r ................................C orrect te rm ino logy in
le tte r w rit in g
32-0 "MEANINGFUL VARIABLES C2 IN PROGRAMMING-BETTER
PROGRAMMING"........................ Acronyms w ith in computers tu d y theo ry
33-0 "AA" ("A rte ry takesD1 Away b lood") C ircu la tion o f blood
34-0 "The 3 S’s, S tiffen ,B1 S trengthen, Shape"................. Use o f in te rfa c in g s in
tex tiles
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I35-0 S illy ' I >411B2 --------- 1------------
Tom I OatsI Which angles have positive
ra tios
36-0 "You must go down the D6 c o rr id o r before going
u p s ta irs " ............................The location o f g r id -references
37-0 M-VEM-J-SU N -P The sequential o rd e r o f theB3 planets from the Sun.
"P up ils tend to remember th a t M ercury Is the closest and Pluto is the fa rth e s t; "Vem" & Sun" help them to piece toge the r the res t o f the sequence"
38-0 T.M.P Word o rd e r o f adverbs inH2 German
39-0 "SCAP" Perfect and im perfect tenseH2 in German
40-0 "FIOS".................................Expansion o f bracketsP15
41-0 W.T.B.C. - "West 03 Tooting Broadcasting
C orpora tion" Wheat, Tu rn ips , Barley &Clover. Norfolk Four-course Crop Rotation
42-0 T.U .L.I.P The fiv e po in ts o fC3 C alv in ism /the doctrines o f
the P u ritans /C a lv in is ts
43-0 "TOY" B reast-stoke leg action. Eg,D5 legs form le tte rs T, O, Y,
d u rin g movement
44-0 "Stamp, Slap, BrushD5 & Bow"................................The bowling action in c r ic k e t
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45-0 "There Is a RATEP7 in SEPARATE"..........................The spe lling o f separate
46-0 Y + S = " ie s " ........................ P lu ra ls Invo lv ing ’Y’endingsC4
47-0 "A foxy moron is anD3 oxym oron" L ite ra ry term inology
48-0 "Some T ry Very C are fu lly PI To M anufacture For
Consumption N ickel-Coated Zinc..........................The f i r s t row o f tra ns itiona l
elements in the period ic tab le
49-0 "One is a bun, e tc.,..................Memory (pegs) using mnemonicsP10
50-0 "M rs TRAVENDAMP"......................Verbs In French form ingM2 pe rfec t tense w ith e tre
51-0 "O.L.E.M.A.C."......C3 Donald had a farm ...................Open fie lds . Land use.
Enclosures, Machines,Animals, Crops:Aspects o f the A g ricu ltu ra l R evo lu tion / Farming Revolution
52-0 "M ary ’s V iolet EyesC6 Made John Stay Up
N ights P in in g " Sequetial o rd e r o f theplanets
53-0 "Mary V incent EatsH8 Ma’s Jam Sandwiches
Under Nelson’s P illow " Sequential o rd e r o f theplanets
54-0 "Roman C atho lic" O rder o f matricesH6
55-0 "Men Very Early MakeH8 Jugs Which Serve
Useful Needs andPurposes" Sequential o rd e r o f the
planets from the Sun
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56-0 "Knock Him Down MyH8 Dear Cute Man" Kilometres - M illimetres
57-0 "Some One Has Chalked H8 A H orrib le Thing On
Angela" Formulae fo r sIne/cosine
58-0 "E very Good BoyH8 Deserves Favour" Line notation in the tre b le
c le f
59-0 "F.A.C.E"..............................Space notation in the tre b leH8 c le f
60-0 "Some Old Hags Can’t H8 Always Heed Their
Own A dvice"..........................T rigonom etry
61-0 "L it t le Beggar Boys H8 Catch Newts Or Fish
Nearby" Periodic tab le o f elements
62-0 "All Cows Eat Grass"................Bass c le f stave-spaceC5 notation
63-0 "Rejoice H eartily YourC5 Teacher Has Mumps".................Spelling o f the word
"rh y th m "
64-0 "APE".................................. The p lanning o f learn ingMl a c tiv it ie s : A c tiv ity ,
Purpose, Enjoyment
65-0 Complex graph ics .................... Ohm’s lawP4
66-0 Complex graph ics Density etc.P4
67-0 "All S ilve r Tea Cups".............. Quadrants fo r sine, tangent,P I4 cosine, etc.
68-0 "E very couple has itsP6 moment: (E.C.H.I.M.).............. Couples and moments - mechanics
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69-0 "When in doubt, checkP2 it o u t" .............................. An aid to the avoidance o f
e rro rs
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RESULTS
ALL RESULTS ARE EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES OF THE TOTAL NUMBER OF RESPONSES.
AGE:The average age o f s ta ff who use mnemonics was between 36 and 45 years, (43.5%) mostly male, (71.5%) w ith an average teaching experience o f 11-15 years (mode).
WITH WHICH YEAR-GROUPS7: The yea r-g roup s w ith which mnemonics had o r were being used are described below as percentages o f the overall responses made by mnemonic users:
YEAR %
1 13.8
2 12.5
3 20
4 20.5
5 18.5
61 8.5
611 6
CHILDREN'S RESPONSE TO USING MNEMONICS - STAFF PERCEPTIONS: Assuming "cau tion" (9%) and "S trong rese rva tion " (0%) are negative responses, and " in te re s t" (51%) and "en joym ent" (39.5%) are positive , 81% o f s ta ff who use mnemonics said they were pos itive ly received by th e ir ch ild ren .
THE NUMBER OF MNEMONICS ACTUALLY USED BY STAFF:In rep o rtin g the actual range o f mnemonic usage d u rin g th e ir teaching careers, the resu lts were as follows:
No.
1 - 3 62.5%
4 - 8 22.5%
9 - 1 5 12.5%
15+ 2.5%
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CURRICULAR-AREAS WHERE MNEMONICS ARE USED:These are expressed as a percentage o f the to ta l responses made by mnemonic users:
E n g lis h -----------------------------19%
M athem atics----------------------32%
S c ie n c e -----------------------------13%
H um a n itie s ------------------------13%
Design & T e ch n o lo g y 4%
Expressive A r t s --------------- 7.5%
Foreign L a ngu ages------------5.5%
Religious E d u c a tio n 4%
Economic a w a re ness---------- 0%
Computer s tu d ie s ------------- 2%
F ir s t - a id ------------------------- 2%
ORIGINS OF MNEMONIC APPLICATION:15.5% o f mnemonic users said they had designed and used mnemonics w ith th e ir classes as a re su lt o f a learn ing need. 54.5% learned th e ir mnemonics d u rin g th e ir own schooldays, 17.5% from a colleague, and 8.5% as a re su lt o f reading. Additional sources were: Spouse, 1.5% and parents, 1.5%.
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DISCUSSION:
These f ig u re s suggest th a t a va rie ty o f mnemonics are used by the teachers from reception (year 7) onwards. A lthough the general trend is tow ards an incremental progression th rough f i r s t to fo u rth -y e a rs , i t would be m isleading to conciude th a t the use o f mnemonics declines in the f if th -y e a r . A review o f the mnemonics cited by s ta ff, s tro n g ly suggests th a t mnemonics are used (in fo rm a lly ) In prepara tion fo r examination d u rin g the f i f th and s ix th -ye a r.
A cons is ten t fea tu re o f the mnemonics cited, is th a t they fa c ilita te the lea rn ing o f im portant ru les o r fac ts which form essential p a rts o f a su b je c t’s knowledge-base. Once these ru les o r fac ts have been learned and can be recalled e ffe c tive ly , i t becomes possible fo r the ch ild to m eaningfu lly disseminate and organise subsequent in form ation.
Examples o f th is are numerous. "E very Good Boy Deserves Fun" helps teach stave line notation in the tre b le clef. W ithout which knowledge conventional music cannot be played. "Never Eat Shredded Wheat", teaches young geographers the po in ts o f the compass. I t appears th a t, almost w ithou t exception, teachers have evolved mnemonics to "ge t o ve r" the basic fac ts in th e ir p a rtic u la r sub jec t. In it ia lly , th is may be a simple acronym o r acrostic such as "ROY-G- BIV" to teach young sc ien tis ts the spectra l colours. A lte rn a tive ly , i t may take the form o f a more complex acrostic such as "Pelicans Find Vindaloo C u rry A w fu lly S a tis fy in g ", to help in sequencing an assessment scale in C raft, Design and Technology.
The broad range o f mnemonics cited by s ta ff, related to a va rie ty o f sub jec t-a reas , and i t was ve ry encouraging to note th a t s ta ff who use mnemonics th o u g h t th e ir ch ild ren adopted them pos itive ly . Of course, i t would be in te res tin g to know how e ffe c tive the mnemonics were in a id ing re ten tion and recall o f the learn ing material. This could form the focus o f subsequent work.
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Below is a comparison between su rve y resu lts from the s tudy school and the combined mnemonic-user re tu rn s from all the o the r schools surveyed.
KEY:
n = Number o f responses
1/S = n F irs t choice o f s tudy-schoo l s ta ff
2/S = n O ther than f i r s t choice o f s tudy-schoo l s ta ff
1 /0 = n F irs t choice o f s ta ff in the o th e r schools
2 /0 = n O ther than f i r s t schools
choice o f s ta ff in the o the r
MNEMONIC1/S 2/S 1 /0 2 /0 .
"SOHCAHTOA" 4 2 8 0
"ROY G BIV" 3 3 0 0
"Never Eat Shredded Wheat" 3 0 3 0
"Richard o f Y ork..." 2 5 5 5
" I before E, except a fte r C" 0 3 4 2
"BODMAS" 0 3 4 2
"E very Good Boy Deserves..... " 3 0 0 0
This tabie d isp lays the most fre q u e n tly cited mnemonics. The most w idely used is, "R ichard Of York Gained Battle In Vain", [6 ] b u t the mnemonic cited as "best" by most s ta ff Is "SOHCAHTOA" [7]. Evidence th a t certa in mnemonics are localised, is found on a number o f occasions th ro u gh o u t the su rvey . For example, "ROY G BIV" (1-S) and "Many Naughty R abbits....", (5-S) are items which fa il to fea tu re prom inently in the responses from o the r schools. This suggests the localised transm ission o f p a rtic u la r mnemonics w ith in departm ents o r facu lties.
6 Which helps teach the spectra l colours.7 Which helps teach aspects o f trigonom etry .
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The same is tru e fo r a large number o f the less common mnemonics. A lthough the re are 4 o r 5 mnemonics which appear to be more un ive rsa lly employed, (e.g., 1-S; 2-S; 3-S; and 6-S), perhaps the most s u rp ris in g fea tu re o f the su rvey is the rich d iv e rs ity o f the mnemonics reported to be in classroom use. Noteworthy is the range o f mnemonics used to teach trigonom etry . The le tte rs o f "SOHCAHTOA" (1 -0 ) also appear in "S igns Of Happiness Come A fte r Having Tankards Of Ale", (6 -0 ) and also, "Some Old Hags Can’t Always Heed The ir Own Advice" (8-O). Again, a lthough 1-0 and 6-0 appear to be re la tive ly "u n ive rsa l" ,8-0 Is reported once in the e n tire su rvey . Another example o f mnemonic overlap Is those used to aid learn ing the sequential o rd e r o f theplanets. Here, the more fam ilia r "Men Very E a rly " etc, (7 -0 )con tras ts w ith the unfam iiiar acrostics, "M ary ’s Violet Eyes Made John Stay Up N ights P in ing" (52-0) and "Mary V incent Eat’s Ma’s Jam Sandwiches Under Nelson’s Pillow" (53-0) and a type o f acronym, "M- VEM-J-SUN-P" (37-0).
The range o f mnemonics used to help ch ild ren learn these Items o f inform ation indicates th a t some teachers respond to th e ir c h ild re n ’s learn ing needs e ith e r by using a mnemonic they have gleaned from the lite ra tu re o r from o th e r colleagues, o r have designed themselves.
Close s c ru tin y o f the su rvey responses reveals a p a rtic u la r association between items o f la rge ly a rb it ra ry inform ation and the appearance o f one o r more mnemonics to aid its teaching. A lthough a number o f reduction mnemonics such as acronyms are cited , (e.g., 1-0;3-0; 13-0; 19-0; 24-0; 38-0; e t al., the vast m a jo rity o f mnemonics e ith e r d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly take the form o f acrostics. Many o f the mnemonics cited embellish both the content and context o f the material they accompany, o ften th rough p lausib le statements such as:
"R ichard Of York Gained Battle in Vain" (2 -0 ) o r by the construc tion o f b iza rre associations like :
"Never Enter Church Eating Salmon Sandwiches And Raspberry Y oghurt" (13-0). A number o f mnemonics incorporate rhyme, (e.g., 4-0;5-0; 14-0; 25-0; 46-0; 50-0; 69-0) and seem to be both e ffe c tive and durab le learn ing aids as a resu lt. Perhaps s u rp r is in g ly , two o f the most common mnemonics receive a poor showing. "E very Good Boy Deserves Fun/Food" etc, (4-S) received on ly 3 nominations, and a lthough these were f i r s t choice mnemonics, the mnemonic was not nominated by any s ta ff from any o f the o the r schools surveyed! Again s u rp r is in g ly , themnemonic "T h ir ty days hath September e tc," fa iled to fe a tu re Inthe su rvey at all! I t would be in te res ting to know If th is fea tu res in the learn ing o f jun io r-schoo l ch ild ren , as th is is another area o f knowledge where l it t le o r no Inform ation is available at present.
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SUMMARY OR SECTION Ô
The importance o f more recent ideas related to classroom learn ing is
discussed in association w ith the main f in d in g s and conclusions o f th is
s tudy.
This is followed by a detailed descrip tion o f how teachers,
un fam ilia r w ith mnemonics m ight use them to promote more e ffec tive
classroom learn ing.
GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
327
In the interests of brevity references will not be cited to support specific statements contained in this section unless new evidence is presented, or it is considered appropriate to justify particular proposals.
The emphasis here will be on theoretical and practical considerations related to classroom learning using mnemonics.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
C ontrary to the confused and inconclus ive evidence available related
to the e fficacy o f f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics, and in p a rtic u la r to
acrostics, the resu lts o f th is s tu d y o ffe r considerable su p p o rt fo r
th e ir potency and potentia l in re g u la r classroom learn ing s itua tions.
Given the fin d in g s o f the p resen t s tu d y , and those o f Cox, (1991)
statements condemning f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics as " in e ffe c tive " learn ing
aids, (e.g., Boltwood and B lick, 1970; Perew iznyk and B lick, 1978)
suggesting th a t they "don ’t aid memory", (e.g., Carlson, Zimmer and
Glover, 1981) seem ce rta in ly inaccura te i f not pro fessiona lly
misleading.
There are at least th ree im portan t reasons why labo ra to ry tr ia ls
have produced such d is to rted and h ig h ly co n flic tin g conclusions.
F irs t, the populations stud ied in con junc tion w ith f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonics have been to ta lly u n rep resen ta tive , e.g., ty p ic a lly m iddle
class, academically able studen ts, who have partic ipa ted in
psychological tr ia ls as a means o f ob ta in ing accredita tion tow ards
qua lifica tion on college o r u n iv e rs ity courses, e.g., sub jec ts o f
Perewiznyk and B lick, (1978) and o f M orris and Cook, (1978).
The sample for the present study was drawn from a state mixed-abiiity
comprehensive school. Groups comprising the three learning conditions
in the two age-groups studied were carefully matched in relation to
background, academic ability and recall ability.
328
Second, the material th a t th is un rep resen ta tive sample has been
requ ired to remember has been almost wholly a rtif ic ia l in nature,
e.g., as in Nelson and Archer, (1972) alien to regu la r learn ing
s itua tions. Learning any material in th is typ e o f context con flic ts
w ith a good deal o f established psychological theo ry p rov ing
detrim ental to e ffe c tive learn ing , (see B a rtle tt, 1932). For learn ing
to be most e ffec tive , i t should occur as an in tegra l p a rt o f a
meaningful and purposefu l a c tiv ity engaged w ith in a meaningful
context. F u rth e r, e ffec tive learn ing occurs when the learner is
in tr in s ic a lly motivated to remember the material, (e.g., see Ames and
Ames, 1984) a lthough it is known th a t e x tr in s ic rewards can also
improve recall performance in ch ild ren , (e.g.. Booth, 1981)
In an attempt to avoid artificiality, the learning material chosen for
the present study was drawn from the childrens’ regular syllabus. The
material was taught by a familiar schoolmaster in the context of a
typical learning environment.
T h ird , so fa r the sample sizes from which data and hypotheses have
been extrapolated have ty p ic a lly been ve ry small in comparison to
those used in the present s tudy . I t is ce rta in ly not a typ ical to fin d
claims based on to ta l sample sizes o f fo r ty sub jects , (e.g.,
Perewiznyk and B lick, (1978) th ir ty , (e.g., M orris and Cook, 1978) -
o r less!
The conclusions and hypotheses drawn from the present study are made
following the careful examination of the performance of c.240 children
C.120 eleven-year-olds and c.120 thirteen-year-olds over th irty
related experiments in both immediate and delayed recall conditions.
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F u rthe r, un like previous studies, an analysis o f c h ild re n ’s regu la r
learn ing methods has been stud ied along w ith a detailed analysis o f
the responses ch ild ren make in mnemonically ins tru c te d s itua tions.
A dd itiona lly , fo r the f i r s t time, evidence has been obtained related
to the range o f mnemonics teachers themselves use d u rin g lessons in
o rd e r to make often a rb it ra r i ly related learn ing material more
memorable.
The National C urricu lum emphasises the need fo r ch ild ren to learn
facts and concepts e ffe c tive ly and recall these accura te ly when
requ ired.
As a concept, accurate factual recall is repeatedly mentioned
th ro u g h o u t a wide range o f the s tandard atta inm ent ta rge ts . Teachers
and educationalists have been charged w ith the task o f ensuring th a t
s tudents, regard less o f a b ility , achieve th e ir optimum poten tia l. This
is a form idable goal. Whereas most teachers have both the expertise
and a b ility to d e live r completely new syllabuses, no National
C urricu lum document is fo rthcom ing about how to make "the acquis ition
o f fac ts " and "know ledge o f" th in g s more durable, despite these
form ing the cruc ia l foundation o r knowledge base o f every c u r r ic u la r -
area, (e.g., Newell, 1980; Resnick, 1982; Chi, 1985).
330
I recently examined a number o f D.E.S. documents related to the
C urricu lum From 5 to 16. Emphasised repeatedly is "....the importance
of concepts", and o f "Remembering te rm s", [1] "knowledge, s k ills and
unders tand ing" and "what ch ild re n should normally be expected to
know", [2] bu t nowhere is i t made e xp lic it p recise ly how c h ild re n ’s
memory m ight be improved. Once again the emphasis is on in form ing
teachers about what ch ild ren should know, at what stage inform ation
should be ta u g h t and what form i t should take, w ithou t sup p ly ing
teachers w ith approp ria te psychological schema to achieve these
ob jectives most e ffe c tive ly and e ffic ie n tly .
O bjective evidence suggests th a t s tra te g y in s tru c tio n in general
may not be s u ffic ie n t to promote c h ild re n ’s spontaneous use o f a
s tra tegy , (e.g., Keeney, et. al., 1967) bu t th e re are s trong
ind ica tions to suggest th a t ch ild ren who are ta u g h t when and how to
employ stra teg ies (along w ith period ic revis ion o f the techn ique)
subsequently generate learned s tra teg ies spontaneously, (e.g.. Brown,
1975; Belmont and B u tte rfie ld , 1977; Kail, 1979). F u rth e r, ch ild ren
w ith a broader more flex ib le re p e rto ry o f learn ing and cogn itive
s tra teg ies at th e ir disposai, learn more e ffe c tive ly than th e ir
’s tra tegy im poverished’ colleagues, (e.g., see Flavell, 1971; Swanson,
1990) evidence endorsed by the present s tudy .
1 D.E.S., Mathematics From 5 to 16, (1989) H.M.S.O.2 H istory in the National C urricu lum . (Ed.), A ld rich , R., (1991). Kogan-Page.
331
MAIN F IN D IN G S
The evidence presented both in th is s tu d y and th a t o f Cox, (1991)
perm it the fo llow ing conclusions to be drawn:
1) A broad range of mnemonics are used by a number of practising secondary teachers covering a wide variety of curricular areas.
2) Children taught to use simple mnemonic skills and techniques, demonstrate the ability to learn and recall considerably more curricular related arbitrary Information than either regular or rote learners.
3) Although children Instructed to use simple mnemonics typically perform little better than regular or rote learners at Immediate re-test, at delayed recall, mnemonic users demonstrate very significant learning Improvements.
4) Children as young as eleven are fully capable of generating and applying their own firs t-le tter mnemonics after limited Instruction on how to mnemonlse material.
MNEMONICS!
OVERCOMING THE RREU U DICE
Over the years considerable deroga to ry discussion has been d irected at
mnemonics in general. At least some o f th is c ritic ism concerns the
contention th a t mnemonics are merely "c ru tches" o r are an " a r t if ic ia l"
means o f acqu iring inform ation and learn ing.
This r id icu le appears to be wholly u n ju s tifia b le . They are not a
learn ing su b s titu te where meaning is lost a t the expense o f knowing
additional facts. Neither is learn ing v ia mnemonics an "im prope r" o r
"im poverished" way o f learn ing . I t m ight be considered th a t learn ing
w ithou t mnemonics re flec ts impoverished learn ing!
Knowing when a mnemonic m ight be useful in the classroom ough t to
be a simple s k ill th a t a ll teachers possess. Such is the range o f
mnemonics th a t they can aid c h ild re n ’s acquis ition o f knowledge in a
rich va rie ty o f contexts from fo re ign vocabulary in s tru c tio n to
factual knowledge related to C ra ft Design and Technology.
332
Enter rea lity ! Even among colleagues in the teaching profession one is
aware o f re luc tan t a ttitud es toward both theo re tica l and applied
innovation especially if th is fa lls ou ts ide th e ir d irec ted teaching
b r ie f o r is considered im practicable. An associated problem is
id e n tify in g an adequate i f not e ffic ie n t means o f communicating more
recent knowledge to p rac tis ing teachers.
With some ju s tif ic a tio n teachers express concern about the speed
with which change in the s tru c tu re o f cu rricu lu m is o ccu rrin g and many
feel th a t th e ir in te g r ity to allocate and p r io r it is e c u rre n t learn ing
time is being threatened. Indeed, the fo rce o f educational change is
so awesome th a t keeping abreast o f c u rre n t ideas has been likened to
"Shoeing a galloping horse w ithou t the knowledge o f which d irec tion
the horse is being ridden" [3]. Perhaps u n s u rp r is in g ly , teachers more
than ever feel th a t experim enting w ith teaching methodologies is a
lu xu ry best reserved fo r "b e tte r tim es". Given such circum stances it
is p ru den t fo r the s tuden t o f mnemonics to ask a t least th ree
im portant questions:
How can teachers be persuaded th a t mnemonics are e ffec tive learn ing aids?
How can natura l communication between researchers and teachers be achieved?
How can teachers become informed about what mnemonics are and how they can considerably fa c ilita te classroom learn ing?
3 A statement made by an NUT delegate a t a conference in May, 1991.
333
Teachers’ a ttitu d e s tow ards using mnemonics appear to be ve ry
d iffe re n t, (see the section marked S ta ff-s u rv e y in th is s tudy ,
pp.293-325) This could p a rtly be due to the impoverished way cogn itive
stra teg ies are addressed in formal in s tru c tion a l programmes, where how
to teach and what to teach has tra d it io n a lly dominated teacher-
tra in in g sy llab i. Of course, the re is on ly a f in ite amount o f time
available to prepare s tude n t teachers fo r the classroom, bu t the re
would appear to be a s trong argum ent fo r making much more more
e xp lic it to s tud en t teachers how ch ild re n can be helped to remember
more o f the facts, concepts o r s k ills communicated in lessons.
Another reason why teachers appear to adopt the use o f mnemonics
in an a rb itra ry , ad-hoc manner, is th a t the resourc ing o f in -se rv ice
and regional courses fo r teachers appears to be almost exclusive ly
devoted to fam ilia ris ing teachers w ith innova tive educational packages
[4] and c u rr ic u la r developments [5] ra th e r than tra n sm ittin g more
recent psychological f in d in g s and developments.
I t seems such an inadequate po licy to leave to chance how
ch ild ren remember the p le thora o f fac ts we te ll them to remember.
Probably the D.E.S. has formal plans fo r addressing th is crucia l
issue?
Recently evidence o f a more pos itive a ttitu d e tow ards mnemonics
has appeared. Over the past decade o r so the media has public ised a
number o f commercial s tu d y techn iques which use mnemonics to promote
learn ing. On the T.V. l ig h t en te rta inm ent is fre q u e n tly punctuated by
d isp lays o f "memory-men" who o ffe r convincing examples o f the
potential e ffectiveness o f mnemonic techniques. O ther evidence too,
suggests a changing climate in which mnemonics are becoming more
generally accepted and respected learn ing tools, a small bu t grow ing
4 For example. National Records o f Achievement.5 e.g., assessment at re levan t key stages.
334
number of useful books related to s tudy techniques is also emerging,
(e.g., Reid’s ’ Im prove Your Memory S k ills ’ , published by Usborne,
1988) which ac tive ly promote the use o f a wide range o f mnemonics to
aid learn ing.
335
OOM M U NIC ATI N G A B O U T RESEARCH
"Liberation from the classroom on full pay: that was the life for a typical M Ed student luxuriating on a one-year secondment in thesixties and seventies now few teachers in Britain are able tostudy full-time. Secondments have disappeared What is certain isthat the ability of the profession to stay in touch with a level of discourse beyond the immediacy of the classroom now seems to depend upon teachers being willing to give up their own time and spend their own money." (Gerald Haigh, TES, 31/5/91)
Another lin k which remains la rge ly un ad dressed is th a t between
research and classroom practice. I f th e ra tiona le u nde rly ing
ind iv idua l o r co llaborative programmes o f research is th a t the
knowledge gained should be disseminated amongst those in the most
e ffec tive position to capita lise upon its acqu is ition , why are the re
no formal communication arrangem ents between research in s titu tio n s and
teachers? Indeed, to the w r ite r ’s knowledge, no arrangem ents exist
between research in s titu tio n s and schools themselves!
The absence o f planned arrangem ents between research in s titu tio n s
and schools m ight lead teachers along w ith o the rs to ask a number o f
ve ry im portant questions inc lud ing :
What is the po in t o f fu n d in g research from already s tre tched educational budgets i f the outcome is not shared w ith those fo r whom it was intended?
Given th a t research f in d in g s seldom f i l te r th rough in to schools, is professional o r personal development s u ffic ie n t ju s t if ic a tio n fo r resourcing ind iv idua l research pro jects?
What p r io r ity w ill research p ro je c ts receive under the Local Management o f Schools? Will teachers be discouraged to become involved in ind iv idua l p ro je c ts due to cost?
336
Even though th is s tudy suggests th a t the classroom learn ing of
a rb it ra r i ly re lated fac ts [6] can be improved by tw ice and sometimes
th ree times the e ffectiveness o f re g u la r and ro te -lea rn ing methods,
the problem remains o f precise ly how to communicate th is inform ation
to teachers.
How m ight they fo r instance become aware o f the resu lts o f th is
study? I f they should be made aware o f its conclusions, what forum
exists fo r them to d iscuss the potentia l o f acrostics in the
classroom? How m ight they share ideas? This typ e o f question o u gh t to
be addressed by both the Department o f Education and Science and the
research bodies.
There seems l it t le po in t in encouraging empirical research unless
the re is an e ffe c tive mechanism designed to fa c ilita te the sh a ring o f
knowledge between researchers and teachers.
The prospect o f teachers becoming more active ly invo lved in
empirical research seems almost e theria l fan tasy. Yet, teachers are
the most e ffe c tive ly placed professionals to pursue investiga tions
related to real classroom learn ing , p rac tice and performance. They
have a keen in te re s t in p u rsu ing lines o f e n q u iry aimed at maximising
the cogn itive , a ffe c tive and physical potentia l o f th e ir s tuden ts in
the most e ffec tive , practicab le and economical way possible. Sadly,
the re is l it t le encouragement fo r p rac tis in g teachers to undertake
empirical research at present. In the w r ite r ’s education a u th o rity
the re appears to be no pa rt-tim e research at Ph. D level beyond the
present s tudy . I doubt th a t th is re fle c ts an unw illingness o f teachers
to become invo lved in research, more th a t the oppo rtu n itie s to
pa rtic ipa te have become less rea lis tic and un resourced.
6 Of a type synonymous w ith the knowledge-base o f v ir tu a lly every sub ject.
337
With these issues c iea rly in mind, a discussion o f how teachers
can address c h ild re n ’s s tra te g ic th in k in g more genera lly is followed
by some practica l guidance to teachers related to using acrostics in
the classroom se tting .
338
RAISING CHILDREN'S M ETACOGNITIVE
AWARENESS: SOME PRACTICAL
IMPLICATIONS
The grow ing in te res t in metamemory s tra teg ies and mnemonics has
considerable relevance to the management o f classroom learn ing .
I t has now been adequateiy demonstrated th a t mnemonising sk ills
can be taugh t to ch ild ren , (e.g., see Cox, 1991 and re su lts fo r both
the mnemonic groups in experim ents 2 - 7d inc lus ive o f th is s tu d y ) But
i t has also been demonstrated th a t in s tru c tio n per se is no guarantee
th a t ch ild ren w ill subsequently adopt a s tra te g y i f unprom pted to do
so, (e.g., Keeney e. al., 1967).
Teaching ch ild ren when i t is necessary to adopt some measure to
make learn ing material more memorable is a complex issue, and requ ires
more than mere in s tru c tio n about how to use a p a rtic u la r s tra te g y .
(see the section marked "M etacognition" in th is s tu d y ) But, i f as the
lite ra tu re suggests, the re are no fundamental s tru c tu ra l d iffe rences
between the memory o f ch ild re n and adu lts , (e.g., Chi, 1976; 1978) it
seems reasonable to assume ch ild ren possess the necessary "so ftw are"
to apply s im ila r cogn itive and mnemonic s tra teg ies as those ty p ic a lly
adopted spontaneously by o lde r people.
As the acquis ition o f su p e rio r metacog ni t iv e judgem ent and reasoning
has been shown to lead to more e ffe c tive learn ing w ith ch ild ren
va ry in g in a b ility , (e.g., Andreassen and Waters, 1989) i t should be
in the keen in te res t o f educationa lis ts to teach metacog ni t iv e sk ills .
339
Raising c h ild re n ’s awareness o f the lim ita tions o f th e ir own
cognition , and o f appropria te responses to meet d if fe re n t types o f
learn ing demands, m ight also enable them to apprecia te the
circum stances in which i t is necessary to make learn ing a planned,
resourcefu l and s e lf- in te rro g a tiv e a c tiv ity , (e.g., see Kurtz and
Weinert, 1989).
The sk ill o f cogn itive se lf-reg u la tio n and management is not
lim ited to spec ific c u rr ic u la r areas. I t is c ro s s -c u rr ic u la r. The
po in t is underlined in the D.E.S., document The C urricu lum From 5 to
16, (H.M.S.O.):
"The various curricular areas should reinforce and complement one another so that the knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes developed in one area may be put to use and provide insight in another, thus increasing the pupils' understanding, competence and confidence."
There is now convinc ing evidence th a t the acqu is ition o f su p e rio r
metacog ni t iv e s k ills leads to su p e rio r learn ing and reasoning per se
w ith normal, (e.g.. Cross and Paris, 1988) g ifted , (e.g., S iegler and
Kotovsky, 1986) and learn ing disabled ch ild ren , (e.g., M astrop ieri,
et. al., 1985c). The se lf awareness o f personal judgem ent and
reasoning lim ita tions and the accuracy w ith which these are perceived
extend fa r beyond the school se ttin g . They are inva luab le life sk ills .
I f at any time in one’s life they are to be ta u g h t fo rm a lly , th is
must be planned fo r and accomplished d u rin g the school years.
Given th a t i t is desirable th a t ch ild re n should remember more
e ffe c tive ly , and also appreciate how to m onitor and in te rp re t s e lf-
in te rro g a tive m etacognitive awareness in a s im ila r way to th a t o f
adults, teachers should be encouraged to apprecia te the circum stances
in which th is typ e o f in s tru c tio n can best be de livered.
340
This discourse leads to the fo llow ing issues:
1) Do colleagues address these issues adequately?
2) What poss ib ilities exist where teaching designed to raise c h ild re n ’s awareness o f cogn itive se lf-know ledge can be undertaken?
3) How can teachers become inform ed about the importance o f m etacognitive tra in in g as an aid to more e ffec tive learn ing?
There is p resen tly l it t le o r no evidence to suggest the extent to
which m etacognitive issues are addressed in reg u la r teaching
programmes w ith in the normal cu rricu lum . Subsequent research may
investiga te th is aspect o f teaching w ith a view to estab lish ing the
fo llow ing type o f inform ation:
1) Do teachers discuss w ith th e ir ch ild re n issues re la ting to s e lf- in te rro g a tiv e learn ing?
2) Do teachers suggest to th e ir ch ild re n , ways o f assessing when it is im portan t to "do som ething" in o rd e r to remember in form ation more e ffec tive ly?
3) I f the answer to questions 1 and 2 are "yes", what and how?
4) I f the answer to e ithe r question is "no", th is may suggest a d e fin it iv e need fo r the s itua tion to be addressed w ith more urgency.
Promoting amongst teachers an awareness o f the importance o f
m etacognitive tra in in g is a t the same time a complex and e lusive
issue.
The o p p o rtu n ity o f communicating recent knowledge concern ing
cognitive-developm ental issues to teachers is like ly to be masked by
the va rie ty o f innovations p resen tly in contention fo r c u rr ic u la r time
and fa cu lty finances.
341
This is un fo rtuna te . A lthough the focus has more recently moved
toward methodology, concern appears la rge ly d irected toward what a
ch ild has atta ined, how the ch ild has a tta ined in re lation to o thers
o f s im ila r age, and how ch ild ren can be assessed to confirm w hether o r
what they have atta ined.
While th is typ e o f innovation is both im portan t and s ig n ifica n t,
the re appears to have been no e x p lic it expression o f a desire to
promote ch ild re n ’s own awareness o f the lim ita tions and s tre n g th s o f
th e ir own cognition despite th is being an essential fea tu re o f all
p roblem -solv ing a c tiv itie s , (see "Knowledge and the National
C urricu lum ", pp.90-95 o f th is s tu d y ).
Once the demands o f The National C urricu lum and G.C.S.E. courses
become less th ro u gh fa m ilia r ity , i t m ight be possible fo r bodies
associated w ith educational research and the tra in in g o f teachers to
address m etacognitive issues. Researchers focusing on th is area o f
s tudy , could co n tr ib u te considerably to th is discussion by
dem onstrating:
1) The e fficacy (o r o therw ise) o f m etacognitive tra in in g in a regu la r learn ing context.
2) The most app rop ria te methods o f prom oting m etacognitive awareness amongst ch ild re n w ith in a regu la r learn ing context.
3) The extent to which m etacognitive tra in in g can promote learn ing ove r more re g u la r learn ing methods.
From a philosophical perspective , i t could be argued th a t ch ild ren
have a r ig h t to an tic ipa te th a t teachers w ill inform them o f how best
to s tud y and learn in form ation. S im ila rly , teachers have a r ig h t o f
access to inform ation which m ight fa c ilita te classroom learn ing and
make lessons more e ffec tive .
342
Where th is knowledge Is unavailable, educationalists m ight be
fo rg ive n fo r proceeding w ith learn ing a c tiv it ie s In much the same way
as th ey have fo r m illennia. But the ra p id ly grow ing wealth o f
knowledge related to how ch ild re n learn, and how they can learn more
re so u rce fu lly and e ffe c tive ly , should now be In the hands o f
p ra c tis in g teachers.
Again un til some e ffec tive method o f communicating th is typ e o f
knowledge to classroom teachers exists, and access to th is knowledge
Is ca re fu lly planned and managed, one wonders whether th is w ill ever
be the case.
343
C R O S S —e u RRIOU L/VR MNEMONICS
I f the cu rricu lu m is socie ty ’s formal means o f conveying knowledge and
s k ills to ch ild ren in prepara tion fo r a d u lt life , [7 ] common sense
suggests th a t th is knowledge should be made as durab le as possible.
U nfo rtuna te ly the re appear to be no formal arrangem ents to raise the
metacognItive awareness o f ch ild ren In schools, [8 ].
The most Im portant cogn itive s k ills which we each have an In te res t In
developing are those which fa c ilita te lea rn ing , and also help us
remember material in a such a form th a t subsequent recall Is
accomplished w ith the minimum o f e f fo r t and the greatest precision.
Competence In the s k ills o f lea rn ing and recall has considerable
Implications fo r all age-groups. Remembering lis ts , names o r facts
forms p a rt of the da lly routine. T yp ica lly adu lts have evolved a
va rie ty o f responses to meet Ind iv idua l lea rn ing needs.
These responses represent the accum ulative acqu is ition o f a
life tim e ’s metacognItIve experience; d u rin g which tr ia l and e rro r.
In tu ition , and the scant knowledge o f mnemonic hand-m e-downs have
resulted In the form ulation o f each In d iv id u a l’s s tra te g y re p e rto ry .
Why should each In d iv id u a l’s knowledge o f ta sk -a p p ro p ria te
cogn itive and metacog n I t iv e s tra teg ies be acquired In such an
haphazard way and be so Impoverished u n til adulthood?
7 See Sten house, L., (1971).8 For example, metacog n I t iv e tra in in g appears In the National C urricu lum on ly In ve ry couched term s; It Is never made exp lic it, the nearest related reference concern ing more general p rob lem -so lv ing.
344
I t seems such an obvious pa rt of the learn ing process to encourage
ch ild ren to id e n tify the type o f circumstances In which they m ight
need to do something extra In o rd e r to learn material more
e ffec tive ly , (e.g., Flavell, 1971). At a simple level th is "something"
may be an Ins truc tion by the teacher to attend to what Is being said,
to focus ca re fu lly upon a diagram o r p ic tu re , o r to appreciate a
re la tionship between present and prev ious ly learned material, (e.g.,
see Carver and Scheler, 1986: WIgfleld, 1988).
When a series o f words have to be learned to form pa rt o f a
broader knowledge-base, teachers have tra d itio n a lly responded to th is
need by In s tru c tin g ch ild ren to rehearse o r rote-1 earn. A lthough the
efficacy o f th is method has received empirical support, (see Kail,
1979) the method Is though t to be e ffective because successive memory
traces are superimposed upon each o ther w hils t simultaneously
establish ing a re la tionship (traces o f identical s tre n g th ) between
associative Items. This e ffec tive ly processes the learning material to
greater "dep th ", (e.g., see Cralk and Lockhart, 1972) Hence when we
are asked: "What are th ree fours?", If the tim es-table was In itia lly
learned using the rote method, we are able not only to respond almost
immediately, "tw elve", but also anticipate " fo u r fo u rs ". In th is way,
each item cues successive Items, (W hittaker, Me Shane and Dunn, 1986)
and helps organise learning material Into more manageable and
meaningful "chunks", (e.g., see Ceci and Bronfenbrenner, 1985)
345
To be most e ffec tive th is s o rt o f In s tru c tio n should Ideally be
accompanied by discussion aimed at ra is ing the c h ild re n ’s
metacog n I t iv e awareness about the typ e o f circum stances In which
rehearsal will promote learn ing In the fu tu re , (see Kail, 1979) But as
It may be recalled, ch ild ren often experience na tura l d if f ic u lt ie s In
expressing abs trac t concepts, (VII est ra, 1982) and so period ic review
o f the s tra te gy may be neccesary. (e.g., see O rnste in , et. al., 1985)
T ra d ition a lly , the suggestion th a t younger ch ild re n could be
successfu lly Ins truc ted In the use o f mnemonics has been received with
scepticism by psycholog ists, (see Richardson, 1980 fo r an h is to rica l
d iscussion) Progress has been made.
1) The fin d in g s o f the p resent s tu d y and those o f Cox, (1991) p rov ide firm evidence th a t ch ild re n in school years 6 and 7 are able to e ffe c tive ly m anipulate mnemonic m ateria l. F u rth e r, they demonstrate competence in co n s tru c ting mnemonics themselves and app ly ing these to real lea rn ing s itua tions.
2) C hildren using mnemnoics remember lea rn ing material considerably b e tte r than ch ild re n adopting a lte rn a tive learn ing stra teg ies. A dd itiona lly , a communication w ith Cox suppo rts the w r ite r ’s unproven hypothesis th a t ch ild re n who use mnemonics to aid lea rn ing , fin d the lea rn ing a c tiv ity its e lf in tr is ic a lly more rew ard ing and enjoyable.
There Is su ppo rtive and encouraging evidence suggesting th a t sentence-
mnemonics [9] acronyms and acrostics may be useful In the classroom,
(e.g., fo r a review see McLaughlin Cook, 1989) especially I f they are
produced by the teacher, (e.g., see the section marked "F irs t - le t te r
mnemonics" In th is s tu d y ) The evidence suggests th a t f i r s t - le t te r
mnemonics in p a rtic u la r make l is t learn ing fa r easier and more
re liable than learn ing w ithou t In s truc tion .
9 A "sentence-mnemonic" Is a mnemonic formed o f to -be -lea rned words. The ta rg e t words are arranged In a memorable form (sometimes toge the r with fll le r -w o rd s ) as the name suggests.
346
In form ation related to how ch ild ren cope w ith learn ing Is Im portant to
the teacher.
At the time when ch ild ren are Inundated w ith un fam ilia r lis ts ,
facts and names, (e.g., when they e n te r the m u lti-su b je c t arena o f the
secondary school) they are ty p ic a lly w ithou t the cogn itive expertise
and sk ills to learn material as s tra te g ica lly o r as e ffe c tive ly as
o lder ch ild ren and adults. (F lave ll, 1971) The ch ild Is confronted
w ith volumes o f a rb it ra r i ly related concepts fac ts places and names,
from as many as ten o r more separate sub jec t-a reas [1 ] and ty p ic a lly
to ld to "learn th is , o r th a t" w ith l it t le o r no guidance about how to
proceed.
Acrostics now o ffe r a proven, re liab le and e ffe c tive answer to
these learn ing needs.
The results of the present study and that of Cox, (1991) confirm that an effective method of helping children with this type of difficulty is through teaching them the appropriate circumstances in which to use mnemonics.
I t Is un rea lis tic fo r teachers to expect ch ild ren to achieve specified
ta rge ts o r goals, such as remembering In form ation, w ithou t o ffe r in g
them the most e ffec tive means o f ach ieving th is .
I f It Is accepted th a t ch ild ren should be de libe ra te ly (fo rm a lly )
helped with learn ing demands and Ins truc ted about the circum stances In
which mnemonic s tra teg ies m ight fa c ilita te learn ing . It must be asked:
What o ppo rtun ities exist In schools fo r th is to occur?
1 A typ ica l range o f sub jec ts a t secondary level m ight Include:English, Geography, H is tory , Maths, Modern Languages, Music, Religious Studies, Science, Technology, et al.
347
MNEMONIC MANAGEMENT!
SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Teachers would not expect courses o r lessons which had been badly
designed to achieve the resu lts o f those well conceived. Careful
p lanning, resourcefu lness and time-management are at the heart o f good
practice.
No one in education, least o f all teachers, has time to allocate
innovation which has l it t le o r no educational benefit o r re tu rn . One
of the main ob jections to using mnemonics as a lte rna tives to o the r
methods o f learn ing inform ation appears to re late to the extra time
required to process the Inform ation at both the learn ing and recall
stage.
The resu lts o f th is s tudy suggest otherw ise.
Considerable care was taken to match the learn ing and recall time o f
the mnemonic, ro te and u n in s truc te d conditions. I f It Is claimed th a t
the a rb it ra r i ly allocated learn ing time on each task penalised the
un ins truc ted and rote learners as the evidence seems to suggest th is
would have Impeded th e ir long-te rm perform ance s til l fu r th e r .
During Informal classroom tr ia ls the w r ite r has found the
teaching o f acrostics to be both an e ffe c tive and economical use o f
class-tlme, ty p ic a lly tak ing no longer than It m ight have taken to
de live r and consolidate the Inform ation [11] using more conventional
means. At Immediate re -te s t [12] learn ing a rb it ra ry Inform ation using
acrostics produces considerably su p e rio r recall to learn ing which
m ight have been achieved adopting re g u la r Ins tru c tio n . A fte r a delay,
typ ica lly o f about two weeks, the In fluence o f the mnemonic becomes
progess ive ly more pronounced, an e ffe c t substantia ted by the long-te rm
11 Fix the learn ing material In the c h ild re n ’s minds.12 Verbal o r w ritte n confirm ation (o r o therw ise) th a t the c h lld /re n have learned the mnemonic In connection w ith the ta rg e t material, ty p ic a lly seconds o r m inutes a fte r the In itia l learn ing.
348
re -te s t resu lts o f th is s tudy and s im ila r to th a t obtained in long
term e ffects o f b iza rre mental imagery, (e.g., O’Brien and Wolford,
1982)
G roup-generated f ir s t - le t te r mnemonics have a tendency to be less
re liable (see Kerst and Levin, 1973) fo r a number o f reasons:
1) They take longer to design.
2) The context in which they have been designed and the associations made In th e ir fo rm u la tion have a tendency to re s tr ic t th e ir e ffec tive tra n s fe r to o th e r groups.
3) Despite In s tru c tion , s tuden ts o ften fo rg e t to d iffe re n tia te between Items In a lis t which are e ith e r phonetica lly sim ilar, o r bear the same f i r s t le tte r. For example. If the re are two Ss In a sequence o f material to be learned, s tuden ts tend to make no e ffec tive d iscrim ina tion between the two words leading to d iff ic u lt ie s at both the encoding and recall stage.
Given th is knowledge It Is Im portant to review how acrostics may be
constructed and the types o f c ircum stances In which they w ill be most
e ffective .
AUTHENTICITY OF SOURCE MATERIAL
The Importance of obtaining accurate source material cannot be over
emphasised. The material used in experiment 4 of this study,
(historical periods experiment) was obtained from a booklet which
provided information which is to historians, factually inaccurate.
Although the material was mnemonised in good faith there was
clearly a failure on the writer’s part to cross-reference and
investigate the source more comprehensively. Although this knowledge
does not diminish the results of this study, the point has to be made
that it is wise to have all source material checked by a specialist
representing the curricular-area for which a mnemonic is being
designed.
349
MNEMONISING M ATERIAL
What follows Is Intended as a guide. The typ e o f material
tra d itio n a lly ta rge tte d fo r mnemonlsing Is th a t com prising lis ts , the
knowledge and sequencing o f which form s an essential p a rt o f a
s u b je c t’s knowledge-base. For example, the Incomplete acronym
" R O Y - G - B I V", In add ition to p ro v id ing the science learner with
f i r s t - le t te r cues, also sequences the Inform ation at recall p ro v id e d
the learner remembers a ll o f the acronym. In the case o f both acronyms
and acrostics. If any of the mnemonic words are fo rgo tten , o r recalled
ou t o f sequence, the associated learn ing material w ill be de fec tive ly
recalled. To th is end. It Is v ita l th a t the mnemonic Is memorable and
its association w ith the lea rn ing material is made as s trong and
durab le as possible. These are the two most Im portant fea tu res o f
mnemonlsing.
Given th is In form ation, additional c r ite r ia can be established:
a) Unfam iliar words are best avoided.
b) Long words are best avoided unless th e ir Inclusion resu lts in a more memorable mnemonic.
c) The mnemonic, toge the r w ith the learn ing material, should be maintained In memory th ro u gh period ic se lf-te s tin g .
d) Ridiculous, even b iza rre word combinations, dep ic ting to ta lly implausible events are o ften the most memorable, (e.g., see the section marked "The b iza rre versus p lausib le Imagery debate", pp .115-119 In th is paper,
e) Children un fam ilia r w ith acrostics w ill benefit from experiencing some examples. This w ill illu s tra te both how memorable they can be and also the associations requ ired In th e ir operation.
350
Studies related to f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics have stressed the importance
o f sub jec ts knowing the learn ing material p r io r to its being
mnemonised. For example, an acrostic designed to help ch ild ren learn
the sequential o rd e r o f the spectra l co lours like : "R ichard Of York
Gained (o r G-ave) Battle In Vain" may be o f l it t le practica l use
unless the ch ild a lready knows the names o f some o f the less fam ilia r
co lours such as v io le t and indigo. Where the ch ild is unable to cue
the words "v io le t" and " ind ig o " because these names have been to ta lly
fo rg o tte n , reca lling the mnemonic accurate ly w ill on ly assist in
cueing the fo rgo tten material. In th is typ e o f case even i f a ch ild
can co rre c tly recall the mnemonic, the inform ation cued will be
incompletely recalled, a lbe it in the co rre c t sequence, e.g.. Red,
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, ______? ______ ?
A more obvious weakness o f acrostics is the po ss ib ility th a t the
lea rner w ill fa il to recall p a rts o f the mnemonic itse lf. Using the
same example, i f the learner is able to recall noth ing more o f the
mnemonic than someone o r something o r o th e r "Gained (o r "Gave") Battle
In Vain", not on ly w ill the approp ria te f i r s t le tte r cues fo r R-ed O-
range and Y-ellow be inaccurate, bu t so will the sequencing.
Problems o f th is type h ig h lig h t the need to form strong
associations between the learn ing material and the mnemonic. The
mnemonic has to be e ffec tive both to cue the f i r s t le tte rs o f names,
and to sequence app rop ria te ly those names once recalled.
351
SPOTTING OPPORTUNITIES TO USE
ACROSTICS
I t is d if f ic u lt to imagine any area w ith in the cu rricu lum where a
series o f unrelated facts o r names do not have to be learned. Such
inform ation often forms an im portan t p a rt o f each su b je c t’s knowledge
base, (e.g., see pages 86-101 o f th is s tu d y ). The evidence available
suggests th a t acrostics can be ve ry e ffe c tive fo r lis ts o f p rev ious ly
learned words o f up to nine items.
The resu lts o f th is s tu dy suggest th a t the re is a fa ll o f f in the
potency o f the mnemonic a fte r s ix -item lis ts [13] bu t fu r th e r work is
needed to establish th is sc ie n tif ica lly . Given th is knowledge,
teachers in terested in making th is ty p e o f learn ing more e ffec tive
should sc ru tin ise th e ir sy llab i to id e n tify material su itab le fo r
mnemonlsing.
M N E MON I SIN G METHODOLOGY
To the w r ite r ’s knowledge no p ractica l suggestions have ye t been made
about how to mnemonise learn ing material in connection w ith acrostics.
What fo llows is not intended to be a d e fin it iv e statement on how th is
should be accomplished, merely an a ttem pt to p rov ide a fo rm ative
fram ework w ith a view to prom oting fu r th e r discussion on the process.
Two examples of the mnemonlsing process will be reviewed. The first is related to the writer’s experience of using student-generated acrostics. The second, describes the methodology used in teachergenerated acrostics.
13 Consistent w ith M ille r’s (1956) th e o ry o f "The magical number seven".
352
STU DENT —GENERATED ACROSTICS
The example here will be th a t used to mnemonise the learn ing material
fo r experiment 5, (C.D.T. assessment scale). I t is a s tuden t-supp lied
mnemonic.
Learning m ateria l: Performance, Function, Value-for-m oney,
C onstruction, Aesthetics, Safety.
1) Teach the ind iv idua l meaning o f the te rm s/w o rds o r concepts and
where appropria te , th e ir re la tionsh ip and context, as m ight be
accomplished in a re g u la r lesson. (For an example, see experiment 5 o f
th is s tudy).
2) Decide whether the o rd e r o f the words is im portant. In th is
p a rticu la r case (and in most cases) it is. I f the material ta rge tted
fo r mnemonlsing comprises a group o f words, whose serial o rd e r is
un im portant, a more fle x ib le approach to mnemonlsing can be adopted.
Any vowels form ing the f i r s t le tte rs o f the learn ing material can be
rearranged to form an acronym. For example, in educational management
the re is much ta lk o f "S.M.A.R.T" ta rge ts , "SMART" form ing an acronym
of the f i r s t le tte rs o f the words: Simple, Manageable, A tta inable,
Realistic and Testable. A lthough the re is no pragm atic need to recall
the words in seria l o rd e r, by a rran g ing the f i r s t le tte rs in th is way
a memorable mnemonic is formed. I f i t was essential th a t the words
were to be recalled in the form at: Realistic, Testable, Simple,
Manageable, A tta inable, an acronym [14] cannot be formed. Given the
la tte r example, an acrostic could be constructed to meet the learn ing
need, (e.g., see pp.354-359)
14 See "Acronym s" in the section marked "F irs t - le t te r mnemonics," (p p .141-143) o f th is s tud y .
353
3) I f ch ild ren as members o f the learn ing group are un fam ilia r w ith
how to mnemonise material, use an illu s tra tio n o f how acrostics
func tion . The w r ite r has found the "R ichard o f Y ork ..." example is
easily grasped even by young ch ild ren . W rite the f i r s t le tte rs o f the
learn ing material on the board, e.g., P. F. V. C. A. S. Ask the group
to e ith e r d iv ide in to small g roups o r pa irs and ask them to co n s tru c t
a su itab le acrostic. I have found th a t even as I f in ish w rit in g the
le tte rs on the board, some o f the more able are anxious to share th e ir
ideas. Set a time lim it - make the exercise a form o f a com petition.
4) Request solutions. Here, the teacher must guide the group tow ards
what may be the most app rop ria te acrostic proposed, (see above fo r
suggestions) and it is a good o p p o rtu n ity to co llec tive ly id e n tify
inhe ren t weaknesses in those proposed.
5) A rr iv e at concensus agreement about which acrostic is most su itab le
o r memorable and learn th is in association w ith the learn ing material.
Ask members o f the group to ensure the co rre c t associations have been
made.
6) Check th a t the s tuden ts are s till able to recall the inform ation at
the s ta r t o f the next lesson.
7) Review and check period ica lly .
354
This procedure may sound both time consuming and p ro trac ted , in
re a lity , learn ing material using mnemonics is more economical, more
e ffec tive and more e ffic ien t. This is endorsed by the ou ts tand ing
resu lts o f both mnemonic groups, (e.g., see experim ents 2, 3, 4 and 5
o f th is s tu d y ) and can ty p ic a lly be achieved in the same time th a t it
takes using regu la r teaching methods. This is because, w ithou t the aid
o f the acrostic, i t ty p ic a lly takes longer to teach th is type o f
a rb it ra ry inform ation and get ch ild re n to learn i t in the co rre c t
serial o rder.
TEACHER—GENERATED ACROSTICS
The example here w ill be th a t used to mnemonise the learn ing material
fo r experiment 2, (Planets experim ent). The mnemonic was provided by
the experim enter/teacher. The approach discussed here may seem
somewhat detailed, bu t a fu ll analysis was fe lt necessary as informal
d iscussions suggest th a t a lthough teachers are fam ilia r w ith how to
use supplied acrostics, [15] less is known about mnemonising new
material.
Learning material: Sun M ercury Venus Earth Mars J u p ite r Saturn
Uranus Neptune Pluto
15 For example mnemonics passed on by o th e r teachers o r learned from o the r sources.
355
STE F» 1
Decide w hether the o rd e r o f the words is im portant. In th is p a rticu la r
case i t is. Where the o rd e r o f the names o r words to -be-lea rned is
un im portant, (as in the "S.M.A.R.T." example above) the f i r s t le tte rs
o f each w ord -to -be -lea rned can be organised to form an acronym. Even
i f the re are in s u ffic ie n t vowels to form an acronym fil le r -w o rd s can
be used to make the acronym read w ith in te g r ity , a lthough research
suggests th a t f i l le r -w o rd s can re su lt in cancelling the mnemonic’s
e ffect, (e.g., see the section on "Acronym s" in the section marked
"F irs t - le tte r mnemonics" in th is s tud y , p p .141-143) For example,
L.A.S.E.R. is a word which has become synonymous w ith the energy o f
concentrated l ig h t beams, ye t the acronym contains two sets o f lit t le
known fil le r -w o rd s : L ig h t Am plification (b y the ) Stimulated Emissions
(o f) Radiation. The inclusion o f the f i l le r -w o rd s fac ilita tes the de
coding o f the acronym.
As the su b je c t o f th is s tudy is the e fficacy o f the acrostic,
what fo llow s w ill focus upon how an acrostic was constructed in
connection w ith th is p a rtic u la r ta rg e t material.
(The Sun was incorporated in to the mnemonic as i t is an in tegra l
fea tu re o f the illu s tra tio n form ing the learn ing material).
356
ST EF=» 2
a) Write down o r word process the f i r s t le tte r o f each ta rg e t (learn ing word) item. In th is case: S M V E M J S U N P .
b) C onstruct a small item -bank o f words [16] which begin w ith the same f i r s t o r f i r s t two le tte rs as the ta rg e t words, (a d ic tiona ry can fa c ilita te th is process). Mnemonic words conta in ing the f i r s t two le tte rs o f each ta rg e t word o ffe r s tro n g e r cues at the time o f recall than f i r s t le tte rs alone, provided they concur w ith the seria l o rd e r o f the le tte rs com prising the ta rg e t-w o rd s .
c) Write each word on a small piece o f card and a rrange them as follows: (the ta rg e t words appear in b rackets, possible acrostic -w ords in bold ita lics )
(Sun) (M ercury) (Venus) (E a rth ) (Mars)
Six M erry Vegetable/s E a t/s / in g M a rs /’sS u n /n y / ie r M ercu ry /*s Venus/'s E arth /^s M arch /in gSubm arine/s M erchan t/s Very E a r ly / ie r MarbleS u b je c t/s Mercy Vessel/s E a r/s M ardySubstance/s M e rit Velvet E a rn /s M a rry /le dSubiime Merm aid/s V erse / s Each MarmiteSubway/s M eriin /*s Vest/s Easter M a rtin / 'sSusan/*s Michael/*s Vaiery/^s E th e l/ ’s M a ry /'s
(Ju p ite r) (S a tu rn ) ( Uranus) (Neptune) (P luto)
Junk S a tu rd a y /s U R Never P lunkJu p ite r/^s S atu rn /^s U ranus/*s Neptune/^s P lu to /*sJ u n io r/s Satin Urban Nephew/s PlusJum p/etc. Sat U rch in /s N ea r/e r/e tc ., P lasticJ u g /s S a tis fy /e tc . U rg e /d N es t/s /e tc . P la nk /sJ u g g le r/s S a rd ine /s U rgen t N e w /e r/ ly P lay/e tc .Jun g ie /s S a it/ed U rn /s N eed/s/ed Please/etc.June/*s Sam/*s U rine N athan/*s Plato
16 This may at f i r s t appear to be an uneconomical use o f time, bu t once even a lim ited item -bank has been established i t can be used on subsequent occasions ad in fin itum . The w r ite r has found th a t fo u r o r f iv e words are often su ffic ie n t.
357
S T E P 3
Aware o f the practical c r ite r ia suggested e a rlie r in th is section,
next establish whether one o r more su itab le acrostics can be
constructed.
Sometimes th is is d if f ic u lt . Having constructed all bu t tw o items
in the acrostic, Uranus and P luto were s t i l l unmnemonised. The item -
bank failed to p rov ide items th a t could be incorporated in to the
nearly complete acrostic. I t was th e re fo re decided to use the le tte rs
U-R toge ther and to promote the association "you are". At the level o f
associating the mnemonic w ith the lea rn ing material i t would o f course
be essential to explain th is po in t to ch ild ren in each o f the learn ing
groups.
To fa c ilita te th is process i t was decided to ask ch ild ren to
th in k o f "U-R" not as isolated le tte rs , b u t how they m ight be w ritte n
in a lo ve -le tte r. In both p ilo t and experimental tr ia ls , ch ild ren were
quick to appreciate th is re la tionsh ip and th e re was no evidence to
suggest th a t the inclusion o f th is item caused any problems.
Given the o rig ina l b rie f, th a t longer acrostics can be made more
memorable by inco rpo ra ting rhyme, i t is necessary to determ ine the
metre requ ired. Then, by m anipu lating the potentia l acrostic words, a
range o f potential acrostics can be revealed.
358
Since i t was not possible to p rov ide a conventional word
com prising the f i r s t two le tte rs o f the ta rg e t word "P lu to" and which
rhymed w ith "Jun k", (the mnemonic word fo r Ju p ite r) the su b s titu te
"P lunk" was adopted. A lthough i t m ight be th o u g h t th a t th is a rtif ic ia l
word would be less memorable than a real word, in fa c t the co ro lla ry
seemed the case. The word "P lunk" aroused much amusement and became
firm ly associated w ith the learn ing m ateria l, (e.g., see the section
marked "Research methodology in th is s tu d y , p .190).
The chosen acrostic, "Six M erry Vegetables Eating Mars Junk, Saturday
U-R Never P lunk", represented one among numerous poss ib ilities .
GENERAL DISCUSSION
There is no r ig h t o r wrong acrostic. There are more and less memorable
ones.
One d if f ic u lty facing teachers who are attem pting to design
acrostics, is knowing how to d iffe re n tia te between memorable and less
memorable mnemonics. F u rth e r knowing when ch ild ren are s u ffic ie n tly
primed, s u ffic ie n tly responsive and able to mnemonise material w ith
guidance, (and apprec ia ting how to manage the s itua tion ) is la rge ly a
func tion o f the teacher’s awareness o f the c h ild /g ro u p ’s ind iv idua l o r
co llective lim itations.
In it ia lly i t w ill be necessary fo r teachers to supp ly mnemonics
themselves, as i t is known th a t mnemonising material req u ire s both
application and some sk ill.
I f th is a c tiv ity is undertaken se rious ly and p ro fess iona lly , the
evidence suggests th a t ch ild ren w ill become p rogress ive ly able to
spontaneously mnemonise lis ts , names and fac ts as the need arises.
359
FUTURE RESEARCH
As in the case o f metacognition the re is much im portan t work yet to be
undertaken concerning f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics. Given the co n flic tin g
evidence i t would be useful i f th is research had s trong applied
associations. To th is end a recent s tu d y has tested acrostics w ith in
the upper p rim ary school se tting . I w ill review the work in some
detail as i t is closely linked w ith the p resen t s tudy . For a more
detailed analysis, see the section marked "appendix" pp. x lv i- l i i i .
360
COX’S S T U D Y
Although Cox’s samples were on ly one th ird the size o f those used th is research the s im ila r ity o f his f in d in g s o ffe rs considerable c re d ib ility to the present s tudy . In add ition the evidence suggests:
1) The power o f acrostics can read ily be adapted fo r use w ith upper ju n io r school s tudents.
2) At immediate re -te s t, the re will be l it t le evidence o f an acrostics power.
3) At in te rva ls extending beyond e igh t days, material learned using acrostics becomes more easily re trievab le . This has been noted w ith th ree age groups to date 10, 11 and 13-year-o lds.
4) Material learned w ithou t in s tru c tio n s o f how to learn o r by rote methods, is fa r less durab le and less easily re trieved from memory than th a t which is encoded mnemonically.
5) Material encoded using acrostics considerably fa c ilita tes the recall o f seria l ordered items. This is tru e at all th ree ages so fa r stud ied.
Additional fu tu re work which would c o n tr ib u te to the present knowledge
o f mnemonics m ight include:
1) A su rvey designed to extend Cox’s (1991) evidence re la ting to c u rre n t informal mnemonic p ractice in ju n io r schools.
2) Applied empirical work te s tin g the e ffec ts o f su b jec t and experim enter-generated acrostics amongst ju n io r schoolch ildren.
3) A su rvey designed to obta in evidence o f c u rre n t informal mnemonic p ractice in u n ive rs itie s , h ighe r and fu r th e r education.
4) Applied stud ies designed to te s t the e fficacy o f acrostics against regu la r and ro te lea rn ing conditions at long-te rm and ve ry long-te rm re -te s t. There is a need fo r knowledge related to th is issue, which addresses all age-ran g es.
5) Applied stud ies designed to extend the p resent work in re lation to m aturation and the c h ild ’s a b ility to
a) mnemonise acrostics spontaneously,
b) mnemonise material using supp lied mnemonics.
361
6) Applied stud ies designed to te s t the long-te rm e ffec ts o f acrostics in free -re ca ll conditions. Cox, ( ib id .) has undertaken small-scale work to th is end bu t l it t le is known about the e ffects acrostics have on the lea rn ing o f o lde r ch ild ren at long-te rm free recall re -te s t.
MNEMONIOS IN SCHOOLS:
THE FUTURE
There is already some evidence th a t mnemonics are becoming acceptable
learn ing aids in the educational community. A recent document
published fo r the D.E.S. en titled ’H istory in the Prim ary and
Secondary Years: An H.M.I. View’ actua lly advocates the use o f
acronyms suggesting :
"We begin In o u r course a t the school by p resen ting a b r ie f o u tlin e o f world h is to ry , organised under f i f t y headings and in to g roups whose in itia l le tte rs form mnemonic words which can be easily learned by p u p ils ." (pp. 60-61)
Using acronyms, the document presents seven groups o f in form ation each
one conta in ing key course elements. An example will su ffice . "RODMAN"
is an acronym fo r:
RomansOur LordDark AgesMohammedansA frican KingdomsNorsemen
Although it is h igh ly encouraging to see f i r s t - le t te r mnemonics being
advocated by such an in flu e n tia l body, i t is im portan t to ask what is
d ire c tly on o ffe r fo r classroom teachers? F u rth e r, what do they stand
to gain from the present research?
362
The answer is in two parts. F irs t, the w r ite r hopes fo r an o p p o rtu n ity
to communicate the present evidence to th e s c ie n tif ic community.
Coupled w ith the evidence o f Cox, (1991) th is would enable some
considerable c la rifica tion o f ou r p resen t unders tand ing o f the
e fficacy o f acrostics in schools.
Despite the muddled fin d in g s o f labo ra to ry work using
unrepresenta tive samples and a r t if ic ia l m aterials, i t appears th a t
con tra ry to Carlson, Zimmer and G lover’s (1981) fin d in g s e.g., "F irs t
Le tte r Mnemonics: DAM (don ’t aid memory)", f i r s t le tte r mnemonics DAM
- DO AID MEMORY!
The o p p o rtu n ity to re p o rt these fin d in g s would go some way to
uphold ing the tra d itiona l fa ith many teachers ju s t if ia b ly have in the
e fficacy o f acrostics.
Second, i f educational research is to have any real practica l
value, teachers themselves must have access. To th is end,
Northam ptonshire Education A u th o rity have requested th a t a mnemonic
handbook is designed which lis ts the mnemonics iden tified in the
section marked "S u rve y" o f th is s tu d y , and prov ides an item -bank o f
examples related to National C urricu lum key stages covered in Maths,
English, Science and Technology. I t is hoped th a t o th e r education
au th o ritie s m ight follow th is lead, especia lly as acrostics can more
than double c h ild re n ’s recall o f factua l In form ation.
Factual recall fo r ch ild ren in the more d is ta n t fu tu re may well
be influenced by Orwellian prophesies. Only today, (10/6/91) the
w r ite r watched a fasc inating "H orizon" programme on the TV re la ting to
so-called "memory bus te rs", d rugs th a t s tim ula te the synapses to
improve recall. Possibly in the classroom o f the fu tu re teachers w ill
d is tr ib u te such neural stim u lan ts along w ith th e lesson ’so ftw are ’ ,
bu t un til then, .......... who needs drugd?l
363
R E F E R E N C E S
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THE AF»F»ENDIX
CONTENTS:
Materials associated with:
The Pilot experim ent-------------------------------- pp.i,ii
Experiment 1 (Matching e x p .)------------------ pp .iiijv
Experiment 2 (P lan ets )--------------------------- pp.v-vii
Experiment 3 (Design process)--------------- pp.viii-x
Experiment 4 (Hisorical p d s .)-------------------pp.xi-xiii
Experiment 5 (Assessment s c a le )----------------pp.xiv-xvi
Experiment 6 (Delivery C o .)---------------------pp.xvii,xviii
Questionnaires associated with Exp. 6 — pp.ixx-xxi
Experiments in the 7 s e rie s ----------------------pp.xxii-xxv
Children’s interview responsesassociated with exp. 6 ------------------------------- pp.xxvi-xlv
Cox’s d a ta --------------------------------------------------- pp.xivi-liii
Analysis of variance tables forall main experiments---------------------------------- pp.liv-Ivi
STORY CARD
On the night of Mond ay Januar y 16th, a robbery took place at the Midland Bank in Barton. Earlier in the evening, two men had been seen outside the bank. One was tall and about thirty years old, the other, a smaller man in his early twenties. The tall man was wearing red- co loured check trousers and a navy blue overcoat. The smaller man was thought to be wearing a grey raincoat and a yellow hat.
At around 7-20pm, they were seen running from the bank towards a green Ford Cortina car. The number of the car is believed to be GMS 629A. The car sped off in the direction of Hecton Road and was later found abandoned at Minster.
If you saw any thing suspicious yourself, you are asked to contact the local police, phone number: Barton 57883.
11
House: B D R Year: 1 2 3 Sex: Boy Girl
On what day of the week did the robbery take place?
In what month did the robbery take place? ____________
On what date did the robbery take place? _____________
What was the name of the bank that was robbed?
In what town did the robbery take place? ______
About how old was the tall man?
About how old was the smaller man?
What sort of trousers was the tall man wearing?
What colour was the tall man's coat?
What was grey that the smaller man was wearing?
What colour was the smaller man's hat?
At around what time were they seen running from the bank?
What colour was their getaway car? ________________________
What particular make was their getaway car? _________________
What was the number of their getaway car? ___ _____ ___
The car sped off in the direction of which road?
Where was the car later found abandoned?
What phone number are you asked to ring with information?
THANK YOU
IllSTORY CARD
On the night of Monday, January 16th, a robbery took place at the Midland Bank
in Barton. Earlier in the evening, two men had been seen outside the bank. One
was tall and about thirty years old, the other, a smaller man in his early
twenties. The tall man was wearing red check trousers and a navy blue jacket.
The smaller man was thought to be wearing a grey raincoat and a yellow hat.
At around 7-20pm, they were seen running from the bank towards a green
Ford Cortina. The number of the car is believed to be GMS 629A. The car sped
off in the direction of Highway Road and was later found abandoned at Minster.
If you saw anything suspicious yourself, you are asked to contact the
local police, phone number. Barton 57883.
IV
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 1 2 3 BOY GIRL
1) On what day of the week did the robbery take place?
2) In what month did the robbery take place? ________
3) On what date did the robbery take place? _________
4) What was the name of the bank that was robbed?
5) In what town did the robbery take place? ____
6) About how old was the taller man? ___________
7) About how old was the smaller man? __________
8) What sort of trousers was the taller man wearing?
9) What colour was the taller man’s jacket? _______
10) What was grey that the smaller man was wearing?
11) What colour was the smaller man’s hat? _______
12) At around what time were they seen running from the bank?
13) What colour was their getaway car? _________________
14) What type of car was their getaway car? __________ ____
15) What was the getaway car's registration number?
16) The car sped off in the direction of which road?
17) Where was the car found abandoned?
18) What phone number are you asked to ring?
Jupiter
O VenusMercury
Neptune
Uranus
Saturn
1)
2 )
3)4)5)6 )
7)8 )
9)
SUN
MERCURY
VENUS
EARTH
MARS
J U P I T E R
SATURN
URANUS
NEPTUNE
PLUTO
VI
SIX MERRY VEGETABLES EATING MARS JUNK;
SATURDAY UR NEVER PLUNK
One of the f i r s t th ings you will notice about th is funny sentence, Is
tha t I t ’s a rhyme. I f you look carefu lly at the table below, you will
notice that at least the f ir s t two letters o f each word in the rhyme
are also the f ir s t two letters o f a planet.
I f you can remember th is lit t le rhyme, you will almost certa in ly
be able to remember the order tha t the planets are In.
Take half-a-m inute to learn the rhyme by saying It over and over
qu ie tly to yourself.
SIX .................... SUN
MER-RY ................. MER-CURY
VE-GETABLES ........... VE-NUS
EA-TING ............... EA-RTH
MARS ................... MARS
JU-NK .................. JU-PITER
SATUR-DAY .............. SATUR-N
UR ..................... UR-ANUS
NE-VER ................. NE-PTUNE
PLU-NK ................. PLU-TO
Just remember, tha t UR is NOT spelt YOU ARE, but how you might w rite
it in a iove letter!
When you are asked to remember the planets In th e ir correct order from
the Sun, ju s t remember the rhyme and you will know the f i r s t two
letters of each planet AND th e ir CORRECT order. The rest will be easy.
vil
SUN
1 )
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8 )
9)
PLANETS ANSWER- SHE ET
1) SIT UAT IO N
2) BRIEF
Vlll
3) IN V EST IGA TI ONTHE DESIGN PROCESS
4) SOL UTIONS
5) BEST SOLUTION
6) MODEL
7) WORK ING DRAWING
8) R EA L I SAT ION
9) AP PRA I S AL
SITUATION
Î
BRIEF
► INVESTIGATIONI
(M n i sj to o6
Î
SOLUTIONS
1BEST SOLUTIONI
MODEL
ÏWORKING DRAWING
REALISATION
ÎAPPRAISAL
IX
STUPID BRICKIES INVENTED SOME BRICKS
MADE WITH RED ASPRINS.
S-TUPID ............... SITUATION
B-R ICKIES ............ B-RIEF
I-NVENTED ............ I-NVEST IG ATI ON
S-OME ................. S-OLUTIONS
B-RICKS B-EST SOLUTION
M-ADE ................. M-ODEL
W-ITH W-ORKING DRAWING
R-ED ................... R-EA LI SA TIO N
A-S PRINS ............. A- PP RAISAL
Just remember that there are two Ss and SITUATION comes FIRST
There are two Ds but notice that the first two letters of BRIC KIE S are the same as the first two letters of BRIEF!
DES IGN -PROCESS ANSWE R- SH EET
PLEASE NAME EACH STAGE OF THE DESIGN PROCESS IN THE
CORRECT ORDER.
1 )
2 )
3 )
4 )
5 )
6 )
7 )
8 )
9 )
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 1 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
Ages PeriodsGreek
Classical
Roman
Anglo-saxon
Saxon
Norman Angevin Plantagenet
^ Lancastrian A Tudor
Stuart Georgian/ Hanoverian Regency Victorian Edwardian
Date400 BC 300 BC 200 BC 100 BC
1 BC
CenturyFifth BC Fourth BC Third BC Second BC First BC
1 AD 100 AD 200 AD 300 AD 400 AD 500 AD 600 AD 700 AD 800 AD 900 AD
1000 AD 1100 AD 1200 AD 1300 AD 1400 AD 1500 AD 1600 AD
1700 AD 1800 AD 1840 AD 1900 AD 1914 AD
First AD Second AD Third AD Fourth AD Fifth AD Sixth AD Seventh AD Eighth AD Ninth AD Tenth AD Eleventh AD Twelfth AD Thirteenth AD Fourteenth AD Fifteenth AD Sixteenth AD Seventeenth AD
Eighteenth AD Nineteenth AD
Twentieth AD
XI
PERIODS OF THE MODERN AGE
TUDOR
STUART
GEORGIAN
REGENCY
VICTORIAN
EDWARDIAN
Xll
TEN SWANS GET RED VESTS EASY
T-EN ............... T-UDOR
S-WANS ............. S-TUART
G-ET ............... G-EORGIAN
R-ED ............... R-GENCY
V-ESTS ............. V-ICTORIAN
E-ASY .............. E-DWARDIAN
Xlll
HISTORICAL PERIODS ANSWER SHEET
1)
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 1 SEX: BOY GIRL
XIVSIX-POINT ASSESSMENT SCALE
After products like; shoes, cars, clothes and furniture have been made, companies must assess or check their products for quality. If their products are of poor quality, the public will buy from someone else!
Below, you will see SIX headings under which products can be assessed. This is called an ASSESSMENT SCALE.
* PERFORMANCE
* FUNCTION
* VALUE FOR MONEY
* CONSTRUCTION
* AESTHETICS
* SAFETY
Some of the words look difficult and complicated, but they are not really, I will explain what they mean.
PERFORMANCE, means how well a product works or performs during regular use. For example, a car's engine shouldn't need repairs for the first few years of its life.
FUNCTION, means does the product do what the maker claims it should do? For example, if Ford say a car in their Fiesta range should do more than forty miles to the gallon, then it should!
VALUE FOR MONEY, means is the product good value for the money spent ?
CONSTRUCTION, means is the product well-constructed and strongly made?
AESTHETICS, is the designer's word for appearance or looks,
SAFETY: Is the product safe when in regular use?
XV
PELICANS FIND VINDALOO CURRY AWFULLY SATISFYING
P-ELICANS............. P-ERFORMANCE
F-IND.................. F-UNCTION
V-INDALOO............. V-ALUE FOR MONEY
C-URRY................. C-ONSTRUCTION
A-WFULLY.............. A-ESTHETICS
S-ATISFYING........... S-AFETY
XVI
ASSESSMENT SCALE ANSWER SHEET
1 )
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
XVI1
STORY CARD
I want you to imagine that you are a driver for a delivery
company. On your first day at work, you have been asked
to make SIX deliveries in the Midlands area. In order to
save time and petrol, your company has told you to make
your deliveries to various places in a particular order, which
should also help you to get back without being late.
Here are the names of the places which you have to deliver
to in the correct order:
1) BEDFORD
2) LUTON
3) AYLESBURY
4) OXFORD
5) STRATFORD
6) RUGBY
Just in case you lose this list, it might be best to put the
place names and the particular order of them into your memory
XVlll
DELIVERY COMPANY ANSWER SHEET
THESE PLACE-NAMES ARE NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
AYLESBURY, STRATFORD, BEDFORD, OXFORD, RUGBY, LUTON
1 )
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 1 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
FAMILY: IN IT IA L S ;
FAMILY: INIT IAL5%x^^
E.- GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTION 1
Did you use a silly sentence to help you remember where
to deliver in the correct order?
( ) YES
( ) NO
If you did use a silly sentence, please write it here:
If you used another way of remembering the delivery places
in the correct order, please write here how you did it:
QUESTION 2
You have been taught to remember names or information twice
before using a silly sentence to help you. Did you find using
a silly sentence to help you remember, either:
( ) NOT VERY HELPFUL?( ) FAIRLY HELPFUL?( ) HELPFUL?( ) VERY HELPFUL?
YEAR: 1 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
XX
FAMILY: _______ INITIALS;
C.- GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTION 1
Please can you explain to me exactly how you tried to
remember the place names you were to make deliveries to?
QUESTION 2
If you used a DIFFERENT way of remembering names and information
when you have learned things for me before, please try and
write down what the other way/s was.
YEAR: 1 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
XXIFAMILY: INITIALS:
R.- GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTION 1
Did you say the names of the delivery places over and over
again, quietly to yourself or not?
( ) YES
( ) NO
If you answered NO, please explain how you did try to remember
the places in the correct order? Write here:
QUESTION 2
You have been taught to remember names and information by
saying information you need to remember quietly over and over
again to yourself. Did you find this:
( ) NOT VERY HELPFUL?( ) FAIRLY HELPFUL?( ) HELPFUL?( ) VERY HELPFUL?
YEAR: 1 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
XXll
PLANET ANSWER SHEET (2)
THESE PLANET-NAMES ARE NOT IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
JUPITER, PLUTO, MARS, NEPTUNE, EARTH, URANUS, VENUS, SATURN, MERCURY
SUN
1)
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
7)
8 )
9)
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 1 SEX: BOY GIRL
FAMILY: IN IT IA L S :
XXlll
DESIGN PROCESS ANSWER SHEET ( 2 )
THESE DESIGN PROCESS NAMES ARE MIXED U P ;
BEST SOLUTION * WORKING DRAWING * APPRAISAL * BRIEF * SOLUTIONS
MODEL * REALISATION * SITUATION * INVESTIGATION
IN THE NINE SPACES BELOW, PUT THESE DESIGN PROCESS STAGES IN THE
CORRECT ORDER.
1)
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
7)
8 )
9)
HOUSE; B D R YEAR: 3 SEX: BOY GIRL
XXIV
HISTORICAL PERIODS ANSWER SHEET ( 2 )
THESE PERIOD NAMES ARE MIXED U P ;
GEORGIAN TUDOR VICTORIAN STUART EDWARDIAN REGENCY
IN THE SIX SPACES BELOW, PUT THESE PERIOD NAMES IN THEIR CORRECT
ORDER.
1 )
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
HOUSE: B D R YEAR: 1 SEX: BOY GIRL
XXV
ASSESSMENT SCALE ANSWER SHEET ( 2 )
THESE NAMES ARE ^ IN THE CORRECT ORDER.
VALUE FOR MONEY, AESTHETICS, PERFORMANCE, SAFETY,
CONSTRUCTION, FUNCTION.
1 )
2 )
3)
4)
5)
6 )
HOUSE: D D R YEAR: 3 SEX; BOY GIRL
FAMILY: IN IT IA L S :
XXVI
INTERVIEW RESPONSES RELATING TO EXPERIMENT 6 (deliverycompany)
PLEASE NOTE: The following fou r responses were used earlie r in the study to Illustra te work related to th is particu la r section - B1U3, M1N3, T3U1, M3N1 and are therefore missing from the appendix.
SAMPLE
FIRST-YEAR n = 12
USERS
CODE
K1U1 L1U2 B1U3 J1Ü4 01 U5 M1U6
NON-USERS
R1N1C1N2M1N3W1N4M1N5N1N6
THIRD-YEAR n = 12
USERS
CODE
T3U1M3U2F3U3N3U4J3U5
NON-USERS
M3N1D3N2A3N3T3N4C3N5R3N6S3N7
xxvil
K1U1
Q.: K., when you did th is test fo r me, (subject shown experiment response) you made up a s illy sentence; "B irds Always Lay On S tra ight Rocks" (a f i r s t le tte r mnemonic fo r Bedford, Aylesbury, Luton, Oxford, S tra tfo rd, Rugby.)
A.: Yes.
Do you remember how long It took you to make up the sentence? Did it come quickly or did it take a lit t le while? Were you s trugg ling to do it in the time you had or what?
A.: I t came quickly.
Q.: Did you find it easy to make up a s illy sentence?
A.: Well, sort of.
Q.: You said, you had found the sentence "usefu l". Have you used a s illy sentence since then or not?
A.: No.
Q.: Would you know how to make up a s illy sentence on your own in fu tu re to help you remember things?
A.: Yes.
xxvl l i
L1U2
Q.: L., (re fe rring to scrip t) when I asked you to make up a s illy sentence in order to remember these place names, do you remember whether it took a long while to do it or whether it happened quite quickly?
A.: I t took me quite a while.
Q.: You’ve put down tha t you found the s illy sentences "fa ir ly helpful"?
A.: Yes.
Q.: You d idn ’t find them very helpful?
A.: No.
Q.: Did you use them?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Why do you th ink you didn’t find them very helpful?
A.: Because I remember things.
Q.: So you can remember th ings anyway?
A.: Sometimes, yes.
Q.: So what was the reason you put down " fa ir ly helpful"?
A.: Because sometimes I can remember words, but sometimes you can fo rge t words.
Q.: So you used the s illy sentences as a sort o f safety net; you can usually remember words but it helped as a check?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Do you use s illy sentences to help you remember other th ings or not at all?
A.: Not at all.
Q.: Do you th ink you might do in the fu tu re , when It comes to learning fo r exams?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Do you th ink that it would help you to get th ings In the rig h t order if you used a s illy sentence?
A.: Yes.
XXIX
J1U4
Q.: J., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) you’ve made up a s illy sentence to help you remember these place names; "Bad Ladies Also Offered Stupid Rhyme". Do you remember whether it took a long while to make up or did it flash into your head?
A.: I t d idn’t take me all tha t long, but I made up one and it d idn ’t f i t , and then (th is one) it ju s t popped Into my head In about a minute, with about fifteen seconds to go.
Q.: Do you th ink you would have remembered these place names in the r ig h t order if you hadn’t used a rhyme?
A.: No, probably I wouldn’t.
Q.: You’ve put down here, (re fe rring to sc rip t) tha t you found the s illy sentences "he lp fu l". Can you explain ju s t what you mean? In what way were they helpful?
A.: Well, i f you’ve ju s t got a few places to memorise, sometimes you get muddled up because you feel like you’ re under pressure. But if you’ve got a sentence (s illy sentence) it sticks In your mind longer.
Q.: Can you s till remember the s illy sentence you made up?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Do you th ink you could make up a s illy sentence of your own?
A.: Yes, I ’d know how to do It now, but I don’t usually.
XXX
C1U5
Q.: C., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) a lit t le while ago, I asked you to imagine you were a d rive r with deliveries to make. To help you do th is, I asked you to make up a s illy sentence like I had shown you twice before. You made up the s illy sentence: "Being Loved, Alan Ordered Stupid Rags".
I gave you a minute and a quarter to do th is. Do you rememberwhether It took all o f the time? Did it come to you in a flash orwhat?
A.: In about a minute - something like that.
Q.: Did you th ink of any other ones or was th is one the only one that you thought up?
A.: That’s the only one I thought up.
Q.: Did you find It d iffic u lt to make up the s illy sentence?
A.: Yes.
Q.: You’ve used two s illy sentences before with me. You said tha t you found these "he lp fu l" to remember th ings in order. Can you te ll me in what way you found them helpful?
A.: I t was the s illy sentences tha t ...... the f i r s t couple of letterswent s tra igh t into my mind, and I kept them there.
Q.: So you th ink tha t once you’d got the f i r s t couple of letters, that helped you to remember the other words?
A.: Yes.
Q.: C., i f a teacher asked you to remember a lis t of names before we completed these tests, how would you go about remembering them?
A.: I wouldn’t do (remember) the f ir s t couple of le tters I ’d ju s t do the f ir s t one.
Q.: You’d remember the f i r s t le tte r and then you th ink tha t would help you remember the rest of the information?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Do you th ink you’d be able to make up a s illy sentence to remember some names in fu tu re - and do th is on your own?
A.: Probably, yes.
XXXI
M1U6
Q.: M., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) I gave you an opportun ity to make up a s illy sentence to help you remember these place names. Your sentence was "Better Live Alone Or Stay Relaxed". I gave you a minute and a quarter to make up the s illy sentence. Do you remember i f the sentence came quickly or did it take a long time?
A.: Well, it ju s t came, because I had looked and practised what I was going to write.
Q.: So, in the time tha t I was ta lk ing, you actually made it up?
A.: Yes.
Q.: So it came very quickly really?
A.: Yes.
Q.: You’ve used silly-sentences twice before with me to remember th ings. You said (on the questionnaire) tha t they had been "very helpful". Can you explain?
A.: Well, sometimes if there isn’t a s illy sentence, i t ’s quite hard to memorise it, so I thought they are very helpful.
Q.: So you though s illy sentences were helpful in remembering th ings you might have otherwise forgotten?
A.: Yes.
Q.: I f a teacher normally, askes you to remember some names or a lis t, how do you go about it?
A.: Well, I ’d w rite the f ir s t le tte r and then see if I can memorise it.
Q.: How do you memorise it?
A.: By saying it over and over.
Q.: Using all the f ir s t letters?
A.: Yes.
Q.: So, you wouldn’t ju s t keep reading the lis t through?
A.: No.
Q.: Do you th ink in the fu tu re , you would be able to make up a s illy sentence to help you remember th ings - on your own?
A.: Yes.
XXXII
M1U6 continued......
Q.: Have you thought about doing th is since (the experiments)?
A.: Not really.
R1N1
Q.: R., When you were try in g to remember the place names fo r the delivery company experiment, you d idn ’t use a s illy sentence. Why was that?
A.: Because I never had enough time.
Q.: But you did use a certain way of remembering the names. You tried to remember the f i r s t two letters of each place name. Did tha t help you at all?
A.: No, not really.
Q.: When I asked you whether you had found s illy sentences helpful inthe past, you answered "fa ir ly helpfu l". Why d id ’ nt you find themanything more than fa ir ly helpful? Can you tell me why tha t was?
A.: I got muddled up with them.
Q.: What do you normally do when you’ve got to remember lists or names fo r school?
A.: I ju s t w rite them down.
C1N2
Q.: C., When I asked you to use a s illy sentence tha t you’d made up yourself, you d idn ’t use one. Can you tell me why th is was, please?
A.: Because I couldn’t th ink o f one and there wasn’t enough time.
Q.: Can you tell me why it was tha t you thought the s illy sentences were only " fa ir ly helpful"?
A.: Because sometimes I ’d fo rget them.
Q.: I f you had to remember lis ts o r names fo r school work, and a teacher ju s t said to you "I want you to learn these", how would you learn them?
A.: I ’d Just keep going over It, keep reading it to myself.
XXXIII
W1N4
Q.: W., (re fe rring to original scrip t) when I asked you to remember these places, I said you could make up a s illy sentence as I had shown you before in the past. Can you tell me why you d idn ’t make up a s illy sentence of your own please?
A.: I couldn’t find one of my own. I thought tha t yours were more helpful. I ju s t took the f ir s t le tters o f mine.
Q.: You say you found the s illy sentences in the past "very helpful" (questionnaire response). Can you explain what you mean by that? Do you th ink you would have had d ifficu lty in learning th ings in the r ig h t order w ithout a s illy sentence, o r what?
A.: Yes, I th ink I would have.
Q.: Before you did all th is (mnemonic tra in ing ). If a teacher had asked you to learn some names or a lis t in a certain order, how would you have gone about doing it?
A.: I ’d have ju s t remembered the f ir s t few letters.
A.: Is th is how you have always tried to remember things?
A.: Yes.
XXXIV
M1N5
Q.: M., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) a lit t le while ago, I asked you to remember some place names and imagine tha t you were a d rive r. You had to design a s illy sentence of your own to help you remember the correct order of the places you were to deliver to. I had shown you twice before how to do th is, but I notice tha t on th is occasion, you didn’t make up a s illy sentence. Can you tell me why you d idn ’t please?
A.: Because I couldn’t make one up in tha t time - I couldn’t th ink of one.
Q.: You’ve put down (re fe rring to questionnaire sc rip t) tha t when you have used s illy sentences before, you found them "fa ir ly helpfu l".In what way did you find them fa ir ly helpful?
A.: Sometimes, I get muddled up with them.
Q.: I f a teacher asked you to remember some names o r a lis t in a particu lar order, how would you go about doing it?
A.: I read from No 1 to the last one and go over it again until it gets into my memory.
XXXV
N1N6
Q.: N., (Referring d irectly to orig inal sc rip t) a lit tle while ago, I asked you to remember the names o f some places, and imagine you were a d rive r fo r a company. You had to put these names in order, and memorise the order to help you with your deliveries. Previously, I had asked you to use a s illy sentence to help you remember lists or names in a particu lar order. When I gave you the chance to do th is yourself,I notice you d idn ’t. Can you tell me why tha t was please?
A.: it was a b it hard to remember - I couldn’t devise It tha t quickly.
Q.: Do you mean you couldn’t make up a s illy sentence in the time you had?
A.: Yes.
Q.: You used the f ir s t le tte r of the words to help you remember the place names?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Did you make a word up out of each of the letters of the names ofthe delivery places you had to deliver to?
A.: Yes.
Q.: In the questionnaire I asked you to f i l l in, you said tha t you found s illy sentences "fa ir ly helpfu l" In the past. What did you mean by that?
A.: I don’t know really, they were ju s t easy to remember - and notquite easy. Some words I could get mixed up!
Q.: You mean s illy sentence words?
A.: Yes.
Q.: I f a teacher normally asks you to remember some names or facts in a particu lar order, what would you do to help you remember them?
A.: I would remember the f ir s t le tter, o r the f ir s t three letters, or something.
XXXVI
D3N2
Q.: D., in the past I taught you to make up a s illy sentence, andthen, when you were asked to do th is, you d idn ’t. Can you tell me whyth is was please?
A.: I couldn’t th ink of one.
Q.: You thought it was too hard to th ink one up?
A.: Yes.
Q.: How do you normally remember th ings (like this)?
A.: I rememeber the f i r s t letter.
Q.: So the f ir s t le tte r helps you does It?
A.: Yes.
Q.: What happens if you fo rge t the f ir s t letter?
A.: You forget the word.
Q.: How would you normally remember a lis t of things? Would you do itthe same way?
A.: Yes.
Q.: Why did you answer that s illy sentences were fa ir ly helpful (in helping learn information)?
A.: Sometimes they were helpful, but not all the time.
Q.: Do you remember what the s illy sentence was fo r the "design process"?
A.: No.
XXXVII
A3N3
Q.: A., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) a fte r I had asked you to makeup a s illy sentence to help you remember these place names, you d idn’tdo this. Can you tell me why you d idn ’t please?
A.: Because I thought it would be harder.
Q.: I t would be harder to make up a s illy sentence than to learn it normally?
A.: Yes.
Q.: You used the f ir s t le tte r of each word to help you remember the place names in the correct order. Can you tell me how you actually did that?
A.: I ju s t remembered the f ir s t letters.
Q.: Did you make up a word?
A.: I Just used the f ir s t letter.
Q.: You said you found the s illy sentences "he lp fu l". Have you ever used them before or was tha t the f ir s t time?
A.: That was the f ir s t time.
Q.: I f a teacher normally gave you a lis t o r some names to learn in a certain order, how would you have gone about it before I started doing th is sort of th ing with you?
A.: Just read them over and over again.
XXXVII
T3N4
Q.: T., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) I gave you, in the past, some s illy sentences to help you remember Information and names in the r ig h t order. In th is experiment where you had to remember where to deliver to, I asked you to make up a s illy sentence all of your own. Can you tell me why you d idn ’t do this?
A.: Because I found It quite hard and i t was easier to remember f ir s t le tte rs than words.
Q.: You put down tha t the s illy sentences were only " fa ir ly helpful". Is tha t fo r the same or a d iffe ren t reason?
A.: I t ’s ju s t the same reason really. I t was too hard so I couldn’t put "he lp fu l".
Q.: I f a teacher gave you some names, facts, information or lists to remember in the correct order, how would you go about remembering them?
A.: I ’d ju s t read them over and over again.
XXXIX
C3N5
Q.: C., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) When I asked you to remember the delivery company names in the r ig h t order, I gave you a chance to make up a s illy sentence like the ones you had been taught previousiy. Can you tell me why you didn’t?
A.: Because I remembered it by saying it over and over again.
Q.: So you d idn ’t find the s illy sentence helpful?
A.: No.
Q.: Why not?
A.: I ju s t remembered it. I ju s t found it easier to remember it w ithout the s illy sentence.
Q.: In the other experiments you did fo r me, did you find the s illy sentences helpful o r not very helpful?
A.: Not very helpful.
Q.: Why not?
Pause.
Q.: Do you remember?
A.: No.
Q.: I f a teacher asked you to remember a lis t or names, how would you go about doing that?
A.: I ’d ju s t remember it in my head.
Q.; How do you remember it in your head? What do you do?
A.: Keep on reading it.
xl
R3N6
Q.: R., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) when I saw you the time before last, I asked you to imagine that you were a d rive r fo r a delivery company and asked you to remember six names in a certain order. I also told you to make up your own (s illy sentence) In the same sort o f way tha t I had shown you before on two other occasions. Can you tell me why you d idn ’t make up a s illy sentence when you were asked to remember these names?
A.: I found it easier ju s t to remember it (the names) in my head.
Q.: You said you d idn ’t find the s illy sentences very helpful at all.In fact, you put "not very helpful". Why was that?
A.: Because I hardly ever used them. I ju s t tried to remember the order they were in in my head.
Q.: Can you remember the place names now?
A.: No.
Q.: I f a teacher asked you to remember a lis t o r some names in a certain order, how would you go about remembering the information?
A.: I ’d ju s t keep it in my head, ju s t say it over and over again.
xli
S3N7
Q.: S., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) when I asked you to remember these pi ace names fo r the delivery company, I asked you to make up a s illy sentence based on what we had done together before on two previous occasions. Now, when it came to actually doing that, you d idn ’t make up a s iily sentence. Can you tell me why you d idn ’t?
A.: Well, I said it over and over again, so I d idn ’t really need a s illy sentence.
Q.: So you found it (the names of the de livery company) easier to learn w ithout a s illy sentence?
A.: Yes.
Q.: You said you found the s illy sentences before "he lp fu l". In what way did you find them helpful?
A.: Well, some s illy sentences stuck In your brain, but sometimes you’d forget them and they ’ re not really helpful.
Q.: I f a teacher asked you to learn a lis t o r some names normally in a lesson, how would you go about doing it?
A.: I ’d ju s t say it over and over again.
xlii
M3U2
Q.: M., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) A littie while ago, I asked you to remember some place names, and also to imagine tha t you were a delivery d rive r delivering items in a certain order to particu lar places. The s illy sentence you made up to help you remember the place names in the correct order was "Big Lemons And Oranges S tart Rolling".
I gave you a minute and a quarter to do th is. Did it take all tha t time up o r not?
A.: I t took about a minute.
Q.: Did you find it d iff ic u lt to do (make up the s illy sentence)? Did you have other ideas or was th is the only idea you came up with?
A.: I t was the one that stood out the most.
Q.: But you had other ideas - you though of others.
A.: One other.
Q.: On the questionnaire, you put down tha t th is and the other s illy sentences tha t you had used were " fa ir ly helpful" rather than helpful o r very helpful. Can you explain th is please?
A.: Well, at the time, they didn’t seem very helpful, but now, I canremember It much better than I would have been able to do.
Q.: I f a teacher gave you a lis t of names or facts to remember in a certain order, how would you normally go about doing it? Forget (d isregard) what I ’ve taught you to do. How would you normally go about it?
A.: Read through it (the to be remembered material) several times orwrite it down on a piece of paper.
Q.: Do you th ink that if you wanted to remember lis ts or names in the fu tu re , you could use th is (s illy sentence) method by generating the s iily sentence yourself?
A.: Yes, if I d idn’t have a piece of paper handy, yes.
xlii I
F3U3
Q.: F., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) a lit t le while ago, I asked you to remember some s iily sentences to help you remember th ings (names and facts) and also, later, I asked you to remember some places to which you were asked to deliver in an imaginary situation. I also asked you (fo r the delivery company experiment) to make up a s illy sentence to help you remember the order o f the places. Yours was: "Betty Loo As Often She Remembers".
I gave you a minute and a quarter to make up the s illy sentence. Can you remember whether it took you a long while to make one up or did it come (into your mind) quite quickly?
A.: A.: I t came quite quickly.
Q.: Did you only th ink of one s illy sentence or did you th ink of others and th is was the best one, o r what?
A.: I ju s t stuck with the f ir s t one I thought of.
Q.: In the questionnaire, you put down tha t you found the s illy sentences " fa ir ly helpful" (in helping you to remember facts). Can you explain what you mean please?
A.: I put down fa ir ly helpful because I don’t th ink we had enough time to th ink of a sentence.
Q.: I f a teacher asked you to remember a lis t o r some names in a particu lar order, (before I taught you strategies) how would you go about doing it?
A.: Probably ju s t look at them, stick them through my head and the next time I saw them (remember) what I did.
Q.: When you say look at them (the nâmes or information) do you mean ju s t look at them (the names) or read them over and over again or what?
A.: Read them through or look at them.
Q.: Would you be able to make up a s iily sentence of your own in fu tu re to remember things? Do you th ink you know how to do it now or not?
A.: Yes (I could).
xliv
N3U4
Q.: N., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) a lit t le while ago, I asked you to remember some places to deliver to and imagine that you were a lo rry d rive r. I gave you six place names to remember in a particu lar order and asked you to use a s illy sentence in the same way that I had taught you to use them twice in the past.
The s iily sentence you made up was: "Buy Lemon Aftershave Or See Red". What I want to know, is how much of the minute and a quartertha t I gave you to do th is, did it take to make up the s illy sentence?Did it come quite quickly - did you have more than one?F irs t of all, did it take you long?
A.: No, it came ju s t s tra igh t away.
Q.: What, in about the f ir s t fifteen seconds or so?
A.: About tha t - perhaps twenty seconds.
Q.: Did you th in k of more than one, or was th is the one tha t you stuck with?
A.: Yes it is. A fter th ink ing of tha t one, I thought o f a few more, but they d idn ’t seem very good, so I ju s t stuck with tha t one.
Q.: In the questionnaire, I asked you whether you thought tha t using the s illy sentences in the past were e ither very helpful, helpful fa ir ly helpful or not very helpful. You answered "he lp fu l". Can you tell me what you mean by that?
A.: Usually, I can remember w ithout a s illy sentence, but fo r the long-term memory of it, using a s illy sentence fo r me is helpful.
Q.: I f a teacher asks you to remember some names or items in a particu lar order, before you did anything like th is with me,(mnemonics) how would you go about it?
A.: I ’d go over them in my head firs t.
Q.: Can you explain what you mean by "going over them in my head"?
A.: I ju s t keep th ink ing about the words, ju s t keep th ink ing about them In the r ig h t order. They ju s t come.
Q.: Would you be able to make up a s iily sentence of your own in fu tu re , to remember things? Do you th ink you know how to do it now or not?
A.: Yes.
xlv
J3U5
Q.: J., (re fe rring to original sc rip t) a lit tie while ago, I asked you to remember some place names fo r me, and to imagine you were a lo rry d rive r having to deliver items to these places in a particu lar order.You made up a s illy sentence " Before Leaving, Alison’s Oranges Started Rioting". I gave you a minute and a quarter to make up a sentence. Did th is one come quickly, o r did it take quite a long while to come into your mind? Were you strugg ling fo r time at the end?
A.: S truggling fo r time at the end.
Q.: Was th is the only s illy sentence tha t you thought of?
A.: Yes.
Q.: In the questionnaire, you put that you thought s illy sentences were "very helpfu l" In the past fo r helping you to remember information. Can you explain in what way they were very helpful?
A.: Well, I ’m not very good at remembering anything, so they helped me a lot there.
Q.: Do you use s illy sentences at all now? Having found them helpful,would you use them at all to remember things?
A.: Probably, because Mum sometimes asks me to go to the shops .... and she asks me fo r things. I ’d make up a s iily sentence to remember them.
Q.: I f a teacher asked you to remember some facts, a lis t o r some names in a particu lar order - before you did th is sort of work with me, how would you have gone about it?
A.: I ’d w rite it down.
Q.: Say you d idn ’t have a chance to w rite it down, how would you go about remembering it then - say the teacher put the Information on the board and you hadn’t got a piece of paper?
A.: I ’d probably go over and over it in my head.
Q.: Do you th ink that you would be able to make up a s illy sentencefo r th ings tha t you wanted to remember now w ithout being given anyhelp?
A.: Yes.
xivi
RESULTS OR COX’S (1 991 ) STUDY WITH
URRER PRIMARY CHILDREN
In collaboration with the w rite r, Cox, (1991) has used all the
materials associated with experiment 2 (planets experiment) o f th is
study with fou rth year primary children (mode 10.5 years). Children
were assigned to the same learning conditions used in the present
study following the results o f matching techniques as used in
experiment 1 of the present study.
Using three matched groups, [1] (c. 3 X 10 ) Cox employed the
precise approach and materials adopted in experiment 2 of the present
s tudy apart from the exceptions listed on the following two pages.
1 Following careful general ab ility and gender matching, Cox used the same procedure established in experiment 1 (matching experiment) of th is study, to ascertain in te r-g roup parity on a short-term memory task.
xlvii
PRE-TEST STRATEGY INSTRUCTIONS
Prior to the learning phase, a period of ten minutes of informal,
recorded discussion was held with children in each of the three
conditions.
NB: I t may be remembered tha t the mnemonic group performed poorly at immediate re -tes t of th is experiment in the present study and i t was hypothesised tha t th is might be due to the fact tha t the mnemonic group had the dual tasks of learning how to use the mnemonic offered, in addition to learning the ta rge t material. I t was fu rth e r hypothesised tha t if children in the mnemonic group had received p rio r instruction about how to use acrostics, they might have displayed immediate learning benefits compared with the rote and uninstructed learners.
The discussion was aimed at raising the stra teg ic awareness of
children in each of the three learning conditions.
Children in the rote condition received illustra ted discussion
and instruction related to rote-iearning protocols.
Children in the uninstructed condition were invited to share and
discuss the ir regular methods of learning factual information. The
experimenter was careful to act as an impartial mediator and made no
e ffo rt to suggest any particu la r learning method was superior to
others.
Children in the mnemonic group received illustra ted discussion on
how to use acrostics adopting two examples: "N-ever E-at S-hredded W-
heat" (used to help teach the compass points in sequential o rder) and
Cox’s "Red-dish (red) Orange-ade (orange) Yell-ed (yellow) Gree-dy
(green) Blue (blue) Ind i-ans (indigo) V io le -n tiy" (v io let), an
alternative acrostic to help teach the sequential o rder of the
spectral colours.
x l v i i i
TIME OF RE-TEST AND RECALL PROTOCOLS
At immediate re-test, Cox adopted the same re -test procedures and
materials as those undertaken in the present study. He also tested
again at eight days post-test using two approaches: free-recall (an
approach not used in the present study at long-term re-test) followed
immediately by a replication o f the recognition test used in the
present study.
The following was hypothesised:
1) Children in the mnemonic group may show immediate learning gains, being largely free of the jo in t constra ints of learning how to manipulate the mnemonic and learn the ta rge t material.
2) At eight days post-test, ch ildren in the mnemonic group would out-perform those in the other conditions on both the free-recall and recognition tests.
3) The mnemonic group’s performance on the recognition test would be superior to tha t on the free-recall test.
Cox’s results are shown below: Target Year: 1 (mean age 11.5 yrs)
Target-groups: C.-group (un instructed)
R.-group (instructed to rote-1 earn material)
E.-group (instructed to use experimentergenerated f irs t- le tte r mnemonics).
xlix
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENT 1 (IMMEDIATE FREE-RECALL RE—TEST)
For in te r-g roup measures, n = c.20, p - < 0.05 i t = > 1.725) is used and fo r in tra -g roup measures.n = 9, p :: < 0.05 ( t = > 1.833).
GROUP SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-GROUP 64 7.11 3.6
R.-GROUP 57 6.33 2.50
E.-GROUP 53 5.89 3.98
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ....... . 0.592 — d f = 16
ROTE V EXPERIMENT .. ... 0.281 — d f = 16
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 0.729 — d f = 16
DISCUSSION:
Despite p re-instruction of how to use and apply acrostics, Cox’s immediate re -tes t results reflect sim ilar E.-group learning deficits. These results are interpreted to suggest tha t regardless of pre-use instruction about how to manipulate and utilise mnemonics, when asked to learn both a mnemonic (acrostic) and material in some sequence, the task demands are too great fo r the mnemonic learners to demonstrate immediate benefits. The means of f i r s t year secondary (mode 11.5 yrs .) and top jun io rs (mode 10.5 y rs .) compares favourably with one main exception:
MEAN 10.5 yrs.
MEAN 11.5 yrs.
C.-GROUP 7.11 7.1
R.-GROUP 6.33 6.714
E.-GROUP 5.89 7.157
The ten-and-a-haif-year-o ld uninstructed learners are able to recall over one item more than the mnemonic group and even the younger rote-
learners out-perform the mnemonic group although the resu lt is not significant.
The evidence from the two studies strong ly suggests tha t at immediate re -test acrostics will not benefit learners s ign ificantly . Further, the learning of younger children using such mnemonics might actually regress in itia lly if th e ir performance is compared with e ither uninstructed or rote learning conditions.
R E S U L T S O F E X P E R I M E N T 2 a (eight day F R E R E C A L L post-test)
For In ter-group measures, n = c.20, p - < 0.05 { t = > 1.725) is used and fo r in tra -g roup measures, n = 9, p = < 0.05 ( f = > 1.833.
GROUP SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-GROUP 38 4.22 3.23
R.-GROUP 48 5.33 3.32
E.-GROUP 75 8.33 0.87
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ........ 0.719 — d f = 16
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 2.622 — d f = 16
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 3.686 — d f = 16
DISCUSSION:
At e ight days post-test Cox’s results m irro r the dramatic long-term effects produced by mnemonic learning found in the present study.
The un instructed learners mean actually regresses by almost three items. The rote-iearners follow a sim ilar but less conspicuous trend regressing by ju s t one item.
The mnemonic group using acrostics, actually increased the ir score by tw o-and-a-haif items! An effect also reported in connection with the long-term recognition of experiment 2 of the present study, but here reported fo r the f ir s t time using a free-recall re-test.
The ra ther poor resu lt of the uninstructed learners is probably due to th e ir fa ilu re to employ more sophisticated strategies. Even rote learning proved a more effective learning mediator than children instructed to use th e ir regular learning methods. I t is hypothesised that at least some children in C.-group had failed to engage any type of strategy to make the ta rge t material more memorable.
Clearly rote-learning was a better learning mediator than regular learning methods, suggesting tha t fo r at least some of R.-group, knowing how to learn by rote was both a novel and useful strategy acquisition.
RESULTS OR EXPERIMENT 2b (e ight day RECOGNITION post-test)
For in te r-g roup measures, n = c.20, p = < 0.05 ( t = > 1.725) is used and fo r in tra -g roup measures, n = 9, p = < 0.05 ( f = > 1.833.
GROUP SCORE MEAN S.D.
C.-GROUP 50 5.56 3.24
R.-GROUP 49 5.44 3.28
E.-GROUP 81 9 0
t SCORES
CONTROL V ROTE ........ 0.078 — d f = 16
ROTE V EXPERIMENT ..... 3.256 — d f = 16
EXPERIMENT V CONTROL .. 3.185 — d f = 16
DISCUSSION:
Whereas C v R groups score is not s ign ificant, both R v E and E v C results are highly significant, again m irro ring the substantial effect acrostics can have on long-term retention a feature f i r s t demonstrated in experiments in the 7 series of the present study.
In the nine-item recognition test, the un instructed and rote groups recalled c.three and a half items less than the mnemonic group who achieved 100% recall. The results are fu r th e r encouraging in that the mnemonic group were assigned to the experimental condition a fte r performing least well in a matching experiment. Further, the progressive effects o f the acrostic enabled E.-group to demonstrate three-item superio rity over th e ir scores at immediate re -test. As a ceiling effect was obtained by the mnemonic group, it is hypothesised tha t performance differences may have been fu th e r extended if re -test had been delayed or the number o f items comprising the mnemonic had been greater.
N.B. The ten-year-o lds ’ long-term re -tes t was at e igh t days, the e leven-year-olds’ was at e igh t weeks.
liii
Below is a comparison between the younger and oider ch ild ren ’s scores on the long-term recognition test, the younger children form ing Cox’s sample, the older children my own.
MEAN MEAN10.5 yrs. 11.5 yrs.
C.-GROUP 5.56 3.305
R.-GROUP 5.44 3.114
E.-GROUP 9 8.081
The results are v irtu a lly symmetrical. Allowing fo r the fact tha t the post-test interval was seven times longer fo r the oider children represented in the present study, sim ilar trends are evident. The recall of C and R groups in both studies is conspicuously similar, as is that of the mnemonic groups who demonstrate considerable superiority on the recognition test. The progressive effect o f the acrostic is also noteworthy. The eleven-year-olds in the present study obtained a mean of 7.157 at immediate re-test, th is figu re actually increased to 8.081 at e ight week re -test. I t is hypothesised tha t if the eleven-year-olds had been re-tested a fter e ight days, like the mnemonically instructed primary children in Cox’s study, the mnemonic group would also have scored 100% correct.
Iiv
A RE AN L Y S IS OF THE DATA USING
ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
(MINITAB STATISTICAL SOFTWAREPACKAGE)
YIE LDED THE FOLLOWING RESULTSz
Key: C1 = Control02 = Rote03 = Mnemonic
EXPERIMENT 1 i (matching - year 1)
CONTROL—---- ------ROT E-------------------MNEMONIC-----------
SOURCEFACTORERRORTOTAL
DF2
99101
SS124.84985.82
1110.67
MS62.429.96
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV + ----------- + ------------+ ---
( - * ------------ )( * )
( * ) +---------------+---------------- +----
13.5 15.0 16.5F 7 “
6.27 0.003
LEVELClC2C3
N343434
MEAN14.91215.88213.206
STDEV2.6102.1144.312
POOLED STDEV = 3.156
EXPERIMENT 1 ii (matching - year 3)
CONTROL-------------ROT E ~~—————————-MNEMONIC-----------
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 68.72 34.36ERROR 117 1037.08 ■ 8.86LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 40 14.875 3.098C2 40 16.600 3.233C3 40 15.150 2.558
POOLED STDEV = 2.977
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV-+ ----------------+--------------- +--------------- +--------
- ( * )( * )
( * )- + -------------------------k --------------- --------+ --------------- ---- -- +
14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0
F p3.88 0.023
EXPERIMENT 2 (planets)
CONTROL-ROTE-------MNEMONIC
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 1.18 0.59ERROR 111 462.45 4.17
LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 38 7.395 1.868C2 38 7.211 2.082C3 38 7.158 2.163
POOLED STDEV = 2.041
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV + - -----------------------------+ ------------------------------+ - •
( * ---------------------)( * )
(-----------------* - .............-} + ------------------------------+ --------------------------- + - '
7.00 7.50 8.00F p
0.14 0.869
EXPERIMENT 3 (design process)
CONTROL—ROT E—--------------MNEMONIC----------
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV + + +-------
( * )( * )
( )— + .
6 . 0 7.2 8.4
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 104.33 52.17ERROR 93 395.00 4.25LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 32 6.125 2.860C2 32 8.125 1.100C3 32 5.750 1.832
POOLED STDEV = 2.061
F P12.28 0.000
e x p e r im e n t 4. (historical periods)
CONTROL- ROTE------
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 44,93 22 .46ERROR 96 215.70 2.25TOTAL 98 260.63
LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 33 3.606 1.968C2 33 4.818 1.236C3 33 5.182 1.158
POOLED STDEV = 1.499
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV— + --------------------------------------- + ------------------------------------------+ --------------------------------------+ —
( * )( * )
( * )— + ---------------------------------------+ ------------------------------------------+ -------------------------------------- + -
3.20
F10.00
4.00
P0 . 0 0 0
4.80 5.60
Ivi
e x p e r i m e n t 5 (assessment scale)
CON T RO L—— —ROT E----------------MNEMONIC —
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 2.15 1.07ERROR 93 103.19 1.11LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 32 5.406 0.946C2 32 5.125 1.338C3 32 5.469 0.803
POOLED STDEV = 1.053
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV— + ---------- + -----------+---------- +----
( * )( * )
( * - )— + ----------- + ------------+ ----------- + ----4.80 5.10 5.40 5.70
F p0.97 0.384
EXPERIMENT ©I (delivery company)
CONTROL——————-ROTE-----------------------MNEMONIC-
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 3.962 1.981ERROR 102 97.600 0.957LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 35 5.6571 0.8726C2 35 5.7714 0.4260C3 35 5.3143 1.3884
POOLED STDEV = 0.9782
EXPERIM ENT C
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEANBASED ON POOLED STDEV +---------------+-------
( * )( * )
( * )
5.25 5.60 5.95F P
2.07 0.131
CONTROL- ROTE------
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV
MNEMONIC--------------- -——————— + _ .
5.50
( )
5.75—
6 . 0 0—
6.25SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 2.581 1.291ERROR 114 47.333 0.415LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 39 5.8718 0.4690C2 39 5.6410 1.0127C3 39 6.0000 0.0000
POOLED STDEV = 0.6444
F3.11
P0.048
Ivi l
EXPERIMENT Ta (planets long-term recall)
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl’S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV
CONTROL---------------ROT E — — ————MNEMONIC-------------
--------- - f ■
4.0 6 . 0
— — * — — —
8 . 0
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 639.31 319.66ERROR 102 438.69 4.30LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 35 3.400 2.061C2 35 3.114 2.654C3 35 8.486 1.269
POOLED STDEV = 2.074
F74.32
P0 . 0 0 0
EXPERIM ENT Tb (historical periods long-term recall)
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV
CONTROL------------------------------- .............................................................ROT E— — — — — — — —MNEMONIC----------------------------- (— *—)
— — — — — + — — — — — — — — — + — — k -------- ------------— — — + "
1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 341.13 170.56ERROR 105 241.06 2.30LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 36 1.333 1.352C2 36 1.917 1.680C3 36 5.361 1.496POOLED STDEV = 1.515
F74.30
P0 . 0 0 0
XPERIMENT Tc (design process long-term recall)
CONTROL-ROTE-------MNEMONIC
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 64.09 32.04ERROR 87 355.70 4.09LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 30 1.767 1.612C2 30 1.433 1.104C3 30 3.367 2.906
r.r\r\T fr» C'TT'4'RV = 2 .022
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV +----------------+--------------- +-------------- +-'
( * )
( * ) +----------------+--------------- +-------------- +-
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0F P
7.84 0.001
Ivi i
EXPERIMENT Td (assessment scale long-term recall)
INDIVIDUAL 95 PCT Cl'S FOR MEAN BASED ON POOLED STDEV
CONTROL------—— —ROTE---------------------nntMUNiu-
SOURCE DF SS MSFACTOR 2 359.47 179.73ERROR 87 126.93 1.46TOTAL 89 486.40
LEVEL N MEAN STDEVCl 30 1.067 1.048C2 30 1.733 1.413C3 30 5.600 1.133
POOLED STDEV = 1.208
+ -
1.5F
123.19
+ •
3.0P
0 . 0 0 0
— + .
4.5
( — ) +
6 . 0
