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United States Department of Agriculture • Forest Service
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
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CENTENNIAL
COMMEMORATIVE
EDITION
1905-2005
THE USDA FOREST SERVICE — THE FIRST CENTURY
by
Gerald W. Williams, Ph.D.
Historical Analyst
Slightly revised April 2005
FS-650
USDA Forest Service Office of Communication Washington, DC
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activi-ties on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Table of ContentsIntroduction ........................................................................................................1
The Beginning Era of Concern About Natural Resources, 1873-1905 .................2 The Visionaries ...........................................................................................3 Federal Involvement in Forestry .................................................................5 The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 ...................................................................8 The National Forest Commission of 1896 ...................................................8 The Organic Act of 1897 ...........................................................................10
The Early Forest Service Organization Era, 1905-1910 .....................................17 The Establishment of the Forest Service in July 1905 ................................17 Land Frauds ..............................................................................................24 New Forest Reserves .................................................................................25 Decentralization ........................................................................................26 Forest Service Research .............................................................................29
The Forest Protection or Custodial Management Era, 1910-1933 ...................31 Forest Products Laboratory and Research ..................................................35 Recreational Developments .......................................................................42 Railroad Land Grants ................................................................................47 World War I and Aftermath .......................................................................47 Timber Sales .............................................................................................53 Recreation and Wilderness ........................................................................56
The Great Depression Era, 1933-1942 .............................................................66 Civilian Conservation Corps .....................................................................66 Shelterbelt Project .....................................................................................71 Wilderness ................................................................................................76 Timber Salvage of 1938 .............................................................................78 Smokejumping and National Defense .......................................................79
The War Years, 1942-1945 ...............................................................................81 The Sustained-Yield Forest Management Act of 1944 and Sustained-Yield Units .................................................................82 Smokey Bear .............................................................................................83
The Postwar Development Era, 1946-1959 .......................................................88 Timber Management .................................................................................88 Research Builds .........................................................................................93 Forest Protection .......................................................................................93 New Specialists and Land..........................................................................94 Mining ......................................................................................................97 Recreation and Timber Demands ............................................................100
The USDA Forest—The First Century ■ i
The Fully Managed, Multiple-Use Forest Era, 1960-1970 ...............................102 Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 ...............................................102 Work Programs .......................................................................................107 Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers Acts ...........................................108 Using Litigation To Settle Disputes With the Forest Service .....................111
The Environmentalism and Public Participation Era, 1970-1993 ....................112 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ............................................112 Controversies Over Clearcutting .............................................................114 Youth Conservation Corps, Young Adult Conservation Corps, and Related Programs .....................................................................117 National Forest Volunteers ......................................................................120 RARE and RARE II ..................................................................................121 Endangered Species Act of 1973 .............................................................121 National Forest Planning .........................................................................122 Internal Struggles ....................................................................................129 Owls and Other Wildlife .........................................................................133 Yellowstone Fire in 1988 .........................................................................137 Development of Partnerships ..................................................................138 International Forestry .............................................................................139
Ecosystem Management and the Future Era, 1993-Present ............................143
Changes in the National Forests—Over 100 Years of Progress .......................149 Summary - 100 Years and More of National Forests .......................................154
Further Reading ..............................................................................................156
Chiefs of the Forest Service:
Gifford Pinchot—First Chief of the Forest Service, 1905-1910 .................14 Henry S. Graves—Second Chief, 1910-1920 ............................................34 William B. Greeley—Third Chief, 1920-1928 ...........................................52 Robert Y. Stuart—Fourth Chief, 1928-1933 ..............................................64 Ferdinand A. Silcox—Fifth Chief, 1933-1939 ...........................................70 Earle H. Clapp—Sixth Chief, 1939-1943 ..................................................79 Lyle F. Watts—Seventh Chief, 1943-1952 .................................................82 Richard E. McArdle—Eighth Chief, 1952-1962 ........................................94 Edward P. Cliff—Ninth Chief, 1962-1972 ...............................................105 John R. McGuire—Tenth Chief, 1972-1979 ............................................119 R. Max Peterson—Eleventh Chief, 1979-1987 ........................................128 F. Dale Robertson—Twelfth Chief, 1987-1993 ........................................132 Jack Ward Thomas—Thirteenth Chief, 1993-1996 .................................146 Mike Dombeck—Fourteenth Chief, 1997-2001 ......................................147 Dale N. Bosworth—Fifteenth Chief, 2001-present ..................................153
ii ■ The USDA Forest—The First Century
The USDA Forest—The First Century ■ iii
Special Topics Arthur H. Carhart and the Boundary Waters Canoe Wilderness ................60 Caribbean National Forest—First in the Western Hemisphere ..................15 Civilian Conservation Corps (1933-1942) ................................................67 Clearcutting on the National Forests .......................................................115 Ecosystem Management ..........................................................................145 Forest Fires and Firefighting .....................................................................31 Forest Products Laboratory—Madison, Wisconsin ....................................36 Forest Service Badges and Patches .............................................................21 Forest Rangers ..........................................................................................19 Grazing on the National Forests ................................................................74 Hallie M. Daggett—Woman Lookout ........................................................51 International Forestry .............................................................................140 Aldo Leopold and “The Land Ethic” ..........................................................61 Robert Marshall.........................................................................................77 Mining on the National Forests .................................................................98 John Muir ...................................................................................................9 Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 ...............................................105 National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ............................................113 National Forest Management Act of 1976 ...............................................127 National Grasslands ..................................................................................95 Recreation on the National Forests ............................................................42 Research on the National Forests ..............................................................39 Shelterbelt Program on the Great Plains ....................................................72 The Story of Smokey Bear .........................................................................84 State and Private Forestry ..........................................................................27 Timber Harvesting From the National Forests ...........................................54 Tree Cutting Technology ...........................................................................90 Weeks Act of 1911 ....................................................................................37 Wilderness Act and Howard Zahniser .....................................................109 Wildlife and the National Forests ............................................................135
iv ■ The USDA Forest—The First Century
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �
Introduction
hefoundingoftheNationalForestSystemandtheForestService, anagencyoftheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,hasitsrootsinthe lastquarterofthe19thcenturyandwasdirectlyrelatedtothreevision-arymen:FranklinB.Hough,BernhardE.Fernow,andGiffordPinchot.Thesethreecontributedcountlesshours,strongleadership,andassistancetothenewfieldofforestryandespeciallyFederalforestry.Theirexpertisehelpedtocre-atemillionsofacresofforestreserves(nowcallednationalforests)intheWest.TheyalsolaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofthenewForestServiceintheDepartmentofAgriculture.Thesevisionaries,alongwithwillingpresidents(especiallyTeddyRoosevelt),scientificandconservationorganizations,andnewlytrainedforestryprofessionals,ledthesuccessfuleffortinretainingmillionsofacresofFederalforestlandforfuturegenerations.
TheprideandprofessionalismsharedbytheseearlyleaderscontinueintheFor-estServicetoday.TheseforestrycrusadersweresosuccessfulintheirbattleforprotectionofpublicforestdomainlandthattodaytheUnitedStateshasasystemof155nationalforests,20nationalgrasslands,and20researchandexperimentalforests,aswellasotherspecialareascovering191millionacresofpublicland.TheForestServicehasevolvedintoa35,000-employeeagencythatmanagesthenationalforestsandgrasslandsforanumberofmultipleuses,includingtim-ber,wilderness,recreation,minerals,water,grazing,andwildlife.Thepeoplewhowork“ontheground”inthenationalforestsincludespecialistssuchasecologists,foresters,silviculturists,engi-neers,rangeconservationists,firefighters,surveyors,hydrol-ogists,landscapearchitects,archeologists,soilscientists,fisheriesbiologists,wildlifebiologists,andgeologists.Sup-portingthesespecialistsareanassortmentofplanners,econo-mists,publicaffairsspecialists,socialscientists,budgetandfi-nancialadministrators,humanresourcespecialists,civilrightsspecialists,computerprogram-mers,accountants,technicians,clerks,writers,editors,carpen-ters,mechanics,heavyequip-mentoperators,andothers.
LibraryofCongress
President Theodore Roosevelt
T
� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
ollowingthedevastatingCivilWar,theUnitedStatesexperienced tremendouschange,especiallyintheWest.AmericanIndians, buffalo,trappers,andpioneershadalreadygivenwaytominers,tim-bercutters,andotherpeoplebentonexploitingthelandandresourcesofourquicklygrowing,resource-richNation.HerdsofcattleandsheepsoonspreadoverthegrasslandsoftheGreatPlainsandSouthwest.
Yet,eventheseuseswerebeginningtobereplacedbyhomesteadingfarmerswhobrokethesodandsowedthegrainontheprairiesandplains.Hard-rockandhy-draulicminingweremajorindustriesintheSierraNevada,theCascades,andtheRockyMountainranges.Miningextractedvaluableminerals,butoftenseverelyerodedtheland.RailroadshadjustfinishedlinkingthefarWest(California)withtherestoftheNation,andplanswerebeingmadetoconnectalloftheWest’smajorpopulationcentersbyrail.Congressgavemassivelandgrantstomanyrail-roads,especiallyalongthenortherntierofStates(fromMinnesotatoWashing-ton)toencouragetherailroadstobuildraillinesconnectingcitesandtowns,aswellasspawngrowthintheWest.Timbercompanies,whichhadexhaustedthevirginforestsoftheEast,werequicklyclearingthegreatpineforestsoftheLakeStates(Minnesota,Wisconsin,andMichigan)andwerecontemplatingmovingtheiroperationstotheSouthandfarWest.
The Beginning Era of Concern About Natural Resources, �873-�905
F
“Log Stacks” - Michigan White Pine Before 1900
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 3
Acquisitivenessandexploitationwerethespiritofthetimes,withlittleregardfortheethicsofconservationortheneedsofthefuture.ThereactiontotheabuseoftheNation’snaturalresourcesduringthisperiodgaverisetoAmerica’sforestryandconservationmovement.
The Visionaries
ThebeginningofAmerica’sconcernabouttheconservationoflandforthepeoplecanbetracedbacktoGeorgePerkinsMarsh,whoin1864wrotethebookMan and Nature: Or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action.ThisinfluentialbookdrewonthepasttoillustratehowhumanactionshadharmedtheEarth–leadingtothedemiseofearliercivilizations.Marshwantednotonlytowarnhiscontemporariesagainstthisfate,butalsotoinitiateactionstopreventit.OnemeasurethatMarshadvocatedwastheprotectionofforests–yetfewheededhisimportantmessage.
Erosion - Effects of Deforestation in Colorado, 1915
USDAForestService
TwootherinfluentialpersonsintheearlyconservationmovementwereJohnWesleyPowell,whosurveyedandreportedonlargeportionsoftheWestanditsmajorriversfortheU.S.GeophysicalandGeologicalSurvey,andF.V.Hayden,whomadeseveralimportantinvestigationsoftheRockyMountains—especiallytheYellowstonearea—fortheU.S.GeologicalandGeographicalSurvey(prede-cessorsoftheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior’sGeologicalSurvey).Severalland-scapephotographersoftheera—TimothyH.O’Sullivan,WilliamHenryJackson,andCarltonE.Watkins—werealsoimportantingeneratingconcernaboutthemarvelousandunusualfeaturesoftheunpopulatedWest.TheimpressiveimagestheyproducedinformedAmericansofthestarkbeautyandimpressivemajestythataboundedinthewesternmountainsandvalleys.Theseelementscameto-
� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
gethertoprotecttheYellowstoneareainnorthwestWyoming.Hayden’sscientificreportsofitsremarkablefeaturesaccompaniedbyO’Sullivan’sspectacularpho-tographsswayedCongresstoestablishYellowstoneNationalParkin1872—thefirstsuchparkintheworld.
Half Dome, Yosemite Na-tional Park
CarltonE.Watkins-WilliamsCollection
Othersbecameconvincedthatthemoreordinaryforestedareas,whichwerestillinpublicownership,alsoneededprotection.ThiseffortwasspearheadedbyDr.FranklinB.Hough—aphysician,historian,andstatistician.HenoticedthattimberproductionintheEastwouldfalloffinsomeareas,whilebuildingupinothers,whichtohimindicatedthattimbersuppliesinsomeareasoftheUnitedStateswerebeingexhausted.Asaresultofhisstudy,Houghpresentedapaper,“OntheDutyofGovernmentsinthePreservationofForests,”totheannualmeet-ingoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience(AAAS),heldatPortland,Maine,inAugust1873.Thefollowingday,AAASpreparedandap-provedapetitiontoCongress“ontheimportanceofpromotingthecultivationoftimberandthepreservationofforests.”Theysoughtcongressionalaction,butnolegislationwaspassedfor3years.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 5
Federal Involvement in Forestry
OnAugust15,1876,arider(amendment)wasattachedtothefree-seedclauseoftheAppropriationsActof1876.Thisamendmentprovided$2,000infundingforaper-sonwith“...approvedattain-ment,whoispracticallywellacquaintedwithmethodsofstatisticalinquery[sic],andwhohasevincedanintimateacquaintancewith[forestrymatters]....”ThiswasthefirstFederalappropria-tiondevotedtoforestry.Dr.Houghreceivedcongressionalappointmenttoundertakeastudyencompassingforestconsumption,importation,exportation,nationalwants,probablesupplyforthefuture,themeansofpreserva-tionandrenewal,theinflu-enceofforestsonclimates,andforestrymethodsusedinothercountries.In1878,his
Franklin B. Hough
USDAForestService
650-pagereport,titledsimply“ReportonForestry,”soimpressedtheCommis-sioner(latertheSecretary)ofAgricultureandCongressthattheyauthorizedtheprintingof25,000copies.
Thus,anewgovernmental“organization”wasformedthatconsistedsolelyofDr.Hough,asthefirstforestryagent,andwasplacedunderthesupervisionoftheCommissionerofAgriculture.However,Houghastheforestryagentdidnothaveanyauthorityovertimberedareasthatremainedinpublicdomain.In1881,theDepartmentofAgricultureDivisionofForestrywastemporarilyestablishedtostudyandreportonforestrymattersintheUnitedStatesandabroad;Houghwasnamedits“Chief.”
InHough’s1882report,herecommended“thattheprincipalbodiesoftimberlandstillremainingthepropertyofthegovernment...bewithdrawnfromsaleorgrant.”HisideawasthatthisprotectedFederaltimberwouldbecutunderleaseandthatyoungtimbergrowthwouldbeprotectedforthefuture.In1883,Na-thanielH.Egleston,whohadalsoplayedanactiveroleintheAmericanForestryAssociation,replacedHough.
� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Eglestonserveduneventfullyuntilthespringof1886,whenhewasreplacedbyDr.BernhardE.Fernow,whowastrainedinforestryinhisnativeGer-many(therewerenoAmericanforest-ryschoolsatthetime).FernowwasaleaderinthenewfieldofforestryandafounderoftheAmericanForestryAssociation.AsChiefoftheDivisionofForestry,hebroughtprofessional-ismtoit.HesetupscientificresearchprogramsandinitiatedcooperativeforestryprojectswiththeStates,includingtheplantingoftreesontheGreatPlains.OnJune30,1886,theDivisionwasgivenpermanentstatusaspartoftheDepartmentofAgricul-ture.Thisprovidedtheneededstabil-ityforthefledglingorganization.
Nathaniel H. Egleston
USDAForestService
Bernhard E. Fernow
USDAForestService
Inearly1889,CharlesS.Sargent,professorofarboricultureatHarvardandeditorofGarden and Forest,wroteaneditorialforhismagazinethattooktoheartHough’s1882recommenda-tiontonotpermitthesaleorgrantofGovernmenttimberland.Sargentproposedthreethings:Thetemporarywithdrawalofallpublicforestlandsfromsaleorhomesteading;useoftheU.S.Armytoprotecttheselandsandforests;andPresidentialappointmentofacommissiontoreporttoCongressonaplanofadministrationandcon-trolofforestedareas.AsGiffordPin-chotpointedout,“thefirstsuggestionwaspoliticallyimpossible,thesecondpracticallyunworkable,butthethird,intheend(some7yearslater),putGovernmentforestryonthemap.”
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 7
InAprilofthesameyear,thelawcommitteeoftheAmericanForestryAssocia-tion,consistingofFernow,Egleston,andEdwardBowersoftheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior’sGeneralLandOffice(GLO),metwithPresidentBenjaminHarrison.ThecommitteerecommendedthattheNationadoptanefficientforest-rypolicy.In1890,afterthePresidenttooknoactiononthematter,theAmericanForestryAssociationpetitionedCongresstomakeforestreservationsandprovideacommissiontoadministerthem.Again,nonoticeableactiontookplace,buttherewasastronggroundswelltoretaintheforest-coveredpublicdomainforthepeople.TheBooneandCrockettClubralliedaroundtheissueofprotectingYel-lowstoneNationalPark,aswellasotherforestedareasintheWest.Thissports-men’sclubwasfoundedin1887withmemberssuchasTheodoreRoosevelt,GiffordPinchot,GeorgeBirdGrinnell,HenryCabotLodge,HenryL.Stimson,andmanyothers.Theirinfluenceinnationalpoliticssubstantiallyhelpedthefledglingnationalforestmovementintheearly1890’sandthedecadestofollow.
Theweightofthedataandtherec-ommendationsofHough,Fernow,Sargent,theBooneandCrockettClub,andtheAmericanForestryAssociationledtothegenesisoftheNationalForestSystemasweknowittoday.Intheearly1890’sitwasappar-enttomanythattheremainingforestsrepresentedagreat,butvulnerable,nationalassetthatneededtobeprotect-edfromunbridleddespoliationforthesakeofposterity.
John Muir
8 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
The Forest Reserve Act of �89�
Inthespringof1891,whenCongresswasdebatingtheissueoflandfrauds(theillegalpurchaseordeceitinthehomesteadingofFederalland)relatedtotheTim-ber-CultureActof1873andseveralotherhomesteadlaws,ariderwasattachedtoabilltoreviseaseriesoflandlaws.Thissmall,one-sentenceamendment(Section24)allowedthePresidenttoestablishforestreservesfrompublicdomainland:
SECTION24—ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesmay,fromtimetotime,setapartandreserve,inanystateorterritoryhavingpubliclandbearingforests,inanypartofthepubliclands,whollyorinpartcov-eredwithtimberorundergrowth,whetherofcommercialvalueornot,aspublicreservations;andthePresidentshall,bypublicproclamation,declaretheestablishmentofsuchreservationsandthelimitsthereof.
Sincereferredtoasthe“CreativeAct”ortheForestReserveActofMarch3,1891,itwasusedbyPresidentHarrisononMarch30thofthesameyeartosetasidethefirstforestreserve—theYellowstoneParkTimberlandReserve(nowpartoftheShoshoneandBridger-TetonNationalForestsinWyoming).BytheendofHar-rison’stermasPresidentinthespringof1893,hehadcreated15forestreservescontaining13millionacres.TheseforestreservesweretheWhiteRiverPlateau,PikesPeak,PlumCreek,SouthPlatte,andBattlementMesaallinColorado;theGrandCanyoninArizona;theSanGabriel,Sierra,TrabucoCanyon,andSanBernardinoinCalifornia;theBullRuninOregon;PacificinWashington;andtheAfognakForestandFishCultureReserveinAlaska.
OnSeptember28,1893,hissuccessor,PresidentGroverCleveland,addedtwoforestreserves—thehugeCascadeRangeForestReserveandtinyAshlandForestReserve—totaling5millionacres—inOregon.Clevelanddidnotaddanymoreforestreservesforalmost4years,untilCongresswaswillingtopasslegislationtoallowforthemanagementofthepublicforests.
The National Forest Commission of �89�
Meanwhile,therewereeffortsinCongresstochangetheprocedureforestablish-ingFederalforestreserves.Inthesummerof1896,theNationalForestCom-mission,thebrainchildoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,wasfundedbyCongress.Thecommission,whichconsistedofCharlesSargent(chair),HenryL.Abbot,WilliamH.Brewer,AlexanderAgassiz,ArnoldHague,GiffordPinchot(secretary),andWolcottGibbs(memberex-officio)traveledthroughouttheWesttouringexistingforestreservesandareaswherenewreserveswereproposed.JohnMuirandHenryS.Gravesaccompaniedthecommissiononpartsoftheirinvestigations.Althoughmembersofthecommissiondisagreedwithoneanothermuchofthetime,theydidagreeontheneedforMt.RainierandGrandCanyonNationalParksandonanumberofnewforestreserves.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 9
OnFebruary22,1897,PresidentCleveland,asaresultoftheCommission’srecommendations,proclaimed13newforestreservesintheWest,knownthere-afterasthe“Washington’sBirthdayReserves.”Thefollowingforestreserveswereestablished:SanJacintoandStanislausinCalifornia;UintahinUtah;Mt.Rainier(renamedfromPacificandenlarged)andOlympicinWashington;BitterRoot,LewisandClarke,andFlatheadinMontana;BlackHillsinSouthDakota;PriestRiverinIdaho;andtheTetonandBigHorninWyoming.Thefurorofoppositiontotheseforestreserveswasunprecedented,andtheoutcryresultedinCongresspassingcertainamendmentstothe1897SundryCivilAppropriationsbill.
JOHN MUIR
JohnMuir(1838-1914)lefthisnativeScotlandin1849tostartanewlifeontheWisconsinfrontier.HeattendedtheUniversityofWisconsininhismid-twenties.Afterrecoveringfromaseriousaccidenttohiseyes,hefeltcompelledtoundertakea5-month,1,000-milewalkfromIndianatothetipofFlorida.Thefollowingyear,MuirvoyagedtoCalifornia,livingattimesinthewondrousYosemiteValley,wherehestudiedbotanyandthegeologyofthenewStatepark.Muirwasastrongadvocateoftheneedtopreservethepublicforestsandprohibitsheepgrazinginthealpinemeadows.Hemar-riedin1880,settlinginMartinez,California,wherehebecameasuccessfulfarmer.
Returningtohisworkasanadvocateforwildernessandforestpreserva-tion,hewrotemanyarticlesabouttheneedtotransferYosemitebacktotheFederalGovernmentandrenameitasanationalpark.Theeffortwassuc-cessfulin1890.TwoyearslaterhehelpedtoorganizeandbecomethefirstpresidentoftheSierraClub.TheclubgainednationalrecognitionforitseffortstoreserveandpreservescenicandforestareasfirstinCaliforniathenacrosstheNation.Muirlosthislastmajorbattle,when,in1913,CongressauthorizedtheHetchHetchyreservoirinthevalleyadjacenttoYosemiteValley.BothwerepartoftheYosemiteNationalPark,butforcesfromSanFrancisco,especiallyafterthe1906earthquake,weresuccessfulinhavingadambuilttosupplycleanwaterandpowertothecity.Muirdied2yearsbeforethedamwasconstructed.
HiseffortsattryingtohavethenationalforestsbemorelikenationalparkswerecounteredbyGiffordPinchotwiththenotionthatforestsweretobeused,whileparksweretobepreserved.Theirdisagreementwasespeciallyevidentovergrazingintheforestreserves.Muirdidnotwantany;Pinchotfeltthatrestrictinggrazingwouldbebetterthannograzingorunrestrictedgrazing.Bothmenwerepartofthe1896NationalForestCommission,whichtraveledthroughouttheWestlookingatexistingandpotentialforestreserves.DespitetheirdifferencesoversheepgrazingandeventuallyHetchHetchy,theyremainedfriendsandoftenwrotetoeachotherabouttheirwonderfulexperiencestogetherinthewesternmountains.
�0 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Muirwasaneloquentspokespersonforthepreservationmovementinthelate1800’sandearly1900’s.Eventodayhisnameevokesadeeplyfeltad-mirationandresolvethatcharacterizesmanyenvironmentalorganizations.Hewrotemanyarticlesfornationalpublication,aswellasseveralbooksincluding:The Mountains of California(1894),Our National Parks(1901),andMy First Summer in the Sierra(1911).Hiswritingsaddressedmanycon-troversialissues,includingthenotionthattheEarthanditsresourceshadbeenmadeforpeopletouseandtouseupforthebenefitofsociety.Muirarguedthatalllivingthingswereequallyimportantpartsofthelandandthatanimalsandplantshaveasmuchrighttoliveandsurviveaspeople.Unlikemanyofthenaturewritersofhistime,Muirtendedtowriteabouttheenvironmentthroughhisownexperiences.Inan1897articlefortheAtlantic Monthly,Muirwrote:
Anyfoolcandestroytrees.Theycannotrunaway;andiftheycould,theywouldstillbedestroyed—chasedandhunteddownaslongasfunoradollarcouldbegotoutoftheirbarkhides....Godhascaredforthesetrees,savedthem...buthecan-notsavethemfromfools—onlyUncleSamcandothat.
The Organic Act of �897
OnJune4,1897,PresidentWilliamMcKinleysignedtheSundryAct.Oneoftheamendments,theso-called“PettigrewAmendment”(laterreferredtoasthe“OrganicAct”)providedthatanynewreserveswouldhavetomeetthecriteriaofforestprotection,watershedprotection,andtimberproduction,thusprovid-ingthecharterformanagingtheforestreserves,latercallednationalforests,formorethan75years.Theactalsosuspendedthe“Washington’sBirthdayReserves”for9months.Thissuspensionwasseenasaclevertactictoovercomewesterndemandsfortotallyeliminatingthenewforestreserves.
Basically,theOrganicActallowedforthepropercare,protection,andmanage-mentofthenewforestreservesandprovidedanorganizationtomanagethem.Oneofthefirst,ifnotthefirst,GLOemployeewasGiffordPinchot,whowashiredinthesummerof1897,asaspecialforestryagenttomakefurtherinvesti-gationsoftheforestreservesandrecommendwaystomanagethem.TheDepart-mentoftheInterior’sGLOwasabletopoliticallyappointsuperintendentsineachStatethathadforestreserves.Thefollowingsummer,1898,sawtheappointmentofforestreservesupervisorsandforestrangerstopatrolthereserves.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��
GLO Division “R” Staff With Filib-ert Roth (L) and H.H. Jones (R) in Washington, DC
LibraryofCongress
For7years,until1905,forestreservesuperintendents,supervisors,andrang-erswereappointedbytheU.S.senatorsandtheGLOfromtheaffectedStatesthroughtheDepartmentoftheInteriorratherthantheDepartmentofAgricul-ture,wherealltheforestryexpertswerelocated.
USDAForestService
Bill Kreutzer - 1st GLO Forest Ranger, 1898
OneofthefirstmenappointedasarangerwasFrankN.Ham-mitt,anativeofDenver,Colorado.Hewenttoworkinthesummerof1898ontheYellowstoneParkTimberlandReserve.PriortohisappointmentwiththeGLO,hehadbeenchiefofthecowboysinColonelWilliamF.Cody’sWildWestShow.Likemanyoftheold-timeGLOrangers,hewasselectedfromthelocalarea,buthehadnoknowledgeofforestry.Yethewasa“rough-and-ready,”practicalmanwithgreatknowledgeofthemoun-tains.Hestayedwithrangeringuntilhisuntimelydeathinthesummerof1903afterfallingfromacliffonthatreserve(nowtheShoshoneNationalForest).
�� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Meanwhile,backEastatthenationallevel,BernhardFernowperformedhisdutiesasChiefoftheDivisionofForestrywithgreatdistinctionuntilApril15,1898,whenheresignedtobecometheDirectorofCornellUniversity’snewfor-estryschool.Inthe25yearssinceHoughhadpresentedhispaper“OntheDutyofGovernmentsinthePreservationofForests,”theNationhadmadesignificantprogressinitsmovementfromthefrontierexploitationofthenaturalresourcesintheforestedareastowardapolicyofwiseuseandconservation.
Fernow’sreplacementwasGiffordPinchot—America’sfirstnative-bornprofes-sionalforester.HehadbeenschooledatYale,thenspentonesummerinFranceandGermanystudyingforestry,gainedexperienceinmanagingGeorgeVanderbilt’sBiltmoreEstateinAsheville,NorthCarolina,andbecamepersonallyfamiliarwithmanyofthenewforestreservesthroughservingontheNationalForestCommission.AsthenewandcharismaticChiefoftheDivisionofForestry,Pinchotwasinchargeof60enthusiasticanddedicatedemployees.Thehead-quarterswasonthethirdfloorandasmallplaceintheatticoftheDepartmentofAgriculturebuildinginWashington,DC.Pinchotchangedhistitle“Chief”to“Forester,”astherewere“manychiefsinWashington,butonlyoneforester.”Thetitleof“Forester”wouldremaininuseuntilthe1930’s.
GLO Ranger on the Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �3
Forest Service Office in Washington, DC, 1901-1938
USDAForestService
PinchotwasinstrumentalinobtainingfullbureaustatusfortheDivisionofFor-estry.ItbecametheBureauofForestryonMarch2,1901.In1902,theMinnesotaForestReservewasthefirstreservecreatedbyCongressratherthanbyPresiden-tialproclamation.StrongsupportbytheFederationofWomen’sClubs,whichhad800,000membersin1905,madetheestablishmentofthisforestreservepossible.
�� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Gifford Pinchot—First Chief of the Forest Service, 1905-1910
BornonAugust11,1865,inSimsbury,Connecticut,GiffordPinchot’sNewEng-landfamilywasmadeupofwell-to-do,upper-classmerchants,politicians,andlandowners.HebecameinvolvedwiththeNationalForestCommissionduringthesummerof1896,asittraveledthroughtheWesttoinvestigateforestedareasforpossibleforestreserves.AfterthepassageoftheOrganicActof1897,Pinchotwas
hiredasaspecialforestagentwiththeGeneralLandOfficetoreportontheforestreservemanagementsituation.Thefollowingsummer,theSecretaryofAgricultureinvitedhimtobecome“Chief”oftheDepartmentofAgri-culture’sDivisionofForestry.Duringthesameperiod,theassassinationofPresidentMcKinleyin1901elevatedhisfriend,TheodoreRoosevelt,tothePresidency.Pinchot,withRoosevelt’swillingapproval,restructuredandpro-fessionalizedthemanagementofthenationalforests,andgreatlyincreasedtheareaandnumberofthesenationaltreasures.
In1905,themanagementoftheforestreserveswastransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgricultureandPinchot’snewForestService.In1907,theforestreserveswererenamednationalfor-ests.DuringPinchot’sera,theForestServiceandthenationalforestsgrewspectacularly.In1905,therewere60forestreservescovering56millionacres;in1910,therewere150nationalforestscovering172millionacres.ApatternofeffectiveorganizationandmanagementwassetduringPinchot’sadministration,andthe“conservation”(anideaorthemeheinvented)ofnaturalresourcesinthebroadsenseofwiseusebecameawidelyknownconceptandanacceptednationalgoal.HewastheprimaryfounderoftheSocietyofAmericanForesters,whichfirstmetathishomeinWashington,DC,in1900.Heservedwithgreatdistinction,motivatingandprovidingleadershipinthemanagementofnaturalresourcesandtheprotectionofthenationalforests.Hewasreplacedin1910byHenry“Harry”S.Graves,DeanofForestryatYale.
GiffordPinchotwrote:
WhenIcamehome[fromFrance]notasingleacreofGovern-ment,State,orprivatetimberlandwasundersystematicforestmanagementanywhereonthemostrichlytimberedofallcon-tinents....WhentheGayNinetiesbegan,thecommonwordforforestswas“inexhaustible.”Towastetimberwasavirtueandnotacrime.Therewouldalwaysbeplentyoftimber.…Thelumber-men...regardedforestdevastationasnormalandsecondgrowthasadelusionoffools....Andasforsustainedyield,nosuchidea
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �5
hadeverenteredtheirheads.Thefewfriendsoftheforestwerespokenof,whentheywerespokenofatall,asimpracticaltheo-rists,fanatics,or“denudatics,”moreorlesstouchedinthehead.WhattalktherewasaboutforestprotectionwasnomoretotheaverageAmericanthanthebuzzingofamosquito,andjustaboutasirritating.
Withoutnaturalresources,lifeitselfisimpossible.Frombirthtodeath,naturalresources,transformedforhumanuse,feed,clothe,shelter,andtransportus.Uponthemwedependforeverymaterialnecessity,comfort,convenience,andprotectioninourlives.Withoutabundantresourcesprosperityisoutofreach.
CARIBBEAN NATIONAL FOREST— FIRST IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
FifteenyearsbeforePresidentBenjaminHarrisonproclaimedthefirstFed-eralforestreserveintheUnitedStates—theYellowstoneForestReservein1891—theSpanishCrownestablishedreservesinPuertoRico—thenpartoftheSpanishEmpire.ThepresentCaribbeanNationalForestwasformedfrompartsofthesereserves.
Inthe19thcentury,increasedpopulationacceleratedtherapidandwide-spreaddestructioninPuertoRico’sforestresourcesastreeswereclearedforagriculturalland—theeconomicbaseoftheNation.In1816,colonialwarsofindependenceandillegaltimbertradeledtheisland’sGovernortorestrictthesaleofwoodconsideredimportantfornavaluse.Ifmilitaryconcernsledtothefirstconsiderationofforestdepletion,itwastheimpactoffarmingthatreallyledtoconservationmeasures.In1824,alarmedbytheextentofdeforestationthatgovernment-sponsoredfarmingcaused,Gover-norMiguelDeLaTorreissuedPuertoRico’sfirstconservationlaw(circular493)—adecreetostemharmtowatershedsbyplantingtrees.
PuertoRicoremainedunderthedominionofSpain,whichdraftedthefirstcomprehensiveforestlaws(1839)andsetupforestrycommissionsthatledtothefirstisland-wideforestinventoryin1844.Theseinventorieswereconductedbyingenieros de montes(forestengineers)forthecuerpo de montes(forestcorps),adepartmentdirectedbytheministerofpublicworksandstaffedbygraduatesoftheSpanishforestryschool.
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ThePuertoRicangovernment’sprotectionoftheforestresourceserodedinthenextdecadesasSpain’sabilitytofunddistantprogramsfadedalongwithitseconomicstatus.Yet,in1876KingAlfonsoXIIstrovetoensurecontinuedconservationofsoilsandwaterqualityandflowsinPuertoRicobycreatingforestreserves.Becausetheforestsweresourcesofroofingmate-rial,fuelwood,andsawtimberforpeople,regulationsforextractionneededtobeenforcedbytheservicio de monteros(forestservice).
AspartofthesettlementoftheSpanish-AmericanWarof1898,controlofPuertoRicopassedtotheUnitedStates.TheLuquilloForestReservewasdeclaredbyPresidentialproclamationin1903.ItbecametheLuquilloNationalForestin1907whenalltheforestreservenameswerechangedtonationalforestnames.(Ithasthedistinctionofbeingtheonlyearlyforestreservethatwasnotestablishedunderauthorityofthe1891act.Instead,theluquilloreservewasestablishedundera1902actofCongressthatgavethePresident1yeartoreserve“Crownlands”cededtotheUnitedStatesbySpainintheTreatyof1898.)In1935,additionallandwaspurchasedandtheLuquilloNationalForestnamewaschangedbyexecutiveordertobecometheCaribbeanNationalForest.In1939,theTropicalForestEx-perimentStation(nowtheInternationalInstituteofTropicalForestry)wasestablishedinPuertoRico.TheCaribbeanNationalForestistheonlytropi-calecosystemintheNationalForestSystemandservesasaninternationalmanagementmodelfortropicalforests.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �7
The Early Forest Service Organization Era, �905-�9�0
D uringtheearly20thcentury,theadministrationoftheFederalforest reserveswasdividedbetweenthesupervisorsandrangersoftheGLO andthesurveyorsandmappersoftheGeologicalSurvey(USGS),bothintheDepartmentoftheInterior.TheforestryexpertsintheDepartmentofAgri-culture’sBureauofForestrywerelimitedtotechnicalforestryadviceandassis-tance.Pinchotwastheprimaryadvocate(withthestrongagreementofhisfriendPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt)ofmovingtheresponsibilityofforestmanagementawayfromtheDepartmentoftheInterior.
The Establishment of the Forest Service in July �905
OnFebruary1,1905,PinchotwasabletounifyallFederalforestadministrationundertheDepartmentofAgriculture’sBureauofForestry.TheForestServicewasfinallyestablishedonJuly1,1905,replacingtheBureauofForestryname.ThecreationoftheForestServicewasfollowedbyachange—thecustomofGLOfor-estrangersgainingemploymentviapoliticalappointmentsended,andselectionsweremadethroughcomprehensivefieldandwrittencivilserviceexaminations.Thesenewstandardshelpedcreateaworkforcethatwaswell-qualified,satisfied,andinspiredbyPinchot’sleadership.
USDAForestService
Agriculture Secre-tary James Wilson at the Department of Agriculture Building in Wash-ington, DC
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TheForestService’searlyyearswereaperiodofpioneeringinpracticalfieldfor-estryonthenationalforests.ForestrangersweredirectedfromWashington,DC,andbylocalnationalforestsupervisors.AUse Book,writtenin1905andupdatedyearly,containedalltheForestServicelawsandregulationsusedbytherangers.Today,ofcourse,thelawsrequireabookof1,163pages,whiletheregulationsrequiredtomanagethenationalforestsfillseveralbookshelves.TheForestSer-vicemanualsandhandbooksarenowavailableontheForestService’scomputersystem.
USDAForestService
Arkansas Na-tional Forest Supervisor’s Office
Muchoftheranger’sactivitycenteredonmappingthenationalforests,providingtrailaccess,administeringsheepandcattlepermits,andprotectingtheforestsfromwildfire,gamepoachers,timberandgrazingtrespass,andexploiters.Inotherwords,theyactedascustodiansofthenationalforestsduringthis“Stetsonhat”era.Animportantandcontroversiallandmanagementdecisionwasmadetochargeuserfeesforsheepandcattlegrazingonnationalforests.Alawwaspassedin1906totransfer10percentoftheforestreceipts(throughgrazingfeesandsometimbersales)totheStatestosupportpublicroadsandschools.Twoyearslater,paymentstotheStateswereincreasedto25percent.
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FOREST RANGERS
AfterthepassageoftheOrganicActof1897,theGeneralLandOffice(GLO)establishedaforestryunit—latercalledDivision“R”(Forestry)—toadministerthenewforestreserves.Statesuperintendentswereappointedfirst,theninthesummerof1898,moremenwerepoliticallyappointedassummerforestrangers,usuallytofightforestfires.TheseappointmentsweremadebytheGLOStatesuperintendents,theGLOinWashington,DC,orbyaU.S.Senator,whowasappointedbytheStatelegislature.Thereweregreattemptationsandopportunitiesforpoliticalfavoritismandgraftintheseappointments,resultinginmanyGLOrangersbeinglessthancompe-tentinmanagingthelandandresources.
TherearemanystoriesoftheseearlyGLOrangersnotdoingthejobstheywereassigned,goinghomeeverydaytoworktheirfarmsorbusinesses,beingunwillingorunabletoundergotherigorsoflivinginthewildernessforlongperiodsoftime,orsimplynothavinganyknowledgeofwhattheyweredoing.Inafewcases,GLOrangerswereactivelyinvolvedinlandfraudscommittedbytheirfriendsorinacceptingmoneyto“assist”home-steadersinobtainingforestlandthatwasimmediatelysoldtospeculatorsortimbercompanies.
Sheep on theWay to Summer Range on the Beaverhead National Forest (Montana) in 1945
USDAForestService
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Inthespringof1905,managementoftheforestreserves(latercalledna-tionalforests)wastransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInterior’sGLOtotheDepartmentofAgriculture’sBureauofForestry.OnJuly1,1905,theForestServicenamecameintobeing.GiffordPinchot,asthefirstChiefoftheagency,wasintentonbuildingaforceofforestrangerswhoweretrainedinorhadgoodknowledgeofpracticalforestry.Heconsideredthewordsonthe“InvalidsNeedNotApply”poster(circa1905)tobe“aslapattheLandOffice...andcertainlywelldeserved.”PinchotwasdeterminedtotransformthenegativestigmaoftheGLO’sreignfrom1897through1905toaposi-tiveimageofprofessionalForestServiceemployees,dedicatedto“scientificforestry”andpublicservice.
WhentheforestreserveswereturnedovertotheForestService,withafewexceptions,theGLOrangersquitGovernmentservice.TheGLOrangerswhodidtransfertothenewagencywereverypracticalandgreatlyexperi-encedmenwhohelpedformacadreofhighlytalentedrangers.
Beginninginthesummerof1905,thenewForestServicerequiredthatapplicantsfortheforestrangerposition(nowunderCivilServicerules)takepracticalwrittenandfieldexaminations.Thewrittentest,althoughnothighlytechnical,wasquitechallenging.Questionswereaskedtodetermineanapplicantknowledgeofbasicranchingandlivestock,forestconditions,lumbering,surveying,mapping,cabinconstruction,andsoon.Thefieldexamination,heldoutdoors,wasalsoquitebasic.Itrequiredapplicantstodemonstratepracticalskillssuchashowtosaddleahorseandrideatatrotandgallop,howtopackahorseormule,howto“throw”adiamondhitch,accuratelypacethedistancearoundameasuredcourseandcomputetheareainacres,andtakebearingswithacompassandfollowastraightline.Inthefieldexamination’searlyyears,theapplicantswerealsorequiredtobringarifleandpistolalongwiththemtoshootaccuratelyatatarget.Atsomerangerexaminations,theapplicantswererequiredtocookameal,thenEATit!Theapplicants,aswellastherangersthemselves,werenotfurnishedwithequipment,horses,orpackanimals—theywererequiredtohavethemforthetestandforwork,attheirownexpense.Thepaywas$60permonth.
Theforestrangerjobchangedlittleforseveraldecades,withthepracticalforesterservingtheagencywell.University-trainedforesters,or“technicalforesters,”begantoentertheagencyafter1910,comingfromthefewcol-legesanduniversitiesofferingdegreesinforestry.Bythe1920’s,jobspecial-izationwasbecomingcommon.ThechangingneedsofsocietyafterWorldWarIIpromptedtheagencytoopenthenationalforeststotimberharvest-ing,whichmeantthattheroleofthegeneralpracticalforesterwasout-dated—university-trainedspecialistswouldtakethisagencyintoanewera.Today,agencyemployeesarenolongerrequiredtotakepracticaltestsforemploymentanduniversity-trainedspecialistsareeverywhere,butpracticalexperiencestill“counts”highlyintheForestService.
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FOREST SERVICE BADGES AND PATCHES
AdaptedfromFrankHarmon’s1980Article“WhatShouldForestersWear?”intheJournal of Forest Historyandothersources
AschiefoftheBureauofForestry,GiffordPinchotbeganthinkingabouttheneedforauniquebadgeofauthorityforhisagencyemployeesevenbeforetheforestreservesweretransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortoAgriculture.Whentheshiftfinallytookplaceearlyin1905andthebureauwasdesignatedastheForestServiceinthesummerofthesameyear,Pin-chotsetaboutatoncetogetanewofficialbadgefortheforestrangers(theearlierGeneralLandOfficeusedanickel-plated,roundbadge).
Forcreationofthebadge,PinchotannouncedacontestamongWashingtonOfficeemployees.Ahighlyvariedcollectionoftree-relateddesignsresulted,includingscrolls,leaves,andmapleseeds.Althoughthejudgesappreci-atedtheemployees’artisticmerits,theyweredissatisfiedbecausenoneofthedesignsincludedgenerallyrecognizedsymbolsofauthority.ThegroupagreedthatthevastresponsibilitiesofthenewForestServicerequiredsuchasymboltohelpassurepublicrecognitionoftheagencyandrespectforitsofficersandtheirauthority,bothinWashington,DC,andinthefield.AreliablesymbolwasespeciallyneededforthosemeninthefieldwhowerechargedwithapplyingandenforcingFederallawsandregulationsinthefaceofanoftensuspiciousandhostilelocalpopulace.
EdwardT.Allen,oneofthejudges,stronglybelievedthataconventionalshieldwasthebestauthoritysymbol.Asitturnedout,heandanassociate,WilliamC.Hodge,Jr.,(who,likeAllen,workedbothintheWashingtonOfficeandinCaliforniabetween1904and1906)cameupwiththedesignthatbecametheofficialbadge.Inthespringof1905,thetwomenwereto-getherinAllen’sofficeor,perhaps,atarailroaddepotinMissoula,Montana.Allen,whowasattractedbythetypeofshieldusedbytheUnionPacificRailroad,begantracinganoutlineoftheshield(fromaUnionPacifictime-table)onasheetofpaper.HeinsertedthelargelettersUandShalfwayfromthetoptothebottomoftheshield,leavingaspacebetweenthem.Hodge,lookingon,wasinspiredtosketchafirtreeonasheetof“roll-your-own”cigarettepaperhetookfromhispocket.HethenlaidthisbetweentheUandS.Thetwomenthenquicklywrote“FORESTSERVICE”acrossthetopand“DEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE”acrossthebottom.Theplacementofthetwonameswasprobablydictatedbyavailablespaces.Whetherthisdesignhadanyinfluenceonthesoon-to-developandstillwidelyusedbutunofficialexpression“U.S.ForestService”isdebatable.Inanycase,Pinchotandhisassistant,OvertonPrice,werepleasedwiththedesignandcalledoffaplannedsecondcontest.
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BRONZE BADGES
Alargebronzebadge—about3inchesindiameter,slightlyconvexwithraisedlettersandtree—wasissuedtoallfieldofficersbyJuly1,1905.Lessthan2yearslater,Pinchotissuedanorderonthewearingofthebadge:“HereafterthebadgewillbewornonlybyofficersoftheWashingtonOf-ficewhenoninspectionoradministrativedutyonthenationalforests,byinspectors,andbysupervisors,rangers,andguardsandotherofficersassignedtoadministrativedutyunderthesupervisors.”Thepresentbronzebadge,firstissuedin1915,issmallerthantheoriginal.
Badgesforfireguardswerenickel-platedbronzewiththewords“FORESTGUARD”acrossthetop,“U.S.”ontheleftofthetree,“F.S.”ontheright,and“DEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE”onthebottom.Anotherforestguardbadgetypewasmadewith“FORESTGUARD”acrossthetop,“U.S.”leftofthetree,“D.A.”ontheright,and“FORESTSERVICE”atthebottom.Nei-theroftheseForestGuardbadgeshadaraisededgearoundtheborderofthebadge.Thewordswerestampedintothesurfaceandthetreewashighlysymmetrical.
Anotherbadgewasissued,probablytoforestguardsorlookouts,thatwasthesameastheregularForestServicebronzebadge,onlynickel-plated.Around1922,asmaller1-inchbronzebadgewasauthorizedforuniformwear.Thisbadgewasasmallerversionofthelargerbadge.Itwasusedondressuniformsuntilaround1972.Finally,aflatbronzebadgehasbeenrecentlyissued.
Inadditiontothethreesizevariationsandthreeforestguardvariations,thereweretwootherminorimagechanges:In1920,thelargelettersUandSwerelengthened,butthetreeremainedthesameand,in1938,ChiefF.A.Silcoxapprovedrevisingthetreeimageinthemiddletomakeitlonger/taller.Thetreeandrootshapesontheshieldalsochangedslightly—thetreebecamemoresymmetricalandtherootsbecameslightlyshorter.Sincethelate1930’s,therehavebeennoadditionalchangestotheimageontheofficialbadge.ThesechangeswereevidentonboththebadgesandForestServiceshieldseverywhere.
ForestServicelawenforcement,however,hasadifferentofficialbadge.ThisunusualshieldstylisticallyresemblestheregularForestServicepatchinshape,butithasseveralvariations:Anadditionalpointatthetopofthebadge,aneaglewithwingsoutspreadandheadfacingtotheleftsittingonthetop,andaslightly“fatter”mainbody.ThebadgewasdesignedbyAgentDixonfromRegion8inthe1970’s.Itissimilartootherlawenforcementbadgesofdifferentagencies.Atthetopofthesilverbadgearethewords“FOREST”and“SERVICE.”Thewordsareseparatedfromtheremainingwordsbyabaracrossthenarrowpartofthebadge.TheroundUSDAsym-bolisinthecenter,includingthewords“UNITEDSTATESDEPARTMENTOFAGRICULTURE”intheupperthree-quartersofthecircle.Oneachside
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �3
oftheroundsymbolarethehighlystylizedletters“U”ontheleftand“S”ontheright.Immediatelyabovetheseletters,betweenthelettersandtheword“SERVICE”aretwofive-pointedstars,oneoneachside.Atthebottomofthepatcharethewords“LAWENFORCEMENT”ononelineandthe“&INVESTIGATIONS”onthesecondline,bothinsidearaisedbanner.
CLOTH PATCHES
Sincetheearly1960’s,aclothshoulderpatchwasauthorizedforwearontheleftshoulderofofficialuniformshirtsandjackets.Thefirstauthorizedpatch,issuedin1962,wasflatonthebottomandsides,butroundedonthetop.Acurvedoverheadbarwasaddedtodesignatewhichnationalforestorotherofficethewearerwasfrom.In1974,thecurrenttheForestServiceshieldpatchwasauthorized.Thenewpatch,inthesameshapeasthebadge,hastheshieldoutlinedinyellow,withthewordsandtreealsoinyellowagainstagreenbackground.
Therearetwovariations:Anolder,smaller2-inchForestServiceflatbottompatch,sometimescalledthewomen’spatch,whichisidenticaltothelarger4-inchpatchandthenewer,smaller2-inchForestServiceshieldpatch,alsoreferredtoasthewomen’suniformpatch,whichisidenticaltothelarger4-inchpatchexceptthattheword“DEPARTMENT”isabbreviatedto“DEPT.”andtheword“AGRICULTURE”isabbreviatedas“AGRIC.”
Therewerealsotwoshoulderpatchesthataredistinctlydifferentfromtheotherpatches:Acolorvariation—thatoftheForestServicepatchforwintersnowrangeruniforms—orangeborderwithblacklettersandtreeonawhitebackgroundandanothersnowrangerpatchwithaslightlysmallerblack-borderedshieldwithalargerorangeshieldoutline.Apparently,thesnowrangerpatcheswerewornduringthe1960’sand1970’s.Severalreasonsforthisunusualpatchwere:Thepatchcouldbewornontheoutsideofheavywinterclothing(thebronzebadgecouldbeunderneathlayers),itwashighlyvisibleagainstadarkgreenjacket,andwhentherangerfellinthesnow,thebronzebadgewouldnotbelostorcauseinjury.
AnotherspecialpatchisthatofForestServicelawenforcement.Thisre-semblestheregularForestServicepatchinshape,size,andcolorwiththefollowingvariations:Atthetopofthepatchthewords,inyellowthread,“FOREST”and“SERVICE”areontwolines.InthemiddleisaroundsymboloftheUSDAinthecenter(outlinedinyellow)andalargercirclewiththewords(ingreen)“DEPT.OFAGRICULTURE”circlingtheuppertwo-thirdsoftheyellowcircle.Oneachsideoftheroundsymbolaretheletters“U”ontheleftand“S”ontheright.Immediatelyabovetheseletters,betweenthelettersandthetopword“SERVICE”aretwofive-pointedstars-oneoneachside.Atthebottomofthepatchistheword“ENFORCEMENT”(ingreen)insideayellowthreadribbon.
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AverydifferentshoulderpatchhasbeenauthorizedinrecentyearsforForestServicevolunteers.Thisoff-whitepatchissomewhatliketheolderForestServiceuniformpatches:About31/4inchestalland21/4incheswide,withaflatbottomandroundedtop.Thepatchisoutlinedinanolivegreenthread.Theoff-whitebackgroundhassewnwitholivegreenthreadthewords“FORESTSERVICE”withtheword“VOLUNTEER”underneath.Abovethewordsisashallow“V”inapea-greencolorwhichhastwoolivegreenevergreentrees(withoutneedles)havingthreebranchesoneachsideofthemainstem.Thetreesoverlayapea-greensun.
Land Frauds
Assomeoftheforestreserveboundarieshadbeenhastilydrawn,theForestHomesteadActofJune11,1906,allowedhomesteadinginsideforestreserveboundariesonlandthatwasconsideredprimarilyagricul-tural.However,thereweremanyinstancesoflandfraudonagri-culturalandStateschoollands.Tomeettheintentofthelaw,unscrupulousspeculatorswouldpaypeopletofraudulentlyclaimthattheyweremakingahomeontheland.Aftersuch“ownership,”whenthehomesteadedlandwastransferredfromtheFederalGov-ernment,thenewownerswouldimmediatelytransferthatland’sownershiptoalandspeculator,timber,orminingcompany.Theterms“land-officebusiness”and“land-officerush”cameaboutduringthisperiod—reflecting
USDAForestService
Forest Ranger Camp in Logan Canyon, Cache National Forest (Utah) 1914
thelegitimateandnot-so-legitimatepeoplelininguptosecurelandclaimsatthelocalGLO’s.
FederalinvestigationsaboutlandfraudwerestartedinseveralStates,andafewelectedofficialswereindicted.Thefirstsuccessfulfraudprosecutions,involv-inglandspeculatorsandvariousState,county,andGLOemployees,occurredinOregonbetween1905and1910.GLOheadBingerHermannresignedafterbeingindicted,butwaslaterfoundinnocent;Oregon’sSenatorMitchellwasconvicted.ManyminorFederalandStateofficialsspenttimeinjailoversuchwrongdoings.
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New Forest Reserves
InJanuary1907,therewasconsiderableoppositiontoaPresidentialprocla-mationthatreservedthousandsofacresofprimeDouglas-firtimberlandsinnorthernWashingtonState.Thelocalpress,chambersofcommerce,andtheWashingtonStatecongressionaldelegationprotestedthatthereservewouldcauseunduehardshiponresidentsbytakingawayhomesteadand“prime”agricul-turallands(theland,infact,wasnotagricultural,butheavilyforested)aswellasimpedingthefuturedevelopmentoftheState.Afterconsiderablepressure,PinchotandPresidentRooseveltrelented,bysayingthatthereservehadbeena“clericalerror.”Soonthereafter,SenatorCharlesW.FultonofOregon,whohadbeenimplicatedinthelandfraudsinthatState,introducedanamendmenttotheannualagriculturalappropriationsbill.Thisamendment,theFultonAmendment,prohibitedthePresidentfromcreatinganyadditionalforestreservesinthesixWesternStatesofWashington,Oregon,Idaho,Montana,Wyoming,andColo-rado;tookawaythePresident’spowertoproclaimreserves,establishedundertheForestReserve(Creative)Actof1891;andgaveCongressalonetheauthoritytoestablishreserves.However,beforethisbillcouldbesignedintolawonMarch7,1907,GiffordPinchotandthePresidentcameupwithaplan.
Forest Ranger Tying Equipment and Supplies on a Horse, Umpqua National Forest (Oregon), 1923
USDAForestService
Ontheeveofthebill’ssigning,ChiefForesterPinchotandhisassistantArthurC.Ringlandusedaheavybluepenciltodrawmanynewforestreservesonmaps.Assoonamapwasfinishedandaproclamationwritten,thePresidentsignedthepapertoestablishanotherforestreserve.OnMarch1stand2nd,Rooseveltes-tablished17neworcombinedforestreservescontainingover16millionacresinthesesixWesternStates.TheseincludedtheBearLodgeinWyoming;LasAnimasandOurayinColorado;LittleRockiesandOtterinMontana;Cabinet,Lewis&Clark,Palouse,andPortNeufinIdaho;ColvilleandRainierinWashington;andtheBlueMountains,Cascade,Coquille,Imnaha,Tillamook,andUmpquainOregon.Thesehavebeensincereferredtoasthe“MidnightRe-serves.”ThePresidentdefendedhisactionsbyclaimingthathehadsavedvast
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tractsoftimberfromfallingintothehandsofthe“lumbersyndicate.”TheFultonamendment,atthesuggestionofPinchot,alsochangedthenameofthe“forestreserves”to“nationalforests”tomakeitclearthattheforestsweretobeusedandnotpreserved.ThefirstnationalforestsestablishedeastoftheMississippiRiverweretheOcalaandChoctawhatcheeNationalForestsinFloridainNovember1908.
Decentralization
Duringthesamemonth,sixdistrictofficeswereestablishedinvarioussectionsofthecountry:Denver,Colorado;Ogden,Utah;Missoula,Montana;Albuquerque,NewMexico;SanFrancisco,California;andPortland,Oregon.TheywerepartofasuccessfulefforttodecentralizedecisionmakingfromWashington,DC,tothedistricts,whichwereclosertoandmorefamiliarwithlocalandregion-wideproblems.ThesenewdistrictswerestaffedthefollowingDecemberandJanuarybyemployeesfromtheWashingtonOfficeandvarioussupervisor’soffices.
USDAForestService
Fire Equipment Warehouse in Missoula, Montana
DecentralizationwascarriedfurtherwiththecreationoftheOgden(Utah)Sup-plyDepotin1909.ThisnewdepotwascentrallylocatedintheWestandtookadvantageofthere-ducedshippingcostsandshortenedtimethatittookremoterangeroutpoststoreceivesupplies.To
respondtolocalconditions,localnationalforestsupervisorsweregivengreaterfiscalresponsibilities.Aseventhdistrict,coveringtheadministrationofthenationalforestsinArkansasandFlorida,wasaddedin1914.Alaskawasmadeaseparatedistrictin1921;thenanewdistrictwascreatedin1929tocovertheEasternStates.AllthedistrictswererenamedregionalofficesonMay1,1930.(Region7waseliminatedin1966,leavingnineregionstoday.)
PinchotrecognizedtheneedtocontinuecooperationwiththeStatesandtheprivatesectorwhenin1908heorganizedtheDivisionofStateandPrivateFor-estry(S&PF)withintheForestService.ThenewdivisionimmediatelybeganacooperativestudywiththeStatestolookatforesttaxation.WiththepassageoftheWeeksActof1911,theS&PFfocusedonworkingwithStateforestryandfirepreventionassociations—acooperativerelationshipthatcontinuestothisday.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �7
STATE AND PRIVATE FORESTRY
TheForestServiceanditspredecessorshavebeeninvolvedwithcooperativeassistancetoforestlandownerssince1876.Severalforestreserveswerecre-atedtoprotectcitywatersupplies(suchastheBullRunTimberlandReservein1892,Portland,Oregon’swatersupply).SincetheearlyUSDADivisionofForestryandlaterBureauofForestrydidnotdirectlymanagethefor-estreserves,themaindutyofUSDA’sforestryexpertswastoassistprivatelandowners—includingwritingplansformillionsofacresofprivatetimberland.After1905,whenmanagementoftheforestreservestransferredtotheUSDAandthenewForestService,theDepartment’sforesterswerequicklymovedtofieldpositionsintheWest.However,providing“practicalfor-estry”assistancetoprivatelandownersremainedoneoftheagency’smostimportantmissions.
In1908,GiffordPinchotrecognizedtheForestService’sobligationtotheprivatesectorwhenheformallyestablishedtheBranchofStateandPrivateForestry(S&PF)intheWashingtonOffice.Thiswasthesecond“leg”oftheagency—theotherbeingtheNationalForestSystem.CooperationwasongoingwiththeUSDA’sBureauofEntomologyforpestcontrolworkandwiththeBureauofPlantIndustryonforesttreediseases.
OneofthenewS&PFDivision’sfirsteffortswastoaidStatesinthestudyofforesttaxation.Theagencypublishedwholesalelumberpricelistsandsupportedlumberindustryeffortstoretainatariffonlumber—withtheunderstandingthattheseeffortswereinthepublicinterest.ThelumberindustrywantedtheForestServicetokeepFederaltimberoffthemarket.Withthevast“storehouse”ofnationalforesttimber(muchofitinaccessi-
USDAForestService
Perry Davis on Early Speeder Looking for Railroad Fires, Pisgah National Forest (North Carolina), 1923
�8 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
ble),sellingthetreesbeforetheywereneededinthehousingmarketwouldreduceprivatetimberpricesandgenerallyweakenthelumberindustry.YettheForestServicecontinuedtosellsmalltimbertractstoensurethatthenationalforestswereused,notsetasideasparks.
ChiefHenryGravesnotedthatcooperationfellintothreecategories:Advis-ingStatesinestablishingforestpolicies,assistingtheminsurveyingtheirforestresources(mainlytimber),andfinallyhelpingforestownerswithpracticalforestryproblems.Section2oftheWeeksActof1911codifiedChiefGraves’ideas.ItauthorizedtheForestServicetoworktogetherwithitsStatecounterpartstofightfireonFederal,State,orprivateland.(Pre-viously,ifafirestartedonprivateorStateland,theForestServicecouldnothelpuntilthefireenterednationalforestland.)WiththeWeeksActinplace,itdidnotmatterwherethefirestartedorended,themainpremisewastoputitoutandtakecareofthemoneylater.TheWeeksActalsoau-thorized$10,000inmatchingfundsforStatefireprotectionagencies’localfirepreventionprograms.
TheClarke-McNaryActof1924greatlyexpandedtheWeeksAct.Thenewactusedcooperationandincentivestoimproveconditionsonprivateforestland.Fireandtaxesweretheprimarycomponentsoftheact—whichal-lowedFederal,State,andprivateintereststoworktogether.Section3oftheClarke-McNaryActauthorizedtheForestServicetostudytaxlawsandtheireffectonforestlandmanagement.BecauseofconcernsovertheNation’sfuturewoodsuppliesrelatedtocapitalinvestments,loggingactivities,andevenfire,theForestServiceassumedaresponsibilityinthetaxmatter.However,whenProfessorFredR.Fairchild’s1935reportonthetaxmatterfailedtofindanyrelationshipbetweentaxesandmanagement,thereportquicklyfellintoobscurity.
BasedontheLeaActof1940,whichwasdesignedtounifyandcoordinateeffortstocontrolthewhitepineblisterrustproblem,irrespectiveofproper-tyboundaries,theForestPestControlActof1947recognizedaFederalre-sponsibilityforforestinsectanddiseaseprotectiononallownerships.ThislawalsoofferedtechnicalandfinancialassistancetoStateforestryagenciestocontrolinsectsanddiseaseoutbreaksinforestedareas.
Themostfamouscooperativeeffort,whichcontinuestothisday,involvestheforestfirepreventionprogram(seetheSmokeyBearsidebar).Begunduringthefirstfewmonthsof1942,cooperationbetweentheForestSer-vice,Stateforesters,andtheAdvertisingCouncilcontinuetospreadthefirepreventionprogramacrossthecountry.
TheCooperativeForestManagementActof1950expandedtheForestService’scooperativeeffortsofthepost-wardecade,providedfortechni-calassistance,andextendedmanagementassistancetoallclassesofforestownership.TheForestServicegaveprioritytoassistingsmallforestland-
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �9
owners.In1952,theForestServiceinitiatedamajorfieldinventory,theTimberResourcesReview(TRR),toanalyzetheforestconditionsonsmallforestlandownerships.Althoughdraftsofthereportwerecirculatedwithin2years,theforestproductsindustryprotecteditsresultssomuchthatthefinalreportwasnotpublisheduntil1958!TheTRRreportfoundthatforestpracticeswouldneedtobeintensifiedtomeetfuturedemandsandthatsmallownershipswereinthegreatestneedofassistance.AlthoughtheFor-estServicemadeeffortstoinstituteaprogramtoremedythissituation,itprovedtobetoocontroversialandexpensive.
TheSmallWatershedProgram(PublicLaw566)in1954expandedtheForestService’sauthoritytoincludefloodpreventiononfarmlandwater-shedsnotexceeding250,000acres.Theprogramcoveredfloodpreventionstructures,upstreamprotection,andlivestockcontrol.TheForestServiceworkedcloselywiththeUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture’sSoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService)andAgriculturalResearchService,U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,andtheStatestoimplementsuchprojects.
TheprimarystatutoryauthorityformanyofthecurrentS&PFprogramactivitiesistheCooperativeForestryAssistanceActof1978,asamendedbythe1990farmbill.Inthepast,thecooperativeforestryprogramhasbeenbasedontimberproduction,woodutilization,fireprotection,andinsectanddiseasecontrol,buttheemphasisischanging.Cooperativeforestryisnowinvolvedinurbanforestrytomaintaintreeswithinurbanareas,reachouttonewconstituencies,andbuildnewpartnershipsintheinnercit-ies.Anewforeststewardshipprogramseekstohelp,bothtechnicallyandfinancially,nonindustrialprivateforestownerstomanagealltheresourcesontheirforestlandsbasedontheirownobjectives.Theruraldevelopmentinitiativeisdesignedtohelpsmallcommunitiesdiversifyandstrengthentheirlocaleconomies.
RegionalforestersareresponsiblefortheS&PFprogramswiththeexcep-tionoftheNortheasternArea,whichislocatedinNewtownSquare,Penn-sylvania.TheNortheasternAreaisareflectionofthelargenumberofnonin-dustrialprivatewoodlandownerswhoresideintheNortheasternStates.
Forest Service Research
Thefirstforestexperimentstationwasestablishedin1908atFortValleyontheCoconinoNationalForest,Arizona,followedbyotherresearchstationsinColo-rado,Idaho,Washington,California,andUtah.Today,thereare20researchandexperimentalareasintheNationalForestSystem.
30 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Priorto1910,theFor-estServiceundertookmajoreffortstoevalu-atesitesforpossibleon-the-groundforestmanagementcampscalledrangerstations.Rangerstationswereestablishedbecauseoftheneedtohavelocalcontrolonmanyofthenationalforests.Aboutthesametime,manyofthelargerforestsweredividedintosmaller,easier-to-managena-tionalforests.
Regional Office, Southwest Region (Region 3) in Albuquer-que, New Mexico, circa 1916
USDAForestService
USDAForestService
Oakridge Ranger StationTelephone Operator, Cascade Na-tional Forest (Oregon)
Theheightofthenationwideconservationmovementwasbetween1907and1909,justbeforeandafterTheodoreRoosevelt’sNationalConferenceofGover-norsmetattheWhiteHouseinMay1908toconsiderAmerica’snaturalre-sources.ThePresidenttoldconferenceattendeesthat“theconservationofnatural
resourcesisthemostweightyquestionnowbeforethepeopleoftheUnitedStates.”Thecon-ferencerecommendedthatthePresidentappointaNationalConservationCommissionto“inquireintoandadvisehimastotheconditionofournaturalresources.”Thecommissionreturnedwithathree-volumereport,whichRooseveltusedintheefforttoconservetheNation’snaturalresources.Rooseveltleftofficein1909andwassucceededbyWilliamHowardTaft.PinchotranintoproblemswiththenewTaftAdministration’sSecretaryoftheInterior,RichardA.Ballinger,overcoalleasinginAlaska.Aftermonthsofnationaldebateandpersonalattacksfrombothmen,TaftfiredPinchotforinsubordi-nationinJanuaryof1910.Pin-chotwasreplacedas“Forester”byHenryGraves,hislong-timeassociateandpersonalfriend.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 3�
The Forest Protection or Custodial Management Era, �9�0-�933
T henext23yearswastheForestService’seraofforestprotection throughcustodialmanagement.Mostimportantwasasystemfor detectingandfightingforestfires.Duringthesummerof1910,whenextremelydryconditionsprevailedintheWest,widespreadfiresflaredintheNorthwestandthenorthernRockyMountains,burningover3millionacresinIdahoandMontanaalone.Seventy-eightforestfirefighterslosttheirlivesnation-widetryingtoprotectthenationalforestsandremotecommunitiesfromthesedevastatingfires.SoontheFederalGovernmentmadefirefightingfundsavailabletocombatsuchfires.Asaresultofthe1910fires,cooperationbetweenthevari-ousStateforestersandtheForestServicebecameadrivingforce.
Duringthisera,theForestServicealsobeganseveralimportantprogramstobettermanagethenationalforests,includinganextensivesystemofbasicandappliedresearch,timbermanagement,recreation,andhighwaystobetterprovideaccesstotheforests.
FOREST FIRES AND FIREFIGHTING
Controlofforestfireshaslongbeenconsideredasoneofthemostimpor-tantaspectsofforestry.VerylargescaleforestfiresareprimarilyaNorthAmericanphenomena,althoughmanyothercountriesfaceseriousforestandbrushfireconditions.EarlyEuropean-trainedforesters,underwhosetutoragePinchotandotherslearnedthebasicsofforestry,hadnotdealtwithlargefirespotentiallycoveringhundredsofthousandsofacresinonefire.Asaresult,forestfiresintheUnitedStatesweremuchmoreseriousthanthosetheyhadeverencountered.
Firehaslongbeenusedtoclearland,changeplantandtreespecies,sterilizeland,maintaincertaintypesofhabitat,andformanyotherreasons.Indiansarewell-knowntohaveusedfireasatechniquetomaintaincertainpiecesoflandortoimprovehabitats.AlthoughearlysettlersoftenusedfireinthesamewayastheIndians,majorfiresonpublicdomainlandwerelargelyignoredandwereoftenviewedasanopportunitytoopenforestlandforgrazing.Iffireswerefoughtatall,theywerefoughtwithshovels,brooms,rakes,firelines,andbackfires.Whennearfarms,plowscouldbeusedtomakefirelinesincropsornearhouses.
EspeciallylargefiresragedinNorthAmericaduringthe1800’sandearly1900’s.Thepublicwasbecomingslowlyawareoffire’spotentialforlife-threateningdanger.ThefirstverylargefiresweretheMiramichiandPiscataquisfiresof1825thatburnedaround3millionacresinMaineandNewBrunswick.OtherlargeanddeadlyfireswereintheLakeStates,includingthePeshtigofireof1871thatcoveredover1millionacresand
3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
tookover1,400livesinWisconsin.Atthesametime,fireswereburninginMichigan,cinderingabout2.5millionacres.Tenyearslater,thesedevastat-ingMichiganfireswerefollowedwithanother1millionacresgoingupinsmoke.In1894,alargefirearoundHinckley,Michigan,tookthelivesof418people.In1903and1908,hugefiresburnedacrosspartsofMainetoUpstateNewYork.Inresponse,thefirstStatefireorganizationintheEastwasestablishedinMaine.
Federalinvolvementintryingtocontrolforestfiresbeganinthelate1890’swiththehiringofGeneralLandOfficerangersduringthefireseason.Largelyineffectual,therangerswereatleastawareofmanyremotefiresandcouldnotifytownsandsettlersifafirewasheadingtheirway.Whenthemanagementoftheforestreserves(nowcallednationalforests)weretrans-ferredtothenewForestServicein1905,theagencytookontherespon-sibilityofcreatingprofessionalstandardsforfirefighting,includinghavingmorerangersandhiringlocalpeopletohelpputoutfires.
OfgreatimportancetothiscausewerethedevastatingfiresintheWest.Thefirstonewasthe1902YacoltfireinsouthwesternWashington,whichburnedmorethanamillionacresinWashingtonandOregonandcostthelivesof38people.AresultofthefirewastheformationoftheWesternForestryandConservationAssociationin1909,ledbytheEdwardT.Allen.Inthepreviousyear,AllenhadbeenappointedasthefirstForestServiceRegionalForesterinthePacificNorthwestRegion.Oneyearlater,inthenorthernRockies,some3millionacreswereburnedinthe“BigBlowupof1910,”andanother2millionacresinotherareas.Withinayear,CongresspassedtheWeeksActof1911which,inpart,allowedtheForestServicetocooperatewiththevariousStatesinfireprotectionandfirefighting.TheForestServicealsobeganaprogramoffireresearch,whichcontinuestothisday.
Lookouthouses(manystartingjustasplatformsatoptrees)wereusedtolocatefiresfrommountaintopsduringthefireseason.Thehousesvariedfromlowgroundhousestoverytalltowers,sometimesover100feettall.JustafterWorldWarI,theForestServicecontractedwiththeArmyAirSer-vice(Corps)toprovideairplanesandpilotstospotfiresfromtheair.Thisprogramworkedsuccessfullyformorethan10yearsuntilacomprehensivenetworkoflookouthousesandtelephonesystemswereinplace.Today,acomputernetworktrackseverylightningstrikeandaerialpatrolsmonitorforactivefiresitesafterlightningstorms.Thefewremaininglookoutsstilloperatingarevaluableforlocatinghuman-causedfires.TheClarke-McNaryActof1924allowedtheForestServicetoadministergrants-in-aidtoequaltheamountscontributedtofirefightingbytheStatesandtosetstandardsforfirefightingandequipment.
Duringthe1930’s,theCivilianConservationCorps(CCC)programofferedachangefromjusthavingForestServiceemployeesorhiredpeopletofight
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 33
fires.CCCenrolleesweresentbythethousandstohelpfightfiresthrough-outtheWest.TheCCC’ssuccessfullytestedandthenuseda40-man(therewerenowomenfirefightersatthistime)firesuppressioncrew.TheCCCprogramalsobuiltandstaffedthousandsoflookouthousesandtowersacrossthecountry.
Neartheendofthe1930’s,anothernewtacticwasemployed—havingfirefightersjumpfromairplanestoremotelocationstoputoutfiresbeforetheybecametoolargetofight.In1939,smokejumpingwastestedontheOkanoganNationalForestinWashington.ThefirstsmokejumpingonaforestfiretookplaceJuly12,1940,ontheMartinCreekfireontheNezPerceNationalForestofIdaho.ThetwosmokejumperswereRufusRobinsonandEarlCooley.
In1935,theForestServicedevelopedthe“10a.m.”policythatstipulatedthatafirewastobecontainedandcontrolledby10a.m.followingthereportofafire,or,failingthatgoal,controlledby10a.m.thenextday,andsoon.Facedwiththenecessityofcontrollingafireovernight,theForestServicewascompelledtocalloutmassivenumbersoffirefighterstotryandcontroltheseblazesintheinitialattack.Anewdivisionofforestfirere-searchbeganoperationin1948,withthreelaboratoriesopeningsoonthere-after.OnAugust5,1949,13smokejumperslosttheirliveswhenafireinMannGulchonMontana’sHelenaNationalForestsuddenlyflaredinhighwinds,leaptoutofcontrol,andenvelopedthefirefighters.ThistragiceventpromptedtheForestServicetoestablishcentersinMontanaandCaliforniathatwerededicatedtodevelopingandtestingnewfirefightingequipment.
Bythemid-1950’s,theForestServicegraduallyassumedtheprimaryresponsibilityforcoordinatingwildlandandruralfireprotectionintheUnitedStates.Duringthistimeperiod,morethan$200millionworthofWorldWarIIsurplusequipmentwaspassedtoStateandlocalcooperators.By1956,airtankers,oftenmilitarysurplusB-17’sfilledwithaboratemix-ture,andhelicoptersfortransportwereinuse.
In1971,theForestServicemodifiedthe10a.m.policytohandlefiresinwildernessesbyusinga10-acrepolicyasaguideforplanning.Thus,somefireswereallowedtoincreaseinsizeto10acresonlyiftheydidnotdestroyorthreatentodestroyprivatepropertyoriftheyendangeredlifeorpropertyadjacenttothewilderness.Anotherso-called“letburn”policycameintobeinginthe1980’s,itessentiallyallowedsomefires,asinwilderness,toburnonthenationalforestsdependingonconditions.The1988firesinthegreaterYellowstoneecosystemweredevastatingtolargeareasinandaroundthenationalpark.In1994,aforestfireclaimedthelivesof10hotshotcrewfirefighterswhentheytriedtoescapethefastmovingSouthCanyonFireonStormKingMountaininColorado.
3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Henry S. Graves— Second Chief, 1910-1920
Pinchot’sclosefriend,Henry“Harry”SolonGravesbornonMay3,1871,inMarietta,Ohio,wasalsooneofthesevenoriginalmembersoftheSocietyofAmeri-canForesters.Graves,aneminentprofes-sionalforester,servedasthefirstprofessoranddirectorofthenewlyfoundedYaleForestrySchool.In1910,hewasselectedtotakeoverthereinsofthe5-year-oldForestService.
His10-yearstintasChiefoftheForestServicewascharacterizedbyastabiliza-tionofthenationalforests,thepurchaseofnewnationalforestsintheEast,andthestrengtheningofthefoundationsofforest-rybyputtingthemonamorescientificba-
Result of the 1910 Fires Along St. Joe River on the Coeur d’Alene National Forest (Idaho)
USDAForestService
sis.HisgreatcontributionwasthesuccessfullaunchingofanationalforestpolicyfortheUnitedStates—apermanentandfar-reachingachievement.DuringhistenureasChief,theForestProductsLaboratorywasestablishedatMadison,Wisconsin;theWeeksLawof1911wasenacted—allowingfortheFederalGovernmenttopurchaseforestlands(mostlyintheEast);andtheResearchbranchoftheForestServicewasorganized.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 35
HenryGraveswrote:
WhenthepolicyofdeedingawaythepublictimberlandswasatlastfoundtobeanunsafeonefortheNation,itwaschangedandthebulkoftheremainingpublictimberlandswerewithdrawnfrompublicappropriationandsegregatedasnationalforests.Inthisway,about155millionacres,nearlyallinthewesternmountainswerereserved….Thepublicforestsarebeingpro-tectedfromfire,thetimberisusedasitiscalledforbyeconomicconditions,andthecuttingisconductedbysuchmethodsasleavethelandinfavorableconditionforthenextcropoftimber.
Theverymagnitudeofthenationalforestenterprisehascreatedinthemindsofmanypeopletheimpressionthattheprobleminthiscountryisalreadyonthewaytodefinitesolution.Inpointoffact,onlycertaininitialstepshavebeentaken….ItismyhopethatwemaysecuresufficientpublicsupporttoenableustoacceleratetheacquisitionbytheGovernmentoftheimportantremainingareas[intheEast]beforeitistoolate….Forestsoncriticalwatershedsshouldbeownedbythepublicfortheirpro-tectivevalue.Publicforestsserve,also,ascentersofco-operationwithprivateownersandasdemonstrationareasforthepracticeofforestryaswellasfurnishingtheirdirectbenefitsinproducingwoodmaterials,asrecreationgrounds,etc.
Forest Products Laboratory and Research
ChiefoftheForestServiceHenryGravesnotedthatwiththeforestpracticesofthisera,loggersweretypicallyleavingasmuchas25percentofthetreesonthestumporgroundandmorethanhalfofthetreesthatreachedthemillwereeitherdiscardedaswasteproductsorburnedonthesite.IncooperationwithWisconsinStateUniversity(nowtheUniversityofWisconsin),theForestServiceestablishedtheForestProductsLaboratory(FPL)in1910atMadison,Wisconsin.TheFPLwastobea“laboratoryofpracticalresearch”thatwouldstudyandtestthephysicalpropertiesofwood;developandtestwoodpreservationtechniques;studymethodstoreduceloggingwaste;improvelumberproductionmethodsinsawmillsanddevisenewusesforwoodfiber;distributewoodproductinforma-tiontothepublic;andcooperatewiththewoodproductsindustry.FPLresearchmadeutilizationofforestproductsanimportantelementinthegreateruseandproductionofwoodfrompublicandprivateforests.
TheWeeksActof1911allowedtheGovernmenttopurchaseimportantprivatewatershedlandontheheadwatersofnavigablestreams,whichmayhavebeencutover,burnedover,orfarmedout.Asaresult,thisactindirectlysupportedthecreationofnewnationalforeststhroughlandpurchasesintheEasternUnitedStateswheretherewaslittlepublicdomainlandleft.Italsoprovidedcoopera-tionwith,andFederalmatchingfundsfor,Stateforestfireprotectionagencies.
3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
By1920,morethan2millionacresoflandhadbeenpurchasedundertheWeeksAct—by1980over22millionacresintheEasthadbeenaddedtotheNationalForestSystem.
TheForestServiceResearchBranch,knownearlierastheOfficeofSilvics,wasestablishedin1915toinvestigatebetterwaysofmanagingthenationalforests,aswellastostudythehundredsoftreespeciesandtoexploremethodstoreseedandreplantforests.Thisperiodsawagreatexpansionofthenumberofnationalforesttimbersales;theconstructionofnumerousrangerstations,lookout,trails,andtrailshelters;andthefirstuseoftelephonesonnationalforests.
FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY— MADISON, WISCONSIN
In1907,McGarveyCline,headoftheForestService’swoodusesection,proposedthatallwoodproductscientistsbebroughttogetherunderoneroof.Asaconsequence,theUniversityofWisconsinconstructedaspe-ciallaboratoryforitsuseinMadison,Wisconsin,andtheForestProductsLaboratory(FPL)beganoperationsonOctober1,1909,andwasofficiallyopenedonJune4ofthefollowingyear.
Scientificresearchonwoodandwoodproductsbeganinearnest,withFPLscientistsreceivingalargenumberofpatentsovertheyears.SomeofthefirstworkatFPLinvolveddryingwoodthroughadrykilnprocess.Hundredsofspeciesofwoodweretestedfortheirfiberstrengths.Apulpandpaperresearchunitwasformedtostudythemechanicalandchemicalpulpingprocesses.Researchstartedonwood’schemicalproperties,distil-lationandextractionofchemicalsfromvariouswoods,themanufactureofchemicalsfromtrees,andthedevelopmentofchemicalsusedtostabilizeandmoisture-proofwoodproducts.
Forest Products Laboratory, Madi-son, Wisconsin
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 37
DuringWorldWarI,theFPLwasinstrumentalineffortstoproducelight-weight,butverystrong,airplanes.Theytestedthestrengthsoffuselages,wings,andpropellers,anddevelopedeffectivewaystousewood,cloth,andpaint(dope)tostrengthenthenewairplaneairframes.DuringWorldWarI,FPL’sworkforcerosefromfewerthan100toabout450.PaperwasinshortsupplyduringWorldWarI,soFPLscientistsbeganresearchontreespeciesnotcommonlyusedforpaperproduction.
In1928,theMcSweeney-McNaryActmadespecialprovisionsforcontinua-tionofresearchattheFPLand,by1931,theFPLhadcompletedconstruc-tionofanewlaboratorybuilding.In1932,FPLgainednotorietyastheplacewherethewoodenladderusedintheLindberghchild’skidnapingwasanalyzed.TheadventofWorldWarIIcausedthenumberofFPLemployeestoriseagain,toaround700.Theyconductedresearchanddevelopmentworkonmanywartimeneedsanduses,suchasairplanes,ships,buildings,containers,paper,andplywood.FPLbecamethemodelfornationallabora-toriesaroundtheworld.
Afterthewar,theFPLbegantoshiftemphasisfromold-growth,high-qualitywood,suchaspineandDouglas-fir,tothelesser-usedspeciesandmoreefficientusesofexistingtimbersupplies,includingsecondandeventhird-growthtimber.Theprivatesectorbecameactiveafterthewar,fundingsmallerlaboratoriestoconductresearchonwoodproducts,manufacturingtechniques,andconsumers.Manyofthesesmallprivatelaboratoriescon-ductedtheirresearchonproprietaryproductswiththeresearchresultsnotreleasedtothepublic.FPL’sresearchfindingsareinthepublicdomain.
Today,FPLconductsbasicresearchworkonmanywood-relatedtopics,includingwoodfiberrecyclingandbetterutilizationofwoodproducts,whilecontinuingthetestingofwoodfibersandbetterwaysofmanufactur-ingwoodproductsandtrainingwoodtechnologyresearchersfromallovertheworld.
WEEKS ACT OF 1911
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
Floods,fires,andForestServiceforestersallcontributedtothepassageoftheWeeksActof1911,whichmarkedtheshiftfrompubliclanddisposaltoexpansionofthepubliclandbasebypurchaseandwastheoriginoftheeasternnationalforests.Theroleplayedbyfloods,wildfires,andforestersgoesbacktothebeginningsoftheconservationmovementandprofessionalforestryintheUnitedStates.Theimportanceofforestsinwatershedprotec-tion,forexample,wasanearlysubjectofconcernamongthosewhoarguedforforestreserves.
38 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Theplaceofforestsinmoderatingstreamflowwasunclearintheearlystagesoftheforestconservationmovement,butgainedenoughcredencethat“securingfavorableconditionsofwaterflows”wasdefinedasaprimaryfunctionofthenewlyformedFederalforestreservesintheForestManage-ment(Organic)Actof1897.ItmayhavebeenthememoryofthedisastrousJohnstown(PA)floodin1889thathelpeddramatizetheconsequencesofwatersheddeforestationtopeopleintheEast.
Foresters,largelybasedintheUSDAForestService,recognizedtheimpor-tanceofforestsinfloodprotection–theU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersdidnot.TheCorps’ideaoffloodcontrolwasdamsandlevees.ForestServiceChiefGiffordPinchotfeltthattheCorpsofEngineers’positionunderminedoneofthekeyargumentsforcreatingadditionalforestreserves.Mostoftheover150millionacresofforestreservesestablishedby1907wereintheWest.TheissueoffloodcontrolbecameimportanttogainpoliticalsupportforpurchaseoflandsfornationalforestsintheEast.
RainwasimportanttoirrigatorsinthearidWest,andurbanresidentswantedpuredrinkingwater,sothesetwogroupssupportedwatershedpro-tectionthroughcreationofforestreserves.ItwasrecreationistsintheEast,however,whosoughtcreationofadditionalFederalforests–withsupportersoftheproposedWhiteMountainreserveofNewEngland(MaineandNewHampshire,nowtheWhiteMountainNationalForestestablishedin1918)workingwiththeregionaladvocatesofAppalachianreserves(wholatermanagedtogetaseriesofnationalparksfortheareainthe1920’s).EnlistedintheeffortwasCongressmanJohnWeeks(ofMassachusetts),who,in1906,madeamotioninCongresstoauthorizeFederalpurchaseofprivatelandsforthepurposeofforestreserves.ThenotionofspendingpublicmoneyonrecreationsitesdidnotappealtothepowerfulSpeakeroftheHouse,JoeCannon,whodeclared“notonecentforscenery”inthedebateagainsttheproposal.
In1905,theAmericanForestryAssociationendorsedtheproposaltoestab-lisheasternnationalforeststhroughFederalpurchase,andCongress’sdefeatofthebillledthemandotheradvocatesofforestreservestoshifttheirargu-mentfromnaturepreservationtoutilitarianconcernsoverfloodprotection.Inthemeantime,aneedforfirecontrolofferedasecondreasonfortheshiftofownershipofforestlandstotheFederalGovernment.ThelackoffireprotectioneffortsonthepartoftheprivatesectorandevenStatesmadeitanationalprogramforthenewForestService,thereasonbeingthatwhenscientificforestrybeganinNorthAmericaitspractitionersregardedfireprotectiontobeafundamentalmissionoftheforestryprofession.
Withthemassivewesternfiresof1910acceleratingthetrend,U.S.publicopiniongraduallymovedtowardtheforester’sviewoftheneedforwildfirecontrolofforestedlands.The1910firesinIdahoandMontanaburnedover3millionacresandkilledover80firefighters.CombatingthesefirescosttheForestServicemorethan1milliondollars.Spurredbythecostlyfires,
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 39
ChiefGravesinitiatedaprogramofscientificresearchonfirecontrol.Pas-sageoftheWeeksActonMarch1,1911,addedtotheForestService’sfirework.Section2oftheWeeksActauthorizedfirefightingmatchingfundsforStateforestprotectionagenciesthatmetGovernment(ForestService)standards.ThiswasthefirsttimethatCongressalloweddirectfundingofnon-Federalprograms,andsinceitwasbusydevelopingcooperativefirecontrolprograms,theactiongreatlyincreasedthetaskoftheagency’sre-centlyformed(1908)StateandPrivateForestryBranch.
PassageoftheWeeksActledtotheFederalpurchaseofforestlandsintheheadwatersofnavigablestreams—expandingtheNationalForestSystemeastoftheGreatPlains—aregionofscantpublicdomain.ThePisgahNa-tionalForest,thefirstnationalforestmadeupalmostentirelyofpurchasedprivateland,wasestablishedonOctober17,1916.ThecoreportionofthenewforestscamefromtheprivatelyownedBiltmoreForest—oncemanagedbyGiffordPinchot.LandpurchasesforthePisgahbeganin1911,soonafterthepassageoftheWeeksAct.By1920,theendoftheGravesadministra-tion,morethan2millionacreshadbeenpurchased;by1980,purchasesanddonationsbasedontheWeeksActaddedover22millionacrestotheNationalForestSystem.
RESEARCH ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS
AdaptedfromTerryWest’s1990ConferencePaper
GiffordPinchotfounditnecessaryinhisfirstyear(1898)asChiefoftheDivisionofForestrytoestablishaSectionofSpecialInvestigations(Re-search).By1902,itwasanagencydivisiondirectedbyRaphaelZonwith55employeesandaccountingforone-thirdofthe$185,000budget.Zonproposedcreationofforestexperimentstationstodecentralizeresearch.Thefirstareaexperimentstationwasestablishedin1908atFortValleyontheArizonaTerritory’sCoconinoNationalForest.ThesestationswereSpartanoperationsdesignedtoservetheneedsofthelocalforest.Oneexception,however,wastheWagonWheelGapWatershedStudyinColorado,aco-operativeprojectwiththeU.S.WeatherBureautostudytheeffectoftimberremovalonwateryields.
In1909,thesecondpioneer,CarlosBates,chosearemotesiteneartheRioGrandeNationalForestinColoradofortheNation’sfirstcontrolledexperi-mentsonforest-streamflowrelations.LittlewasknownofthehydrologyofmountainwatershedsuntilBates’innovativeresearchonhowwatermovesthroughsoiltosustainstreamsduringrainlessperiods.
Research’simportancetoforestmanagementwasformalizedin1915withthecreationofaBranchofResearchintheForester’s(Washington)Office,withfutureChiefEarleClappincharge.ItwasfeltthatResearchneeded
�0 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
tobebasedoutofacentralofficetoensureprojectplanningonanationalscale.ThismovemadeResearchco-equaltotheadministrativesideoftheagency.ForestServiceResearch’soriginalfunctionwastogatherdendrologi-calandotherdataneededtomanagethenationalforests.Independencefromadministrativedutiesallowedscientiststodedicatemoretimetoresearchprojects,butrequiredtheagencytodevelopastaffofspecialiststotransferResearch’stechnicalinformationintofieldapplications.
RangeresearchbeganintheUSDA’sDepartmentofBotany(1868-1901)andlaterintheDivisionofAgrostology.USDA’sDivisionofForestrybecameinterestedinrangeresearchinthesummerof1897whenFrederickCovillecarriedoutthefirstrangeinvestigationontheimpactofgrazingontheforestreservesoftheOregonCascades.Thisimportantstudy,theCovilleReport(DivisionofForestryBulletinNo.15),waspublishedin1898andresultedinOregon’sforestreservesbeingreopenedforgrazing.
In1907,JamesJardineandArthurSampsonconductedstudiestodeter-minethegrazingcapacityofOregon’sWallowaNationalForest.Thebulkofrangeresearch,however,tookplaceintheIntermountainRegionattheGreatBasinExperimentStationonUtah’sMantiNationalForest.
Bythe1920’s,theForestServicehad12regionalresearchstationswithbranchfield(experimental)stations.CongresspassedtheMcSweeney-Mc-NaryResearchActonMay22,1928,whichlegitimatizedtheexperimentstations,authorizedbroad-scaleforestresearch,andprovidedappropriations.
OneimpetusforforestryresearchintheUnitedStateswasthelimitedap-plicabilityofEuropeanmodelstothemanagementofU.S.forests,especiallyindealingwiththethreatthatfireposed.EuropeanforestssimplydidnotexperiencethefiredangerthatU.S.forestsdid.TheForestServicebeganitsresearchprogramwithChiefGreeleywritingthat“firefightingisamatterofscientificmanagementjustasmuchassilvicultureorrangeimprovement.”CaliforniaDistrictForesterCoertDuBoisdirectedtestsoflightburningandfireplanningand,in1914,publishedhisclassicSystematic Fire Protection in California.
By1921,theForestServicededicatedtheMissoula,Montana,headquar-tersofthePriestRiverForestExperimentStationtofireresearch.ResearchheadEarleClapppersonallyarrangedforHarryGisbornetobeassignedtothestation.FromthenuntilhisdeathduringafireinspectiontripoftheMannGulchfirein1949,Gisborneworkedonfireresearch.Fireresearchduringthe1920’swassubordinatetoadministration—researchfocusedonfirecontrolratherthanfireitself.Underthispragmaticapproach,fireresearcherswereexpectedtoleavetheirfieldplotsandstatisticalcompila-
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��
tionsforthefireline.FireresearchintheSouthernUnitedStatesfocusedonthefireratherthanfirecontrol,since“lightburning”(human-setfires)wasstillanindustrialpractice.Thus,researchonfireandwildlifemanagementandlongleafpinesilviculturewascarriedonintheSouthernRegion.WhentheForestServicecreatedaseparateDivisionofFireResearchin1948,oneobjectivewastohaveanationalfireresearchagendasupervisedbyforester-engineersandforester-economists.
Althoughresearchfundingdeclinedinthe1930’s,thiswasanerawhenfacilitiesexpanded.ProgramssuchastheCivilianConservationCorpsandWorksProgressAdministrationprovidedlaborandmaterialstoconstructresearchfacilities.By1935,therewere48experimentalforestsandranges,andtheirphysicalplantswerebeingfurtherdeveloped.Forestgeneticsresearchreceivedaboostin1935whenJamesG.EddydeededtheEddyTreeBreedingStationtotheGovernment.InspiredbytheworkofLutherBurbank,lumbermanEddyfoundedthestationin1925.ItisnowpartoftheForestService’sPacificSouthwestForestandRangeExperimentStationinCalifornia.
Researchdidnotreallyexpanduntilthepost-WorldWarIIeconomicboomandcoldwargeneratedfundingincreases.Employmentoflargenumbersofprofessionalscientistsallowedprojectsinpureresearch–suchasforestgeneticsandfirespread.Inthelate1950’s,thestructureofForestServiceResearchchangedfromoneofcenterstooneofprojects.Underthenewsystem,aseniorscientistledaprojectandsuperviseditsstaff.
RelativetoForestRecreationResearch,ChiefCliffnotedthattheagencywasonlybeginningtoexplorethisnewfield.Inhiswords,“arapidexpansionoftherelativelynewandunexploredfieldofresearch...willprovideabetterbasisuponwhichtohandletheproblemsofpolicyandmanagementoffor-estrecreation...itislongoverdue.”Atfirst,therecreationresearchprogramoperatedwithintheDivisionofForestEconomics;itwasthenshiftedtotheDivisionofRangeManagementResearch.In1959,HarryW.Campwasap-pointedtobethefirstheadofForestServiceRecreationResearch.Between1963and1983,ForestServicerecreationresearchbecamemoreclearlydefinedandgainedinpopularityandscientificsignificance.
TheForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesResearchActof1978,whichsupplantedMcSweeney-McNaryAct,revisedResearch’scharter.Out-sidegroupsputincreasingpressureonForestServiceResearchtodevelopbaselinestudiestoguidemanagementofnationalforestresources.Researchbecamemorecomplicatedand,attimes,isolatedfromlocalneeds–asitua-tionthatisnowchangingwiththenewemphasisonecosystem-basedmanagementandcollaborativestewardship.
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Recreational Developments
IntheForestService’searlydays,itwasagainstlegislationtocreateaNationalParkService(NPS)tomanagethenationalparks(theactpassedCongressin1916).TocountertherecreationcomponentofthenewNPS,theForestServiceinitiatedanextensiveoutdoorrecreationprogram,includingleasingsummerhomesitesandbuildingcampgroundsonmanynationalforests.ThefirstForestServicecampgroundwasdevelopedin1916atEagleCreekontheOregonsideoftheColumbiaRiverGorgeontheMt.HoodNationalForest.Apparently,thefirstcooperativecampgroundwasconstructedin1918atSquirrelCreekontheSanIsabelNationalForestnearPueblo,Colorado,atthetimeFederalfundingwaslackingandcommunitiessawtheneedforbettercampingandpicnickingfacili-tiesonthenationalforests.
USDAForestService
Campground on the Cibola National Forest (New Mexico), 1924
RECREATION ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS
AdaptedfromE.GailThroop’s1989ConferencePaperandL.C.Mer-riam,Jr.’s,articleinEncyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History(1983),Vol.2:571-576.
AlthoughrecreationwasnotspecificallyincludedintheForestReserveActof1891,itcouldbereasonablyinferredtobeincludedamongthecompat-ibleusesoftheforestreserves.TheOrganicActof1897andimplement-
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �3
ingregulationsallowedmanyactivitiesontheforestreserves(renamedasnationalforestsin1907),includingcampingandhunting.Mostimportantwasthepotentialforthesevisitorstostartfires:“Largeareasofthepublicforestsareannuallydestroyedbyfire,originatinginmanyinstancesthroughthecarelessnessofprospectors,campers,hunters,sheepherders,andoth-ers,whileinsomecasesthefiresarestartedwithmaliciousintent.Sogreatistheimportanceofprotectingforestfromfire,thatthisDepartmentwillmakespecialeffortfortheenforcementofthelawagainstallpersonsguiltyofstartingorcausingthespreadofforestfiresinthereservationsinviola-tionoftheaboveprovisions.”BeforethefirstforestrangersoftheGeneralLandOffice(GLO)tooktothewoodsinthesummerof1898,picnickers,hikers,mountainclimbers,campers,hunters,andanglers—individuallyandasfamiliesandothergroups—wereamongtheregularusersofthefor-estreserves.
ThefirstlegislationtorecognizerecreationintheForestReserveswasenactedFebruary28,1899.TheMineralSpringsLeasingActpermittedthebuildingofsanitariumsandhotelsinconnectionwithdevelopingmineralandotherspringsforhealthandrecreation.Theactstatedthatregulationswillbeissued“fortheconvenienceofpeoplevisitingsuchsprings,withref-erencetospacesandlocations,fortheerectionoftentsortemporarydwell-inghousestobeerectedorconstructedfortheuseofthosevisitingsuchspringsforhealthandpleasure.”TherevisedGLOregulationssetforthinthe1902Forest Reserve Manualstipulatedtotherightofthepublictotravelontheforestreservesforpleasureandrecreation.However,recreationwasconsideredtobesecondarytotheneedforforestmanagement,especiallythroughgrazingopportunitiesandlaterthroughtimberharvesting.
Inthe1905Use Booktherewerestatementsnotingthatthenationalforestsservedmanypurposes,someofwhichwererelatedtoearlyrecreation-ists:“Thefollowingarethemoreusualrightsandprivileges...(a)Trailsandroadstobeusedbysettlerslivinginornearforestreserves.(b)Schoolsandchurches.(c)Hotels,stores,mills,stagestations,apiaries,miners’camps,stables,summerresidences,sanitariums,dairies,trappers’cabins,andthelike....”The1907The Use of the National Forestsbook(publicversionoftheUse Book),includedsuchstatementsas:“Playgrounds.–Quiteincidentally,also,theNationalForestsserveagoodpurposeasgreatplaygroundsforthepeople.Theyareusedmoreorlesseveryyearbycampers,hunters,fish-ermen,andthousandsofpleasureseekersfromthenear-bytowns.TheyaregreatrecreationgroundsforaverylargepartofthepeopleoftheWest,andtheirvalueinthisrespectiswellworthconsidering.”
By1913,theannualForestServicereportraisedtheissueoftheneedforsanitaryregulationtoprotectpublichealth.Thereportalsolisted1.5mil-lion“pleasureseekers,”ofwhomalittleover1millionweredayvisitors,inthe1912-1913fiscalyear.Campers,includingthosewhoengagedinhunt-
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ing,fishing,berryornutpicking,boating,bathing,andclimbingtotaled231,000andguestsathouses,hotels,andsanatoriumscameto191,000.
TheForestServiceundertookdevelopmentofrecreationfacilitiesinthenationalforestsasearlyas1916.ThefirstofficialcampgroundwastheEagleCreekCampgroundalongtheColumbiaRiverHighwayinOregon’sMt.HoodNationalForest.Itwasa“fullymodern”facilitywithtables,toilets,acheck-instation,andarangerstation.Inthesummerof1919,nearly150,000peopleenjoyedtheEagleCreekfacilities.
Atthesametime,theForestServicewasopposedtothecreationofaNa-tionalParkServicetoadministerthenationalparks.Atonetime,theForestServiceproposedthatitcouldmanageallthenationalparks,but,obviously,thiswasnotapprovedbyCongress.WhentheUnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParkServicewasestablishedin1916,itwasgivenadualrole–preservenaturalareasinperpetuityanddeveloptheparksasrecreationsites.
Earlyin1917,theForestServicehiredFrankA.Waugh,professorofLand-scapeArchitectureatMassachusettsAgriculturalCollege,Amherst(nowUniversityofMassachusetts)topreparethefirstnationalstudyofrecreationusesonthenationalforests.Recreation Uses in the National Forests,Waugh’s1918reportonthestatusofrecreationnotedthatsome3millionrecreationvisitorsusedthenationalforestseachyear.Hesummarizedthetypesoffa-cilitiesfoundintheforests—publiclyowneddevelopmentsconsistedalmostentirelyofautomobilecampsandpicnicgrounds,whiletheprivatesectorprovidedfraternalcamps,sanatoria,andcommercialsummerresorts.Inadditiontherewere“severalhundred”smallcoloniesofindividuallyownedsummercabins.Withthefirstcruderecreationusefigures,collectedduringthesummerof1916,hefiguredarecreationreturnof$7,500,000annu-allyonnationalforestlands.Waughdidnotaddresswintersports,asitwasjustbeginningonthenationalforests–asearlyas1914,theSierraClubwasconductingcross-countryskioutingsonCalifornia’sTahoeNationalForest.
Althoughthedevelopmentofrecreationonthenationalforestswasaslowprogressduringtheperiodfrom1919to1932,itwasnotanerawith-outcontroversyandchange.Responsivetotheneedforimprovedpublicservice,theagencygenerallysupportedtheideaofprofessionalplanninganddesign.Tothisendithireda“recreationengineer,”landscapearchitectArthurCarhart,in1919,tobeginrecreationalsiteplanning.Theyear1920markedthecompletionofthefirstforestrecreationplanfortheSanIsabelNationalForestinColorado.CarhartproposedthatsummerhomesandotherdevelopmentsnotbeallowedatTrappersLakeontheWhiteRiverNationalForestinColorado.In1921,hesurveyedtheQuetico-SuperiorlakeregioninMinnesota’sSuperiorNationalForestwhereherecommendedonlylimiteddevelopment.IteventuallybecametheBoundaryWatersCanoeAreaWilderness.
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In1921,whileattendingthefirstNationalConferenceonStateParks,Car-hartdiscussednationalforestrecreationuses.HewaschallengedbyParkServiceDirectorStephenMatherwhostatedthatrecreationwastheworkoftheNationalParkService,nottheForestService.Differencesofopinionoverrecreationhasbeenasourceofcontroversybetweentheagenciesfordecades.TheNationalConferenceonOutdoorRecreationin1924criticizedthetwoagenciesforoverdevelopmentoftheirrecreationprograms.TheconferencewentsofarastoaccusetheNationalParkServiceofswappingtheconceptofpreservingtheNation’snaturalwondersfortheconceptofthecreatinga“people’splayground.”
ArthurH.CarhartandAldoLeopoldbelievedthatwildernesswasarec-reationalexperienceunmatchedbythedrivetodevelopareasforheavyrecreationuse.TheGilaWilderness–theNation’sfirstwilderness—wasestablishedontheNewMexico’sGilaNationalForestin1924.Carhartlaterwrotethat“thereisnohigherservicethattheforestscansupplytoindivid-ualandcommunitythanthehealingofmindandspiritwhichcomesfromthehoursspentwherethereisgreatsolitude.”
Earlyinthedecade,whilegroundwasgainedonthebudgetingfront,professionalexpertiseinplanninganddesignwaslost.ArthurCarhartresignedbecauseofwhatheperceivedasalackofsupportforrecreationintheagency–hewasnotreplacedbyapersontrainedinthelandscapedesigndisciplines.Atthetime,onlythreeregions—Northern,PacificSouthwest,andPacificNorthwest—hadpersonnelassignedtorecreationduties.Otherregionseitherindicatedtoolittlerecreationactivitytomeritspecializedper-sonneloradeterminationtodeveloptheirownforester-recreationists.
Throughoutthedecadeofthe1920’s,theForestServicepursuedacautiousconservativerecreationsitedevelopmentpolicy.Generally,thatpolicyheldthattherecreationroleofthenationalforestswastoprovidespaceforrecre-ation.Publiclyfinancedrecreationfacilitiesremainedlimitedinnumberandusuallysimpleinnature.Yetby1925,thereweresome1,500campgroundsinthenationalforests.ThispolicyoflimiteddevelopmentofnationalforestrecreationsitesfitboththephilosophicaloutlookoftheforestmanagersandthebudgetarygoalsoftheCoolidgeandHooverAdministrationsandofCongress.
A National Plan For American Forestry(theCopelandReport)waspreparedbytheForestServicein1933.Thesectiononrecreationwaswrittenbycol-laboratorRobertMarshall.InMay1937,BobMarshallfilledthenewposi-tionofChiefoftheDivisionofRecreationandLands.Hehadastrongandlong-lastinginfluenceonrecreationpolicyanddevelopment,especiallythatofwilderness.UsingmainlyCivilianConservationCorpslabor,theForestServicebuiltrecreationstructuresfromcoasttocoast.UnderMarshall’sguidance,atremendousvarietyoffacilitieswerebuilt,manyofthemelaborate,thatwereunprecedentedintheForestService.Facilitiessuchasbathhouses,shelters,amphitheaters,downhillskiareas,andplay-
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groundswerepartoflargerecreationcomplexes.RecreationwasestablishedasanationaladministrativepriorityoftheForestService.
FollowingWorldWarII,Americansaggressivelysoughtanimprovedqual-ityoflifethatincludedactiveparticipationinallformsofoutdoorrecre-ation.Thesocioeconomicinfluencesofthepost-warbabyboom,increasedaffluence,increasedleisuretime,andimprovedtransportationsystemsandpopulationmobilityledtounprecedentedgrowthindemandforoutdoorrecreation.Visitorstothenationalforestswereseekinghuntingandfishingopportunities,developedcampgrounds,downhillskiareas,picnicareas,wildernessexperiences,wateraccess,andhikingtrails.Thesupplyofrecre-ationsiteswassoonoverwhelmedbythisdemand.
In1958,CongresscreatedtheOutdoorRecreationResourcesReviewCom-missiontoreviewtheoveralloutdoorrecreationopportunitiesintheUnitedStates.Whenthefinalreportwasprintedin1961,thecommissionmadeanumberofrecommendationsthathaveaffectedforestrecreation.Thecom-missionrecommendedpassageoftheWildernessAct—whichwassignedintolawin1964–andthecreationofaBureauofOutdoorRecreationintheDepartmentoftheInterior.InteriorSecretaryStewartUdallappointedEdwardCrafts,formerForestServiceAssistantChief,astheagency’sfirstdirector.
Atthestartofthe1960’s,therewasanothersurgeinthenationalinterestinthe“greatoutdoors.”Thisusheredintheeraofgrowingnationalrecreationinterestsandthedesireforpreservationoflandsandhistory.ThiswasalsoanerawhenAmericalookedtotheFederalGovernmenttosolvetheNa-tion’sproblemsandprovideforsocialneedsofthecitizens.TheWildernessActof1964createdtheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.NationalRecreationandScenicAreas,WildandScenicRivers,andNationalScenicTrailslegislationfollowedthroughoutthenexttwodecades.
In1985,PresidentReaganestablishedthePresident’sCommissiononAmerica’sOutdoorstoreviewexistingoutdoorrecreationresourcesandtomakerecommendationsthatwouldensurethefutureavailabilityofoutdoorrecreationfortheAmericanpeople.ThethrustofthiscommissionwasawayfromFederalcentralismandstronglytowardpublic-privatepartnerships.TheForestServiceresponsetosocioeconomicchangesofthisperiodtooktheformofanexcitingandimaginativenationalinitiative,theNationalRec-reationStrategy.Thepreferredtooltomeetthisstrategywasthedevelop-mentofpartnershipsbetweenotherpublicandprivateprovidersofoutdoorrecreation.Thisstrategyisoperationalandsignificantprogresstowardtheobjectiveshasbeenmade.
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Railroad Land Grants
WhentheSouthernPacificRailroadCompanyfailedtoliveuptothetermsofits19thcenturylandgranttotheOregonandCalifornia(O&C)Railroad(purchasedbySouthernPacific),theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthattheremainingunsoldgrantlandmustbereturned(revested)totheFederalGovernment.Extensivecongressionalhearingsin1916resultedinthereturnof2.4millionacresoftheheavilyforestedO&Clands,whichtodayaremanagedbytheBureauofLandManagement(BLM)andtheForestService.TheNorthernPacificRailroadlandgrant,acrossthenortherntierofStatesfromMinnesotatoWashington,alsocameunderscrutinybyCongress,butownershipremainedwiththerailroad.Interest-ingly,whenMountSt.Helensexplodedin1980,thetopofthemountainwasownedbytherailroad–partoftheoldlandgrant–andwastradedwithForestServicelandtoestablishtheMountSt.HelensNationalVolcanicMonumentin1982.
ThePisgahNationalForest,thefirstnationalforestthatwasfromalmostentirelypurchasedprivateland,wasestablishedonOctober17,1916.ThecoreportionofthenewforestcamefromtheprivatelyownedBiltmoreForest(oncemanagedbyGiffordPinchot).LandpurchasesforthePisgahbeganin1911,soonafterthepassageoftheWeeksAct.
World War I and Aftermath
TwoU.S.ArmyEngineerRegiments(10thand20thForestry)formedin1917and1918tofightinEuropeduringWorldWarI.ManyForestServiceemployeesjoinedtheseregimentsandafterarrivinginFrancewereassignedtobuildsaw-millstoprovidetimbersforrailroadsandtolinetrenches.Oneoftheirleaders,Lt.ColonelWilliamB.Greeley,laterbecamethethirdChiefoftheForestService.AnotheruniqueorganizationformedduringthewarwastheU.S.ArmySpruceProductionDivision.Some30,000ArmytrooperswereassignedtoWashingtonandOregontobuildloggingrailroadsandcutsprucetreesforairplanesandDouglas-firforships.AlthoughtheSpruceDivisionlastedonly1year(1918-19),itaffectedprivateandpublicloggingoperationsandunionsforthenexttwodecades.RemnantsofthesprucerailroadscanstillbefoundontheSiuslawNationalForestinOregonandtheOlympicNationalParkinWashingtonState,whichwasthenpartoftheOlympicNationalForest.
WhilethemenwereofffightingthewarinEurope,womenwereemployedout-doorsasfirelookoutsonmanynationalforests.Womenhadworkedinclericalpositionsformanyyears,butworkingoutdoorswasunusual.
In1919,soonafterthewar,cooperativeagreementsbetweentheForestServiceandtheArmyAirCorpsledtoexperimentsusingairplanestopatrolforforestfiresinCalifornia;thisusewasquicklyexpandedtothemountainousareasofOregon,Washington,Idaho,andMontana.
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Before,andforawhileafterWorldWarI,therewerenoradios—communica-tionsbetweenthelookoutsandtherangerstationwerelimitedtomessagesonfoot,horseback,andcarrierpigeon.Soon,however,anextensive(andexpensive)systemoffieldtelephones,connectedbymilesandmilesoftelephonewires,wasusedtocommunicatebetweenthelookoutsatopthemountainpeaksandtherangerstationsinthevalleysbelow.
U.S. Army’s Spruce Production Division Riving (Split-ting) Tree, Washington, 1918
USDAForestService
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Helen Dowe, One of the First Female Lookouts, on the Pike National Forest (Colorado)
USDAForestService
ThesephonesystemsalongmajorforesttrailsneededcontinualmaintenanceandrepairastreesoftenfellontheNo.9wire,breakingtheconnections.Manynewforestfirelookouthousesandtowersusingstandardizedconstructionplanswerebuiltduringthe1920’s.Two-wayradioswereinventedduringWorldWarI,andthereweremanyexperimentsafterthewarusingthenewtwo-wayradiosinfiredetection.Theseradioseventuallymadecommunicationmucheasierandlesscostly.
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Ranger Using a Heliograph in California, 1912
USDAForestService
Forest Service Air Patrol Airplane at the Eugene, Oregon, Airfieldw i t h L t . D e -Garme (Pilot) and Me-
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 5�
HALLIE M. DAGGETT—WOMAN LOOKOUT
AlthoughwomenhavebeenForestServiceemployeessince1905,formanydecadesveryfewwerehiredforfieldwork.Yetasearlyas1902,duringtheGeneralLandOfficedays,wives(whowerenotemployees)sometimesac-companiedtheirforestrangerhusbandsintothewildforests.OneofthefirstaccountsofwomenemployedasforestfirelookoutcomesfromCaliforniaontheKlamathNationalForest.ThelookoutwasHallieM.DaggettwhoworkedatEddy’sGulchLookoutStationatopKlamathPeakinthesummerof1913(andforthenext14years).A1914articleintheAmerican Forestrymagazinedescribedherwork:
Fewwomenwouldcareforsuchajob,fewerstillwouldseekit,andstilllesswouldbeabletostandthestrainoftheinfiniteloneliness,ortheroaroftheviolentstormswhichsweepthepeak,orthemenaceofthewildbeastswhichroamtheheavilywoodedridges.MissDaggett,however,notonlyeagerlylongedforthestationbutsecuredit[thelookoutjob]aftercon-siderableexertionandnowshedeclaresthatsheenjoyedthelifeandwasintenselyinterestedintheworkshehadtodo....
Someofthe[Forest]Servicemenpredictedthatafterafewdaysoflifeonthepeakshewouldtelephonethatshewasfrightenedbythelonelinessandthedanger,butshewasfullofpluckandhighspirit...[and]shegrewmoreandmoreinlovewiththework.Evenwhenthetelephonewireswerebrokenandwhenforalongtimeshewascutofffromcommunicationwiththeworldbelowshedidnotloseheart.Shenotonlyfilledtheplacewithall
USDAForestService
Mr. Adams Demonstrating the First Wireless Radio Used in the National Forests at the Montana State Fair, Helena, Montana, 1915
5� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
theskillwhichatrainedmancouldhaveshownbutshedesirestobereap-pointedwhenthefireseasonopensthisyear[1914]....
[Indescribingherlifeasalookout,Halliesaidthat]“Igrewupwithafiercehatredofthedevastatingfiresandwelcomedthe[ForestService]forcewhicharrivedtocombatthem.Butnotuntilthelookoutstationswereinstalleddidtherecomeanopportunitytojoinwhathaduptillthenbeenaman’sfight;althoughmysisterandIhadfrequentlybeenabletohelponthesmallthings,suchasextinguishingspreadingcampfiresorcarryingsuppliestothefiringline.
“Then,thankstotheliberalmindednessandcourtesyoftheofficialsinchargeofourdistrict,Iwasgiventhepositionoflookout...withafirmdeterminationtomakegood,forIknewthattheappointmentofawomanwasratherinthenatureofanexperiment,andnaturallyfeltthattherewasagreatdealduethemenwhohadbeenwillingtogivemethechance.
“Itwasquiteaswiftchangeinthreedays,fromSanFrancisco,civilizationandsealevel,toasolitarycabinonastillmoresolitarymountain,6,444feetelevationandthreehours’hardclimbfromeverywhere,butinspiteofthefactthatalmosttheveryfirstquestionaskedbyeveryonewas‘Isn’titawfullylonesomeupthere?’Ineverfeltamoment’slongingtoretracethestep,thatis,notafterthefirsthalfhourfollowingmysister’sdeparturewiththepackanimals,whenIhadachancetolookaround....Ididnotneedahorsemyself,therebeing,contrarytothegeneralimpression,nopatrolworkinconnectionwithlookoutduties,andmysisterbringingupmysup-pliesandmailfromhomeeveryweek,adistanceofninemiles.”
William B. Greeley— Third Chief, 1920-1928
WilliamBuckhoutGreeleywasbornisOswego,NewYork,onSeptember6,1879.AfterGree-leywasappointedChiefin1920,hefacedanumberofchallenges,includingtheacquisitionofnewnationalforestseastoftheMississippiRiver;makingcooperationwithprivate,State,andotherFederalagenciesastandardfeatureofForestServicemanagement;fightingtheGovernment’srenewedeffortstoreturntheFor-estServicetotheDepartmentoftheInterior;and“blockingup”thenationalforest(exchang-ingorpurchasinglandsinsideorneartheforestboundariestosimplifymanagement).
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 53
Duringhisadministration,theClarke-McNaryActof1924,whichextendedFederalauthoritytopurchaseforestlandsandtoenterintoagreementswiththevariousStatestohelpprotectStateandprivateforestsfromwildfire,becamelaw.Thistime,the“RoaringTwenties,”waswhenprosperitybroughtabouttremendousgrowthinrecreationonthenationalforestsandledtotheneedtodevelopandimproveroadsforautomobileuse,camp-groundsforforestvisitors,andsummerhomesitesforsemipermanentusers.
Duringthisera,theForestServicealsobeganseveralimportantprogramstobettermanagethenationalforests,includinganextensivesystemofbasicandappliedresearch,timbermanagement,recreation,andhighwaystoprovidebetteraccesstoandacrossthenationalforests.
WilliamB.Greeleywrote:
Thenationalforestsarenolongerprimevalsolitudesremotefromtheeconomiclifeofdevelopingregions,orbarelytouchedbytheskirmishlineofsettlement.Toaverylargedegree,thewildernesshasbeenpressedback.Farmshavemultiplied,roadshavebeenbuilt,frontierhamletshavegrownintovillagesandtowns,industrieshavefoundfootholdandexpanded.Althoughtheforestsarestillinanearlystageofeconomicdevelopment,theirresourcesareimportantfactorsinpresentprosperity.
ThereisprobablynolargeareaofforestlandintheworldonwhichtheuseandconservationofmultipleresourceshavebeensothoroughlystudiedorsocompletelydevelopedinpracticeasonthenationalforestsoftheUnitedStates….Nothingbet-terillustratesthedemocracyoftheAmericanforestpolicyorthedecentralizationinadministeringnationalforeststhanthecon-scientiouseffortoftheForestServicetoweightheimportanceofdifferentusesoneachunitandtogiveeveryuseitsmeritedplaceinabewilderingregimenofadministrativedetail.
Timber Sales
Theeconomicboomofthe“RoaringTwenties”vastlyincreasedtheneedforwoodproducts.Manyextensivenationalforesttimbersaleswereauthorized,includinga1921saleof335millioncubicfeetofpulpwoodonAlaska’sTongassNationalForest.Withinafewyears,scoresofhugetimbersaleswerebeingmade,includ-inga1922saleontheCalifornia’sLassenNationalForestthattopped1billionboardfeet.Previously,mosttimbersaleshadbeenforrathersmallvolumes—manyofthemrelatedtotimberbeamsforminingandtiesforrailroads.Aconsid-erablenumberofthenewsaleswerelargerailroadloggingoperationsthatweregearedforlengthyharvestingperiodsofseveraldecadesorlonger.ThenationalforestsbegantoplayanincreasingroleinprovidingtimberfortheUnitedStates.
5� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
TIMBER HARVESTING FROM THE NATIONAL FORESTS
AlthoughtheForestReserveActof1891establishedPresidentialauthoritytocreateforestreserves,therewasnoprovisionfortheirmanagement.Oneoftheunderlyingpremisesoftheactwasthattheprivatetimberlandswerebeingcutatratesthatcouldnotbesustained,especiallysincereforestationwasmostlyadream.TheOrganicAdministrationActof1897waswritten,inpart,to“furnishacontinuoussupplyoftimberfortheuseandnecessitiesofcitizensoftheUnitedStates....”However,thecongressionaldebateandthe1897Act’simplementingregulationsmadeitclearthattimbercuttingwasalwaysconsideredtobepermitted, not a requiredpartofforestman-agement.TheOrganicActalsoallowedtheGeneralLandOffice(GLO)tomanagetheforestreserves.ThefirsttimbersalebytheGLO(CaseNo.1)wastotheHomestakeMiningCompanyfortimberofftheBlackHillsFor-estReservein1898.Fifteenmillionboardfeetwerepurchasedatadollarperthousandboardfeet.Thecontractrequiredthatnotreessmallerthaneightinchesindiameterberemovedandthataftertheharvestthebrushleftbehindhadtobe“piled.”Thusbegantheefforttoremovebillionsofboardfeetoftimberfromthenationalforests.
WhenthemanagementoftheforestreserveswasmovedfromtheDepart-mentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgriculturein1905,ChiefGiffordPinchotwasconcernedthatthereserves(renamednationalforestsin1907)shouldpayforthemselves,thatis,notbeadrainontheU.S.Treasury.Themostdirectwayofshowingaprofitwasbychargingforgrazingandsell-ingtimber.By1907,timbersoldfromthenationalforestsamountedtojust950millionboardfeet,whichwasonly2percentoftheNation’s44billionboardfeetcutthatyear.Pinchotfinallygaveupbystating“thenationalforestsexistnotforthesakeofrevenuetotheGovernment,butforthesakeofthewelfareofthepublic.”
Fromthelate1910’sandthroughthe1930’s,therewasanemphasisbytheForestServiceandoutsidegroupsto“sell”theideaofacoming“timberfamine.”BasedonovercuttingintheGreatLakeStatesandelsewherecamethewidelyespousednotionthattheNationwasrunningoutoftrees,whichwouldleadtorisingcostofhousing,miningshutdownsbecauseoflackofminingtimbers,railroadswithoutwoodenties,andwaterdiminishedforcrops.A1920ForestService(“Capper”)reporttoCongressalsowarnedofforestdepletionasamajornationalproblem.Ironically,forestnetannualwoodgrowthactuallyreboundednationallyin1920,withtotalforestedareaaboutconstantfromthatdate,afteritsseveredeclineinthe19thcen-turyandfirsttwodecadesofthe20th.Only3yearslatertheSenatepassedaresolution(SR398onMarch7,1923)toprovideforaninvestigation“re-latingtoproblemsofreforestation,withaviewtoestablishingacomprehen-sivenationalpolicyforlandschieflysuitedtotimberproduction,inordertoinsureaperpetualsupplyoftimberfortheuseandnecessitiesofcitizenoftheUnitedStates.”
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Throughthe1920’stherewerefewtimbersales,thosethatweremadewereusuallyquitelarge,sellingentiredrainagesatonetime.Otherthansmalloperations,thetimbersalesweredesignedforrailroadloggingoperationsthatwouldharvestthedrainagesoverdecades.Thetimbersalesprogramcollapsedinthe1930’swiththeadventoftheGreatDepression.
Apamphletentitled“DeforestedAmerica”(1928)byMajorGeorgeP.Ahernwarnedoftherisksofdependingonprivateforestsandtheforestindustryforfuturesuppliesoftimber.Instead,Ahernargued,governmentcontrolwasrequiredtoensurethatsustained-yieldforestrywouldbepracticedoncommercialforestlands.TheargumentforFederalregulationofprivateforestrywascodifiedinArticleXoftheLumberCodeeffectiveonJune1,1934.AlthoughthecodewasruledunconstitutionalbytheSupremeCourtlessthanayearlater,thetimberindustrywasgenerallysupportiveofeffortsatself-regulationtoendwidespreadforestdevastationandtodevelopcoop-erationbetweenindustrymembersandaclosercooperationwiththeForestService.
DuetothedefenseneedsduringWorldWarII,timbersalesincreasedintheearly1940’s.TheForestServicebegantothinkabouttheneedsafterthewar,whichsawpassageoftheSustainedYieldManagementActof1944.ThisactallowedtheagencytosignagreementswiththetimberindustryandcommunitiestoestablisheithercooperativesustainedyieldunitsorFederalunits.Onlyonecooperativeunitwaseverestablished(SheltonontheWashington’sOlympicNationalForest).FiveFederalunitswereestab-lishedinWashington,Oregon,California,Arizona,andNewMexico.
Withthereturnoftheveteransafterthewar,ababyboomtookplace(60millionbirthsfrom1946to1964)duringaperiodofeconomicgrowth.Thiswasfueledbylowinterestratesandmassivehousingstarts.OtherFederalagenciesansweredthiscallforgoodsaswell.Therapiddepletionofoldgrowthtimberonprivatelandsinthe1950’sfurtherreinforcedtheneedforincreasedharvestsonFederallands.Duringthe1950’s,timberharvestsonnationalforestsalmosttripledgoingfromabout3billionboardfeetin1950toalmost9billionattheendofthedecade.TheimpactwasfeltmostinPacificNorthwestRegion,themajorproducerofsoftwoodtimberintheNationalForestSystem.
TheMultipleUseActof1960setnewprioritiesfortheagency,essentiallygivingequalfootingtothefivemajorresourcesonthenationalforests:timber,wildlife,range,water,andoutdoorrecreation.Bythelate1960’s,theForestServicefeltincreasingoppositionbecauseofmajorcontroversiesontheBitterrootNationalForestinMontana—involvingclearcuttingandter-racing—andMonongahelaNationalForestinWestVirginia—alsoinvolvingclearcutting.Alawsuit(IzaakWaltonv.Butz)wasfiledontheMonongahelacontroversybytheIzaakWaltonLeague.Acourtrulingin1973onthecasewasagainsttheForestServicepracticeoftimberharvestingundertherulesoftheOrganicActof1897.Congressionalactionwasnecessaryto“fix”the
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law.CongresspassedsweepinglegislationcalledtheNationalForestMan-agementActof1976thatpusheddeepintotheagency’straditionalautono-mywithmanynewrequirementsandsubstantiverestrictions,almostallofwhichrevolvedaroundtimberharvesting.
Bytheearly1980’s,thefindingsofdecadesofimportantscientificforestre-searchprovidedmuchneededcluestothelong-termhealthandproductiv-ityoftheconiferousforestsoftheNorthwest.BecauseofextensiveresearchcarriedoutontheH.J.AndrewsExperimentalForest(partoftheWillametteNationalForest),JerryFranklinandChrisMaserwereabletomakesomepreliminaryconclusionsthatindicatedtherewasmoretotheforestthanthetrees.TheybrieflyledtheForestServiceinto“newforestry”and“newper-spectives”inthesearchforalternativewaystomanagetheFederalforests.
Inthesummerof1992,theForestServiceembracedanewconceptcalledecosystemmanagement.Ecosystemmanagementwasnotareinterpreta-tionofcurrentfieldpracticestofitanewnationalagenda,asmultipleusegenerallywas.Rather,itisanewgoalforthenationalforeststhatwasmorephilosophicalandaddressedthelargersocietalquestionsandvaluessur-roundingthemanagementofthenationalforests.
Recreation and Wilderness
Intheearly1920’s,therewasanincreasingneedforimprovedrecreationalfacili-tiesonthenationalforests.Agoodpartofthisneedwascausedbytheincreas-inguseoftheforestroadsandtrailsbyrecreationists’automobiles.Asmorecarsbecamecheaper,reliable,andavailable,morepeoplewerewillingtospendsomeoftheirfreetimeinthemountains,atlakes,andalongstreams—aslongastheseareaswereeasilyaccessible.Existingroadsandhighwayshadtobeimproved.Inthissameera,theForestServicebegantousetrucksandautomobiles—asignifi-cantchangefromthedaysofthehorse,packhorse,andmule.
USDAForestService
Campers at Peralta Canyon near the Superstition Mountains, Tonto National Forest (Ari-zona), 1938
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 57
Numerousspecial-userecreationresorts,whichprovidedfordevelopedrecre-ationfacilitiesinpopularareas,beganoperationonthenationalforests.Long-termsummerhomeleaseswereallowedtogivepeoplegreateruseofthenationalforests.Hundredsofnewcampgroundswereopenedasmanythousandsofpeoplenowownedorhadaccesstoautomobiles.
Summer Home Along Big Lake on San Ber-nardino Na-tional Forest (California), 1946
USDAForestService
OneoftheForestService’sfirstwildernessadvocateswasArthurH.Carhart,alandscapearchitect.Inthelate1910’sandearly1920’s,hisinnovativeideas,whichinvolvedleavingsomeforestareasintact(nodevelopment)forrecreationaluse,receivedlimitedsupport.HeproposedthatanareaaroundTrapper’sLakeonColorado’sWhiteRiverNationalForestremainroadlessandthatsummerhomeapplicationsforthatareabedenied.HedevelopedafunctionalplanfortheTrapper’sLakeareatopreservethepristineconditionsaroundthelakeandconvincedhissuperiorstohaltplanstodevelopthearea.Later,herecommendedthatthelakeregionoftheSuperiorNationalForestinnorthernMinnesotabeleftinprimitiveconditionandthattravelberestrictedtocanoe.Thisplanwasapprovedin1926andtheBoundaryWatersCanoeAreawasdedicatedin1964.Carhart,however,frustratedbywhathefeltwasalackofsupportfromtheForestService,resignedinDecember1922.
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Arthur Carhart in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, Su-perior National Forest (Minnesota)
USDAForestService
USDAForestService
Forest Service Ranger Boat, Tongass Na-tional Forest (Alaska)
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AldoLeopold,authoroftheSand County Almanac,however,tookupwhereCarhartleftoff.In1922,LeopoldmadeaninspectiontripintotheheadwatersoftheGilaRiveronNewMexico’sGilaNationalForest.Hewroteawildernessplanforthearea,butfacedoppositionfromhisowncolleagueswhothoughtthatdevelopmentshouldtakeprecedenceoverpreservation.HisplanwasapprovedinJune1924andthe500,000-acreareabecamethefirstForestServicewilder-ness—theGilaWilderness.LeopoldtransferredtotheForestProductsLabora-tory,thesameyear,andthenresignedfromtheForestServicein1928.FiveyearslaterhebeganteachingattheUniversityofWisconsin,wherehehadaprofoundinfluenceonstudentsandthepublic.
In1929,theForestServicepublishedtheL-20Regulationsconcerningprimitiveareasthatwerebasicallyundevelopedareas,manyofwhichwouldlaterbecomewildernesses.RegionalOfficeswererequiredtonominatepossible“primitiveareas”thatwouldbemaintainedinaprimitivestatuswithoutdevelopmentactivities—especiallyroads.Within4years,63areas,comprising8.7millionacreswereapproved.By1939,thetotalacreageinprimitiveclassificationhadincreasedto14millionacres.
Manynewforestfirelookouts(housesandtowers)werebuiltintheearly1920’s,whiletwo-wayradioswerebecomingmorepracticalandusedextensivelytocommunicateduringforestfires.TheClarke-McNaryActof1924,anextensionoftheWeeksAct,greatlyexpandedFederal-StatecooperationinfirecontrolonStateandprivatelands.ManyStatesformedfireprotectionassociations.
Forestryresearchcameinto“fullswing”withtheestablishmentoftwonewex-perimentstationsin1922.Today,therearesevenexperimentalstationsscatteredacrossthecountry,with72researchworkunitlocations.
Thenaturalresourcecontroversyoftheearly1920’swasoverahugeincreaseinthenumberofmuledeerontheGrandCanyonFederalGamePreserve(es-tablishedin1906)onArizona’sKaibabNationalForest.In1906,thedeerherdnumberedonlyabout3,000,butafteralmost20yearswithoutbeinghuntedand
USDAForestService
Gila Wilder-ness Sign, Gila National Forest (New Mexico), 1960
withpredatorcontrol,theherdexplodedtomorethan100,000ani-mals.TheForestServicesoughttoreducethenumberofdeerontherefugetopreventmanyfromstarving.In1924,thecasewenttotheU.S.SupremeCourt–thatrulingallowedtheForestServicetohuntexcessdeertoprotectwildlifehabitat.
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ARTHUR H. CARHART AND THE BOUNDARY WATERS CANOE WILDERNESS
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
ArthurH.Carhartwasanationalleaderoftheearly20thcenturyconserva-tionmovement,especiallyinadvocatingwildernessareas.HewasborninMapleton,Iowa,in1892,andreceivedhisbachelor’sdegreeinlandscapearchitectureandcityplanningfromIowaStateCollegein1916.HeservedintheU.S.ArmyMedicalCorpsduringWorldWarI,thenjoinedtheForestServiceasitsfirstlandscapearchitectin1919.
ArthurCarhartviewedwildernessasarecreationalexperienceandproposedthatsummerhomesandotherdevelopmentsnotbeallowedatTrappersLakeontheWhiteRiverNationalForestinColorado.AftersurveyingtheSuperiorNationalForestintheQuetico-Superiorlakeregionin1921,herecommendedonlylimiteddevelopmentandbecameastrongadvocateforwildernessrecreationforthatroadlessarea.Carhartlaterwrotethat“thereisnohigherservicethattheforestscansupplytoindividualandcom-munitythanthehealingofmindandspiritwhichcomesfromthehoursspentwherethereisgreatsolitude.Itissignificantthatpeoplewhohaveexperiencedthefullnessofwildernessliving,specificallymenoftheforests[ForestService],haveinitiatedandlaboredforkeepingsomepartsofthemaswildlandsanctuaries.”
USDAForestService
Sleeping Beauty Lookout, Columbia National Forest (Washing-ton), 1937
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CarhartresignedfromtheForestServicein1922topracticelandscapearchitectureandcityplanningintheprivatesector.HisdreamtoprotectwildernessrecreationareasfromdevelopmenttooktheForestService4moreyearstoaccomplish.WithAldoLeopold’ssuccessfulefforttohaveanadministrativewildernessestablishedin1924ontheGilaNationalForest,timewasripeforadditionalwildernessdesignationsonthenationalforests.
SecretaryofAgricultureWilliamH.JardinesignedaplantoprotecttheBoundaryWatersareain1926,anditwasdedicatedastheBoundaryWatersCanoeAreain1964withitfinallybecomingawildernessin1978.ChiefWilliamGreeleywaswillingtoendorsetheconceptofwildernessareasand,in1926,orderedaninventoryofallundevelopednationalforestareaslargerthan230,400acres(10townships).Threeyearslater,wilder-nesspolicyassumednationalscopewiththepromulgationoftheL-20regu-lations.Commercialuseoftheareas(grazing,evenlogging)couldcontinue,butcampsites,meadowsforpackstockforage,andspecialscenic“spots”wouldbeprotected.Itwouldtakemanyyearsuntilanationalwildernesspolicy,setbyCongress,wouldbeenactedastheWildernessActof1964.
In1938,CarhartwasappointeddirectoroftheColoradoprogramforFederalAidinWildlifeRestoration.Hewrotenumerousarticles,manyfortheAmerican Forests,thepublicationoftheAmericanForestryAssociation.Healsowroteanumberofbooksonconservationmattersincluding:The Outdoorsman’s Cookbook(1944),Fresh Water Fishing(1950),Water—or Your Life (1951),Timber in Your Life(1955),Trees and Game—Twin Crops(1958),andThe National Forests(1959).
ALDO LEOPOLD AND “THE LAND ETHIC”
RandAldoLeopoldwasbornonJanuary11,1887,inBurlington,Iowa.Aldo–heneverusedhisfirstname–wastheoldestoffourchildren.Helovedtohunt,fish,andexplorethebluffs,forests,marshes,lakes,andfieldsalongthenearbyMississippiRiver.Hisfather,CarlLeopold,taughtAldodiffer-entwaystoseenaturefirsthand.Aldo’sloveoftheout-of-doorsdidnotsitwellwithhisgradesduringthesecondpartofhishighschoolyearsthathespentattheLawrencevillePreparatorySchoolnearPrinceton,NewJersey.Writingtohismother,Clara,in1904,Aldomentionedthat“IhaveflunkedGeometry....”However,hedidfinishprepschoolandwentontoattendSheffieldScientificSchoolatYaleinNewHaven,Connecticut,thefollowingyear.In1906,LeopoldbeganhisforestrycourseworkattheYaleSchoolofForestry,whichhadbeenfoundedbyagrantfromJamesPinchot.LeopoldreceivedhisB.S.degreein1908fromtheSheffieldSchoolandthengradu-atedin1909withamastersofforestry.
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SoonaftergraduationhejoinedtheForestServiceandwasassignedasaforestassistanttothenewSouthwesternDistrict(nowregion).Amonthlater,hewasinchargeofatimberreconnaissancecrewontheApacheNa-tionalForestintheArizonaTerritorywhenhesaw“afiercegreenfire”intheeyesofadyingoldwolf.Heneverforgotthathauntinglookanditaffectedhisthoughtsfortherestofhislife.By1911,Leopoldhadbeenpromotedtodeputyforestsupervisorand,ayearlater,hewaspromotedtoSupervisoroftheCarsonNationalForestintheNewMexicoTerritory.In1912,Aldomar-riedEstellaBergerefromSantaFe,NewMexico(theywouldhavefivechil-drentogether–Starker,Luna,Nina,Carl,andEstella).In1913,healmostdiedofanattackofacutenephritis.Itwasduringhisalmost17-monthrecoverythathewroteaboutsettingasideremoteareasforspecialprotec-tionbasedonwildernessaspartofthenationalheritageandtheimportanceofstudyingnatureinapristinesetting.
In1914,LeopoldwasassignedtotheOfficeofGrazingintheForestServiceSouthwesternDistrictOffice(D-3)inAlbuquerque,NewMexico.Whileworkingonrecreation,fishandgame,andpublicityforthedistrict(ArizonaandNewMexico)lessthanayearlater,hewroteareportrecommendingthatgamerefugesbeestablishedinthedistrictand,then,aGameandFishHandbook–thefirstsuchdirectionintheForestService.Leopold’sgrow-ingconcernaboutstudyingnatureinnatural,undisturbedsettingsarosethroughhisexposuretothenewscienceofecology.(Ecologyasanareaofacademicstudywasformedin1915whentheEcologicalSocietyofAmericawasfounded.)Hebeganhislife’sworkonwildlifemanagementissues,includinggamerefuges,lawenforcement,andpredatorcontrol,aswellasfoundinganumberofbiggameprotectiveassociationsinNewMexicoandArizona.Becauseoftheseinterests,hewontheW.T.Hornaday’sPermanentWildlifeProtectionFund’sGoldMedalin1917.
In1918,LeopoldtookaleaveofabsencefromtheForestServiceandservedastheSecretaryoftheAlbuquerqueChamberofCommerce.HereturnedtotheForestServicethenextyearasAssistantDistrictForesterforOperationsintheSouthwesternRegion.Whileinthisrole,Leopolddevelopednewandefficientproceduresforhandlingpersonnelmatters,fire-controlmethods,andforestinspectionproceduresoversome20millionacresofnationalfor-estland.Hemadeanumberofimportantcontributionstothesoilerosionproblemsinsouthwesternwatersheds.
ConcernedwiththerapidpaceofroadexpansionafterWorldWarI,Leop-oldrecommendedthatroadsandusepermitsbeexcludedontheGilaRiverheadwatersontheGilaNationalForestin1922.Intheearly1920’s,hewasresponsibleforlayingthegroundworkfortheGilaWilderness.Establishedin1924asa500,000-acrewildernessarea,theGilaWildernesswasthefirstadministrativewildernessintheNationalForestSystem.Althoughhisplanwasapproved,itwasonlyalocalpolicy,notnational.LeopoldlefttheSouthwestin1924toserveastheassistant,thenAssociateDirectoroftheForestProductsLaboratoryinMadison,Wisconsin.
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LeopoldwasunhappyattheLaboratoryandresignedfromtheForestSer-vicein1928totaketheleadinestablishinganewprofession–gameman-agement–whichhemodeledontheprofessionofforestry.HisgamesurveyofnineMidwesternStateswasfundedbytheSportingArmsandAmmuni-tionManufacturers’Institute.Thesesurveysweresummarizedinhis1931Report on a Game Survey of the North Central States.Leopold’sbookGame Management,publishedin1933,wasbasedinpartonhisgamesurveyworkandhelpeddefineanewfieldofmanagingandrestoringwildlifepopula-tions.Soonafterthepublicationofhisbook,Leopoldacceptedanappoint-menttoanewchairintheDepartmentofAgriculturalEconomicsattheUniversityofWisconsin.AlthoughLeopoldspentthenextseveraldecadeswithwildlifemanagementissues,hisinterestsexpandedtothefieldofecol-ogy,whereheismostreveredtoday.
InJanuary1935,AldoLeopold,BobMarshall,BentonMackaye,HarveyBroome,BarnardFrank,HaroldAnderson,ErnestOberholtzer,andSterlingYardfoundedtheWildernessSociety.LeopoldspentthefallofthatyearinGermanyonaCarlSchurzfellowshipstudyingforestryandwildlifeman-agement.Duringthatsameyearhepurchasedasmall,worn-outfarmalongtheWisconsinRiver—northofBaraboo,Wisconsin,inanareaknownasthe“sandcounties.”Thiswaswherethefamily(wifeEstellaandtheirfivechildren)rebuilttheonlystandingstructureontheproperty–thechickencoop–intoasmallcabin.Thiscabinbecamefamousas“TheShack.”Tryingtorestorethehealthoftheland,heplantedthousandsoftreesontheprop-erty,slowlychangingabandonedfieldstoagrowingforestandrestoringalowareaintoawetlandwherewaterfowlcameflockingintofeedandrest.DaughterNinawrote“ashetransformedtheland,ittransformedhim.Byhisownactionsandtransformation,AldoLeopoldinstilledinhischildren[andstudents]aloveandrespectforthelandcommunityanditsecologicalfunctioning.”Heusedthefarmtoobserveandwriteaboutnature.Graduatestudentswerebroughtto“TheShack”manytimestoobserveanddiscussecologicalmatters.In1936,Leopoldhelpedfoundasocietyofwildlifespe-cialists(itbecametheWildlifeSocietyin1937).
Hisphilosophybegantoshifttoamoreecologicalapproachinthelate1930’s.SusanL.Flader,inabiographyofLeopold,characterizedthisshift:“Originallyimbuedlikeotherearlyconservationistswiththebeliefthatmancouldrationallycontrolhisenvironmenttoproducedesiredcommoditiesforhisownbenefit,Leopoldslowlydevelopedaphilosophyofnaturallyself-regulatingsystemsandanecologicalconcernwiththelandandalandethic.”Itwasanewwayofthinkingandactingtowardtheland.Leopoldwroteaboutnatureandpeopleandthatlivingwiththelandrequiredaneworcompleteunderstandingoftheinterrelationshipamongallcreatures.AuthorAmyMcCoynotedthathe“addedunprecedentedinsightintotheworldofecologyandnaturalism.Hemovedfrombelievinginpartialpar-ticipationinnature,totheviewthattotalintegrationisabsolutelynecessarytothehealthyexistenceofthenaturalworld,andofhumans.”Thiswould
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becomethebasis,stillwithustoday,ofaprofoundreverencefornatureandtherolethatpeopleplayintheenvironment–alandethicforpeople.
In1939,theUniversityofWisconsincreatedanewdepartment,theDepart-mentofWildlifeManagement,withLeopoldasitsfirstchair.Heheldthispositionuntilhisdeath.Thenewscienceandprofessionofwildlifemanage-mentwovetogethertherelatedfieldsofforestry,agriculture,ecology,biol-ogy,zoology,andeducation.Hebelievedthatpeople,whooftendestroyedlandscapes,couldusethesametoolstohelprebuildtheland.JustbeforeWorldWarII,Leopoldbeganworkingonamanuscriptofecologicalessays.Ittookseveralattemptstowriteandrewritethevolume,entitledGreat Pos-sessions,whichwasfinallyacceptedforpublicationbytheOxfordUniver-sityPressonApril14,1948.
Whileat“TheShack”vacationhome,smokewasspottedacrosstheswamponaneighbor’sfarm.Leopoldgatheredhisfamily,handedoutbucketsandbrooms,andwentwiththemtoputoutthefire.Whilefightingthefire,AldoLeopolddiedofaheartattackattheageof61onApril21,1948.
HisecologicalessaysbookwasretitledandpublishedasA Sand County Almanacin1949.Overhislifetime,Leopoldwasinvolvedwithmorethan100organizations,manyofwhichheservedasanofficer,president,orchair.AlthoughLeopold,agiftedwriter,wrotemorethan350articles,itwasthebooksthathewrote—twoofwhichwerepublishedposthumously(editedbyLunaB.Leopold)—thathaveinfluencetoday:A Sand County Almanac(1949)and Round River, from the Journal of Aldo Leopold(1953).A Sand County Almanachassoldmillionsofcopiesandisregardedasaclassicwithwell-wornpaperbackcopiesinbackpacksandbookshelvesacrossthecountry.Leopoldhasgainedthestatusasaprophetoftheenvironmen-talmovementandhislegacycontinuestothepresent,withscoresofnewbooksandarticlesappearingeveryyearabouthimandhiswork.
Robert Y. Stuart— Fourth Chief, 1928-1933
RobertYoungStuartwasbornintheSouthernMiddletonTownship,CumberlandCounty,Penn-sylvania,onFebruary13,1883.HewasappointedChiefin1928aftertheresignationofChiefGree-ley.Duringhistenure,theMcSweeney-McNaryActof1928promotedforestresearch,whiletheKnutson-VandenbergActof1930wasdesignedtoexpandtreeplantingonthenationalforests.
StuartwasinstrumentalinpreparingtheForest
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Servicetodealwiththecrisescausedbythestockmarketcrashof1929.HeledtheForestServiceincreatingjobopportunitiesfortheunemployedonnationalforests,especiallythoseworkingonForestServiceroadsystems.WhenPresidentFranklinDelanoRooseveltcreatedtheCivilianConser-vationCorpsinthespringof1933torelievethesevereeconomicstressamongyoungunemployedmen,theForestServicewasreadywithalonglistofprojects.
RobertY.Stuartwrote:
Theimportanceofrecreationaluseasasocialforceandinflu-encemustberecognizedanditsrequirementsmustbemet.ItspotentialitiesasaservicetotheAmericanpeople,asthebasisforindustryandcommerce,asthefoundationofthefutureeconom-iclifeofmanycommunities,aredefiniteandbeyondquestion.Itsrankinnationalforestactivitieswill,inlargedegree,beama-joroneand,inalimiteddegree,asuperiorone.Itwillinmanysituationsconstituteauseofnaturalresourcescoordinateandoccasionallybeparamounttotheirindustrialconversiontocom-mercialcommodities,andasarecognizedformofuseofnaturalresources,itdeservesandshouldreceivethesamerelativedegreeoftechnicalattentionandadministrativeplanningthatisnowgiventootherformsofutilization.
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The Great Depression Era, �933-�9��
T heGreatDepressionisgenerallythoughttohavestartedinthefall of1929withtheNewYorkstockmarketcrash.Itdidnottakelongfor theentirecountrytobehardhitbythecrash.Becauseoflowwoodpricesandlackofdemand,timbersalesdeclined,hundredsoftimbercompanieswentbankrupt,andtensofthousandsofemployeeslosttheirjobs.FederalGovern-mentworkerstookpaycuts,butremainedworking.
Civilian Conservation Corps
TheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC),brainchildofPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt’s“NewDeal,”beganinApril1933torevivethelaggingeconomyandmarkedarenewedinterestintheconservationofnaturalresources.TheCCC,foundedtoprovideoutdoorworkformillionsofyoungunemployedmen,laterwasexpandedtoincludeWorldWarIveteransandAmericanIndiantribalmem-bers.ThefirstCCCcamp,appropriatelynamedCampRoosevelt,beganopera-tioninthelatespringof1933onVirginia’sGeorgeWashingtonNationalForest.ThousandsofothercampswereestablishedinnationalandStateparksandrefuges,nationalmonuments,soilconservationdistricts,andotherareas.
USDAForestService
CCC Camp Roosevelt, George Washington National For-est (Virginia), 1933
Fortunately,theForestServicewaspreparedfortheseconservationworkers.Themassive1,677-page,A National Plan for American Forestry(alsocalledtheCopelandReport),publishedafewmonthspreviously,hadsuggestedacompre-hensiveplanformoreintensivemanagementofalltheNationalForestSystemlands.Includedinthereportwerehundredsofprojectsthatneededmoneyor
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USDAForestService
peopletocompletethem.TheCCCprogramwastheidealopportunityforyoungmen(therewerenowomen’scamps)tobeengagedinoutdoorprojectsthatwouldhelpimprovetherecreationpotentialandmanagementofthenationalforests.Throughtheentire9-yearprogram,morethan3millionmenenrolledfor6monthsorlongerintheover2,600camps(200menpercamp).EachnationalforesthadatleastoneCCCcamp.Thatenabledhundredsofworkprojectstobegin,manyofwhichwererecreationalfacilities,especiallytrails,trailshelters,campgrounds,andscenicvistas.TheCCC’salsoworkedontrucktrails(roads),guardandrangerstations,lookouts,andtelephonelines,andtheyfoughtmanyforestfires(nearly6.5millionpersondays).
CCC Tlingit Alaska Na-tive Enrollee Joe Thomas Working on Baranof Pole at Wrangell, Alaska, Tongass National Forest, 1941
CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS (1933-1942)
Theyearwas1933.TheNationwasflounderinginaneconomicdepres-sion,deeperthananyithadeverknown.Over13millionAmericans,aboutone-thirdoftheavailableworkforce,wereoutofwork.Peoplehadnoth-ingtodo,nowheretogo,andoftenfelthungry,bewildered,apathetic,andangry.Youngmenwereespeciallyvulnerableastheywereoftenuntrained,unskilled,unabletogainexperience,andoftenwithoutanadequateeduca-tion.Theyhadlittlehopeforthefuture.Inthissad,tumultuoustime,Con-gresspassedanactthatwastohavegreatimpactforunemployedyoungmenandnaturalresourcemanagement.
�8 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
OnMarch4,1933,FranklinD.RooseveltwasinauguratedasPresident.His“NewDeal”programhelpedputpeoplebacktowork.HequicklyplacedlegislationbeforeCongresstoputtenofthousandsofunemployedyoungmentoworkinthepublicforestsandparks.OnMarch31,1933,just10daysafterRooseveltproposedit,CongresspassedtheEmergencyConser-vationWorkProgram(PublicLaw73-5)popularlyknownastheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC).Fouryearslater,onJune28,1937,theCCCnamewasofficiallyattachedtoanactthatcontinuedtheprogram.(SimilarFederalworkprogramswereestablishedduringthe1930’s,includingtheWorksProgressAdministrationwhichfocusedonarts,music,literature,history,andotherrelatedactivities.)
TheactestablishingtheCCChadtwopurposes:Themostimportantwastheneedtofindimmediateandusefulconservationworkformillionsofunemployedyoungmen;thesecondwastoprovidefortherestorationofthecountry’sdepletednaturalresourcesandtheadvancementofanorderlyprogramofusefulpublicworksprojects.TheCCCalsoprovidededuca-tionaltraining,andbeginningin1940,vocationaltraining,toitsenrollees.TheprogramwasdirectedbyRobertFechner,untilhisdeathonJanuary1,1940,thereafterbyJamesMcEntee.
EligibilityrequirementstojointheCCCwerehandledbytheU.S.De-partmentofLaborandStateselectionorganizations.CCCenrolleeswererequiredtobe—
• MalecitizensoftheUnitedStatesoritsTerritories• Between18and25yearsofage• Unemployedandnotinregularattendanceatschool• Unmarried• Ofgoodcharacterandphysicalcondition
Theseyoungmenwereofficiallyreferredtoasjuniors.TherewerethreeothercategoriesofCCCenrollees:
• VeteransofWorldWarI,whocouldbeolderthan25• AmericanIndians,whoworkedmostlyontheirIndian Reservations• Locallyemployedmen(LEM),whowereusuallyexperienced oldermenwhoservedastrainerstotheyoungmen
Therewerenocampsforwomen,althoughEleanorRooseveltsuggestedthatthereshouldbe.BlackenrolleesweregenerallyseparatedfromwhiteenrolleeswithsegregatedCCCcompaniesandcamps.Inanycase,theenrolleeswererequiredtosetaside$25oftheirmonthly$30paychecktoassisttheirdependents(usuallytheirparents).
TheCCCenrollmentperiodwasfor6months,withoptionsforrenewal.TheCCC“boys”wereoftenassigned,initially,totheForestServiceor
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �9
NationalParkServicetoworkonconservationprojects.Later,anumberofCCCcampswereestablishedfortheBureauofIndianAffairs,Stateforestsandparks,SoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService),BiologicalSurvey(laterFish&WildlifeService),BureauofRecla-mation,GeneralLandOffice(nowBureauofLandManagement),U.S.ArmyandNavy,andevensomeprivatedemonstrationforests.TheU.S.Depart-mentofLaborandtheU.S.ArmyhandledCCCmonthlypay,aswellastraveltoandfromtheoftenremoteCCCcamps.
ACCCcompanyusuallyconsistedof200enrollees,withmostofthemcomingfromonecityorcountywithinaState.WhentheCCCmenar-rived,usuallybytrainthentruck,attheirassignedCCCcamp,theylivedincomfortableWorldWarIsurpluspyramidtentframesorwoodenbarracks.Thecampcommanderwasusuallyacareermilitaryofficer,or,laterintheprogram,areserveofficer.Onvariousprojects,smallerworkcamps(calledsideorspikecamps)wereestablishedsothatthemendidnotspendalloftheirprojecttimegettingtoorfromtheworksite.
TheCCCmenateplainbutwholesomefood,whichwaspurchasedlocally.Theyworked40hoursperweekandwererequiredtokeeptheircampsneatandorderly.Beyondthat,theywerefreetostudyorenjoyanyoutdoorrecreationopportunitiessuchasswimmingorfishing.Duringthesummermonths,theCCCboyswereoftentreatedtoweekendtripstobeautifulmountainlakes,nationalparks,orthecoast.Atothertimes,thelocalcom-munitiestookpleasureinprovidingfacilitiesformeetingthelocalcitizens,dancing,andhavinggoodtimes.Someoftheyoungmen,productsoftheGreatDepressionandcomingfromallpartsofthecountryandallwalksoflife,laterstayedinorreturnedtothecommunitythathadservedastheirtemporaryhomeawayfromhome.ManyoftheCCCmenwhostayedwentontobecomeprominentforesters,businessmen,andevenStatelegislators.
ThroughoutCCC’shistory(1933-1942),thenumberofconservationproj-ectscompletedacrosstheNationwasstaggering:48,060bridges;13,513cabinsanddwellings;10,231firelookouthousesandtowers;360,449milesoftelephonelines;707,226milesoftrucktrails(forestroads);142,102milesoffootandhorsetrails;101,777acresofcampgroundde-velopment;35.8millionrodsoffences;168emergencylandingfields;13.3millionacresofinsectcontrolwork;6.4millionman-daysoffightingforestfires;over2.6millionacresofplantingandseeding;andalmost1billionfishstocked.
Asnationaleconomicconditionsimprovedinthelate1930’s,enrollmentquotasbecamemoreandmoredifficulttofill.ThenonDecember7,1941,AmericabecamedirectlyinvolvedinthewarthathadbeenraginginEuropeformorethan2years.Within6months,theCCCeracametoacloseasenrolleesflockedtojointhemilitaryandtheremainingcampswereshutdown.Theprogram’sfundingwasterminatedonJune30,1942.
70 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Soendedoneofthemostsuccessfulworkrecoveryprogramsinthehis-toryoftheUnitedStates.TheCCCwasthemostpopularandsuccessfulofRoosevelt’sNewDealprograms.PerhapsthemostsignificantproductoftheCCCprogramwastheprofoundandlastingeffectithadonthe3millionenrollees.CCCworkprovidedaturningpointinthelivesofmanyoftheNation’syouthanditbroughtmuch-neededfinancialaidtotheirfamilies.Inaddition,itcreatedanewself-confidence,adesireandcapacitytoreturntoactivework,anewunderstandingofagreatcountry,andafaithinitsfu-ture.Thenationalforests,nationalparks,andStateparksdecadeslaterstillenjoysbenefitsfrommanyoftheCCCprojects.
Ferdinand A. Silcox— Fifth Chief, 1933-1939
FerdinandAugustusSilcoxwasbornonChrist-masDayin1882,inColumbus,Georgia.TheGreatDepressionwasinfull-swingwhenSilcoxtookoverasChiefin1933;heledtheForestServiceduringsomeofitsmostdifficulttimes.Hewasabletoeffectivelyhelpmillionsofun-employedworkersthriveduringtheDepressionthroughtheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC)andWorksProgressAdministrationprojectsonthenationalforests.TheForestServiceprovid-edspaceto200-manCCCcamps(therewere
nowomenintheprogram),thousandsofworkprojects,andexperiencedprojectleaders.Morethan2.5millionunemployedyoungmenenrolledintheCCCduringits9-yearexistence.
Silcox’scontributionstotheforestconservationmovementweremany,butespeciallysignificantwashissuccessinfocusingpublicattentionontheconservationproblemsofprivateforestlandownership.Duringhistenure,theForestServicestudiedwesternrangeuseandsurveyedforestwatershedsforfloodcontrol.
FerdinandA.Silcoxwrote:
Civilizationshavewaxedandwanedwiththeirmaterialresourc-es;dwindlingmeansoflivelihoodhavesetrollinggreattidalwavesofmigrationandhavebeenaprolificcauseofdomesticdisorder,classuprising,andinternationalwar;butneverbeforehavethepeopleofagreatcountrystillrichinthefoundationsofprosperitysoughttoforestallfuturedisasterbyapplyinganationalpolicyofconservation—ofwhichplannedlanduseisthecentralcore.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 7�
Shelterbelt Project
Inresponsetothe“DustBowl”conditionsintheGreatPlainsbetweenTexasandNorthDakotaduringtheearly1930’s,thecooperativePrairieStatesForestry(Shelterbelt)Projectwasbegun.Thisuniquewindbreakproject,anideaofPresi-dentFranklinRoosevelt,beganin1934.InMarch1935,thefirsttreewasplantedonafarminMangum,Oklahoma.TheprojectinvolvedextensivecooperationbetweentheUSDASoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConserva-tionService);variousState,county,andlocalagencies;andhundredsoffarmers.LegionsofWorksProgressAdministration(WPA)reliefworkers,manyofwhomwereunemployedfarmers,accomplishedthework.Inthespringof1938,theyplantedapproximately52,000cottonwoodtreesinoneseverelysand-blownareasouthofNeligh,Nebraska.
Major Plant-ing Areas of the Prairie States For-estry (Shelterbelt) Project, 1935-1942
USDAForestService
7� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
TheTaylorGrazingActof1934endedunregulatedgrazingonthenationalforestsandremainingGLO-administeredland.Theactauthorizedthecreationof80millionacresofgrazingdistrictsandtheestablishmentofaU.S.GrazingService—combinedwiththeGLOin1946toformtheBLMintheDepartmentoftheInterior.In1935,thetitle“Chief”oftheForestServicecamebackintouse.
USDAForestService
Ranger and Permittee on an Inspection at the Tatoosh Mountain Range, Gifford Pinchot Na-tional Forest (Washington), 1949
SHELTERBELT PROGRAM ON THE GREAT PLAINS
Duringthegreat“DustBowl”ofthe1930’sontheGreatPlains,millionsofacresoffarmlandwereliterallybeingblownaway.Inthedry,rainlesscondition,soilwaslostatahorrendousrateandmanyfarmersandranch-erswereforcedfromtheirland.Dustanddirtfilledtheairandsandsweredriftingacrossfields,coveringfencesandhouses,andkillinganimals.Bytheearly1930’s,oneofmanypracticestheGreatPlainsAgriculturalCoun-cilproposedtosloworhaltthedamagewastheplantingoftreestoreducewindanddrought-causedsoilerosion.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 73
Inthesummerof1932,thenPresidentialcandidateFranklinD.RooseveltproposedthattheFederalGovernmentbeginaprogramofplantingtreesinbeltsacrossthehardesthitfarmlandsontheGreatPlains.Toreducewinderosionandprotectcropsfromwinddamage,millionsoftreeswereplantedonprivatepropertyor“shelterbelts,”astheybecameknown.UnderRoosevelt’sAdministrationfrom1934to1942,theprogrambothsavedthesoilandrelievedchronicemploymentintheregion.
TheForestServicewasresponsiblefororganizingthe“ShelterbeltProject,”laterknownasthe“PrairieStatesForestryProject.”Thisproject,head-quarteredinLincoln,Nebraska,wasdirectedbyPaulH.RobertsfromtheResearchBranch.TheShelterbeltProgramincludedtheStatesofNorthDakota,SouthDakota,Nebraska,Kansas,Oklahoma,andthenorthernpartofTexas.
Treeswereusuallyplantedinlongstripsat1-mileintervalswithinabelt100milesthick.Itwasfeltthatshelterbeltsatthisspacingcouldintercepttheprevailingwindsandreducesoilandcropdamage.Theprojectusedmanydifferenttreespeciesofvaryingheights,includingoaksandevenblackwalnut.Shelterbelts,withtreesandshrubsofvaryingheights,couldreducewindvelocitiesontheirleewardsidesfordistancesof15timestheheightofthetallesttrees.Reducedwindstendedtocreatemorefavorableconditionsforcropgrowth,reduceevaporationofwaterinthesoil(andthusreducetheneedforirrigation),reducesoiltemperatures,stabilizesoils,protectlivestock,increasewildlifepopulations,andprovideamorelivableenvironmentforfarmfamilies.
Oneoftheproject’sfirsttaskswastoobtaintreeandshrubseedsandthentoestablishnurseriestogrowthestockforreplanting.Fundingfortheprojectalmostendedin1936,butAgricultureSecretaryWallacepushedCongressforacontinuation.OnMay18,1937,theNorris-DoxyCoopera-tiveFarmForestryActexpandedtheshelterbeltprojectbyrequiringgreaterFederal-Statecooperation.
AlthoughWorksProgressAdministrationandCivilianConservationCorpsworkersplantedthetreesandshrubs,landownerswereresponsiblefortheirlong-termcareandmaintenance.During1939,thepeakyearoftheproject,13nurseriesproducedmorethan60millionseedlings.Overtheproject’sduration,over200milliontreesandshrubswereplantedon30,000farms–atotallengthof18,600milesinall!Theshelterbeltsworkedamazinglywellandtheresultscanbeseeneventoday,althoughmanyoftheshelterbelttreeshavebeencutfortheirhighlyvaluedwood.
Since1942,treeplantingtoreducesoillossesandcropdamagehasbeencarriedoutbylocalsoilconservationdistrictsincooperationwiththeSoilConservationService(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService).
7� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
GRAZING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
FromthebeginningofEuropeansettlementalongtheeasternandsoutherncoastsofwhatwastobecometheUnitedStates,domesticlivestockhasbeenaprominentpartoffarmingandgrazingactivitiesofNewWorldsettlers.Formanydecades,stockanimalswerefreetoroamovertheunsettledareasalongtheedgeoffarmlandsnewlyclearedfromtheforests.Asthesettlersmovedwestward,thesizeoftheunsettledforestareawasmuchreducedandpublicdomainland“takenup”byhomesteaders.
Controversysooneruptedwhencattleinterestssoughttohavesheepandhomesteadsprohibitedfrom“openranges”(publicdomain).Conversely,sheepownersandfarmerswantedcattlerestrictedfromgrazingandtram-plingtheircropsanddestroyingtheirwatersources.Thesituationwassimi-laronthepublicdomaintimberland,butthatchangedafterforestreserveswerecreatedin1891.
Westernranchersweresomeofthestrongestopponentsofthecreationoftheforestreservesbecausetheyfearedthatgrazingwouldbeprohibitedonthem,perhapsrightlyso.Concernedwitherosionandotherproblemscausedbyovergrazing,theSecretaryoftheInteriorbannedgrazingonFed-eralforestreservesin1894.
Afterarapidgrowthincattleranchesinthe1870’sand1880’s,theindus-tryhaddeclinedsomuchbytheyear1900thatsheepoutnumberedcattleinmostWesternStates.ThewoolgrowersweretheWest’sbestorganizedinterestgroup.Thebattleofgrazingpittedsheepraisersandtheirsupport-ersinCongressagainsttheDepartmentoftheInteriorandthecattleranch-ers—dependentonuplandforestwatersheds.
AlthoughJohnMuir(founderoftheSierraClub)referredtosheepas“hoofedlocusts,”heacknowledgedthatregulatedgrazingwasbetterthanunregulatedgrazing.Asearlyas1896,GiffordPinchotfavoredregulatedsheepgrazingontheforestreserves.FrederickV.Coville’sindependentstudyofsheepgrazingintheOregonCascadesduringthesummerof1897leftnodoubtthatregulatedgrazingwaslessdestructivetotheforeststhanunregulatedgrazing—especiallytoyoungtrees.Pinchothadsimilarinves-tigationsmadeintheSouthwest.TheofficialFederalpolicy,developedin1898,allowedrestrictedsheepgrazingintheOregonCascadesandextend-edeventuallytoalltheotherforestreserves.Cattleandhorseswereallowedtorangefreely.In1900,theDepartmentoftheInteriorestablishedafreepermitsystemtocontrolthenumberofanimalsontheforestreservesandremainingpublicdomainland.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 75
GrazingcontinuedthesameafterthetransferoftheforestreservestotheDepartmentofAgricultureandthenewForestServicein1905.In1906,theForestServiceannouncedthatfeeswouldbeimposed:25to35centsperheadofcattleandhorses,withalowerrateforsheepandgoats.Althoughfree-ranginghogswereaprobleminsomeareas,therewerenofeesan-nouncedforhoggrazing.Forestrangerssetupnewgrazingallotmentswithsetdatesforenteringandleavingtheforestreserves.Thegrazingrevenuesexceededthosefromtimbereveryyearbetween1906and1910,andpe-riodicallyuntil1920.In1910,theForestServiceestablishedanOfficeofGrazingStudies,whichbeganstudyingtheeffectsofgrazingonthenationalforests.
In1917,withtheUnitedStates’entryintoWorldWarI,thenumberofanimalsthatgrazedonthenationalforestsincreaseddramatically.GrazingwasevenallowedinGlacierandYosemiteNationalParks.Studiesoftheincreasingnumbersofsheepandcattlebeinggrazedonnationalforestsduringthe1917-1919periodshowedsevereovergrazing.Rangeconditionsweresopoorthatsheeppermitteeswereunabletoproducetheamountoflambmeatthattheyexpected.TheissueofcarryingcapacityoftherangewascontroversialbecauseitdeterminedhowmanyanimalsaranchercouldplaceonGovernmentland.
ThebulkoftheresearchonrangemanagementtookplaceattheGreatBasinExperimentalStation(IntermountainResearchStation)ontheMantiNationalForestoutsideofEphraim,Utah.HistorianThomasAlexanderclaimedthatprofessionalrangemanagementemergedintheForestServicelargelyastheresultoftheIntermountainStation’sgrazingresearchstaff.Thetypicaldistrictrangerwasoftenconcernedaboutthesocialandeconomiccoststolocalranchersiftheywereforcedtoreducestocknumbers;whilerangeresearchersfocusedontheconditionoftheland.Overtimeitwastheconditionofthelandthatdeterminedthepolicy,basedontheirresearchfindingsoncarryingcapacity.Intheend,thenumbersofanimalsonthenationalforestswerereduced,exceptduringWorldWarII.
Controversyovergrazingfees(whichcontinuestothisday)resultedina1924ForestServicereportonpublicandprivatefees.Stockownersimme-diatelyexpressedobjectionstothestudy,leadingtocongressionalhear-ingsandpassageoftheMcSweeney-McNaryActof1928,whichenhancedresearchactivitiesonpublicandprivateforestandrangeland.DuringtheGreatDepressiongrazingfeeswereloweredby50percent.Thewesterndroughtintheearly1930’sandthepassageoftheTaylorGrazingActof1934tightenedpubliclandgrazingregulations.AninteragencyrivalryoverwhichagencycouldbestadministerandregulategrazingledtothecreationoftheU.S.GrazingServiceintheDepartmentoftheInteriorto“counter”ForestServiceattemptstotakeovergrazingmanagementonallpubliclands.
7� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
WorldWarIIsawanotherattempttoexpandthenumberofanimalsgrazingonthenationalforests.TheForestServiceresistedthiseffort.TheForestServicereducedthenumberofanimalsallowedonthenationalforestsinordertoincreasethequalityofthegrazinglands.Thisplanmetstrongop-positionandthecontroversyresultedintheGranger-ThyeActof1950.Inessence,Granger-ThyerecognizedtheForestService’sauthoritytocollectfeesforgrazingprivilegesandendorsedgrazingadvisoryboards,aslongasrepresentativesfromtheStategamecommissionsweremembers,allowedcooperativerangeimprovements,andallowed10-yeargrazingpermitstobeissued.
Inthe1960’s,controversywasagainstirringovergrazingfees.Bythelate1970’s,thisresultedinthe“SagebrushRebellion”intheWesternStates.SupportersoftheSagebrushRebellionwantedallForestServiceandBureauofLandManagementgrazinglandstransferredtotheStates.TheyassumedthatifsuchlandswereunderStatecontrol,therancherswouldhavemoreinfluenceandthusgettheirownwayoverfees,allotments,andnumberofanimalsgrazed.Becauseoflocalandnationalopposition,theSagebrushRebellionlostmomentum,thenstalled,andfinallydiedbythemid-1980’sonlytoberevivedinthe1990’s.Thismovementtodayiscalledthe“wiseuse,”“countysupremacy,”or“propertyrightsmovement.”
Wilderness
RobertMarshall,founderoftheWildernessSocietyandauthoroftherecreationportionofthe National Plan for American Forestry(theCopelandReport),workedfortheForestServiceinthemid-1930’s.HeproposedthattheForestServicein-ventorylargeunroadedareasthatmightbesuitableforwildernessesorprimitiveareadesignation.Shortlybeforehisuntimelydeathin1939,Marshallandseveralothersmadeatourofthewesternnationalforests,performingthisinventoryandmakingrecommendationstoregionalforesterstogreatlyincreasethenumberofwildernessandprimitiveareas.
WildernessSociety
Bob Marshall Examining Pine and Larch Seedlings, Priest River Experimental Station, Kaniksu National Forest (Idaho)
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 77
ROBERT MARSHALL
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
RobertMarshall(1901-1939)wasthesonofLouisMarshall,oneoftheNation’smostprominentconstitutionallawyers,socialreformers,andde-fendersoftheAdirondackStateParkinNewYork.Asayoungman,RobertMarshallspenthissummersatLowerSaranacLakeathisfamily’sestate.Hisfirstbook,High Peaks of the Adirondacks,waspublishedin1922.Hisloveofnatureandexplorationinfluencedhiscollegestudiesinforestry.MarshallreceivedhisB.S.degreefromtheNewYorkStateCollegeofForestryatSyracuseUniversity(nowcalledtheStateUniversityofNewYork,CollegeofEnvironmentalScienceandForestry)in1924,thenaMastersofForestryfromHarvardForest(partofHarvardUniversity)in1925,andaPh.D.inplantphysiologyfromJohnsHopkinsUniversityin1930.
BobMarshallworkedfortheForestServiceattheWindRiverForestEx-perimentStationnearCarson,Washington,duringthesummerof1924asa“fieldassistant.”Afterearninghismastersinforestrydegree,heworkedfortheForestService,again,from1925to1928attheNorthernRockyMountainForestExperimentStationatMissoula,Montana.AfterleavingtheForestServicetoearnhisdoctorate,heagainjoinedtheForestServicein1932to1933,workingontherecreationportionoftheNational Plan for American Forestry(theCopelandReport)(1933).Inthatreport,Marshallforesawtheneedtoplace10percentofallU.S.forestlandsintorecreationalareas—rangingfromlargeparkstowildernessareastoroadsidecampsites.Inthesameyear,hebecametheDirectorofForestryfortheOfficeofIndianAffairs,wherehesupportedroadlessareasonreservations.
In1937,BobMarshallreturnedtotheForestServiceasChiefofanewDivi-sionofRecreationandLandsintheWashingtonOffice.InhisshorttenureattheWashingtonOffice,hedraftedthe“URegulations”thatreplacedthe“L-20Regulations”forprimitiveareasandwildernesses.Theseregulationsgavegreaterprotectiontowildernessareasbybanningtimbering,roadconstruction,summerhomes,andevenmotorboatsandaircraft.Marshallcheckedrecreationaldevelopmentplansforthenationalforeststoseeiftheyincludedaccessforlowerincomegroups—averyrealconcernduringtheDepressionyearsofthe1930’s.Healsothoughtthatprotectionshouldbegrantedtolargeareasover200,000acres–thattheyshouldbereclassifiedasprimitiveareas.In1938,heandothersmadeatripthroughthewesternnationalforeststomapandproposemillionsofacresofnationalforestlandsforprimitiveorwildernessstatus.
Marshallwasaneccentricandmaverickwhowasfamedatthetimeforbothhisvigorous40-milehikesandradicalpoliticalopinions.Marshallwasfamousforhishikingspeed—oncewalking70milesina24-hourperiodtomakeconnectionsforatrip—whileatothertimeseasilyoutdistancinghis
78 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
companionsontripsintothemountains.BobMarshallwasaleadingwriteronthesocialmanagementofAmericanforests,bothpublicandprivate,combiningconservationwithsocialtheory.He,alongwithGiffordPinchot,GeorgeP.Ahern,andthreeothers,signedaletterin1930thatrecommend-edincreasedFederalandStateregulationoverprivateforestsandtransferofprivatelandstopublicownershipandcontrol.Forthenext15years,thisissuewouldberaisedbyvariousForestServiceChiefs,butCongresswouldnotapprove.Unabletoendurethediplomacyofworkingwithinthebu-reaucracy,hehadplannedtoresign.WhileonatrainfromWashington,DC,toNewYorkCity,hehadaheartattackanddiedonNovember10,1939.Thefollowingyear,theForestServicereclassifiedandrenameda950,000-acrearea(comprisedofthreeprimitiveareas)ontheFlatheadandLewisandClarkNationalForestsinMontanaastheBobMarshallWilderness.
Aprolificwriter,Marshallpublishedanumberofarticlesandpamphlets,aswellasseveralbooks,including:The People’s Forests(1933),Arctic Village(1933),andArctic Wilderness(1956).MarshallwastheprincipalfounderandfinancialsupporteroftheWildernessSocietyin1935.
Timber Salvage of �938
Timbersales,whichpracticallydisappearedduringtheGreatDepression,startedagainjustbeforeWorldWarII.MillionsoftreeswereblowndownbytheGreatNewEnglandHurricaneofSeptember1938.TheForestServicedirectedmassivesalvageoperationsonnationalforest,State,andprivatelands.Morethan50CCCcampsand15,000WPAenrolleesworkedfeverishlytosalvagethedownedtreestopreventinsectanddiseaseinfestationsandpreventfiresfromstartinginthedriedtrees.Duringthe3yearsthatfollowed,theNortheasternTimberSalvageAdministrationwasabletosalvage700millionboardfeetoftimber.
New England Hurricane Results, New Hampshire, 1938
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 79
Smokejumping and National Defense
BecausemanyoftheforestfiresintheWestwerestartedbylightningininacces-siblelocations,theForestServiceexperimentedwithfirefightersparachutingtofiresbeforetheybecamelargeandoutofcontrol.Thefirstexperimental“jumps”beganin1939atWinthrop,Washington,ontheOkanoganNationalForest.Bythesummerof1940,thesmokejumpers,astheybecameknown,wereoperatingoutofWinthropandtheMooseCreekRangerStationonMontana’sBitterrootNa-tionalForestandmadetheirfirstjumponafireontheNezperceNationalForestinIdaho.Thesuccessfuloperationprovedthatsmokejumpingintoremote,rug-gedareaswasfeasible.Thelessonslearnedfromsmokejumpertrainingmethodsandactuallyjumpingintoheavilyforestedareaswouldproveusefultothenewmilitaryparatrooperunitslikethe101stAirborneduringWorldWarII.
Smokejumpers Ready for Ex-perimental Jumps, Chelan National Forest (Washington),1939
USDAForestService
Nationaldefensebecameimportantinthelate1930’sandearly1940’s.Thefirstconscientiousobjectorcampswereestab-lishedatabandonedCCCcampsin1941.WorldWarIIstartedfortheUnitedStatesonDecember7,1941.Inearly1942,theCCC’sweredisbandedbecausefewermenweresigningupandnationalattention(andmoney)wasbeingdivertedtothewareffort.
Earle H. Clapp— Sixth Chief, 1939-1943
EarleHartClapp,borninNorthRush,NewYork,onOctober15,1877,wasappointedAssociateChiefin1935,thenActingChiefin1939afterChiefSilcoxdied.ClappwasneverofficiallyChief,apparentlybecausePresidentRooseveltdidnotwanttoapprovehisappoint-ment.Clappservedinthisactingcapacityuntil1943whenLyleWattswasappointedtheForestService’sseventhChief.
80 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
DuringClapp’stimeasActingChief,hefacedthecontinuationoftheCivil-ianConservationCorpsprojectsonthenationalforests,meetingtheneedforforestexpertstohelpintheaftermathofthedisastrousNewEnglandHurricane,opposingtransferoftheForestServicefromtheDepartmentofAgriculturetotheDepartmentoftheInterior,andmobilizingtheNation’sforestresourcesbehindtheWorldWarIIeffort.Thecuttingofnationalforesttimberwassteppedup,specialstudiesandtestsweremadeforthearmedforces,andforestlookoutstationswerestaffedalongboththeeastandwestcoastsin1942-1943todetectenemyaircraft.
Tryashedid,ClappwasnotsuccessfulinsupportingFederalregulationoftimbercuttingonprivateforestland,adding150millionacresofmostlycutoverlandtothenationalforests,orinalleviatingpovertyindepressedcommunitiesbymeansofreforestationprojects.Duringhislast2years,hewasresponsibleforpreparinganewappraisaloftheNation’sforestsitua-tion.
EarleH.Clappwrote:
[The]scarcityofnaturalresourcesandtheircontrolbytheveryfewmaypavethewaythroughwidespreadhumanmiserytodespotismanddictatorship;whileanabundanceofnaturalre-sources,accessibletopeoplegenerally,makesfordemocracyandfreedom.
ThestruggletocreateandadministerthenationalforestsgavebirthtotheentireconservationmovementintheUnitedStates.AttheendofthevoluminousPublicLandActof1891,alittlesectionof68wordsgavethePresidentauthoritytocreatefromthepublicdomainwhatwenowcallthenationalforests.Aparagraphof133wordsasaridertotheSundryCivilAppro-priationsActof1897providedfortheadministrationoftheseforests.Iknowofnootherlegislationinourhistorywhichmorebroadlyandasbrieflyauthorizedanundertakingsofar-reachinginitsconsequences.TheActofMarch3,1891,wasacleanbreakwiththelongestablishedpublicpolicyofindiscriminatedisposalofallpubliclandsregardlessofwhatmightbedonewiththeresourcesonthem.Thatwasaboldanddaringthingtodointhefaceofpublicopinionofyearsago.IttookcourageonthepartofitsadvocatesinCongressandout.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 8�
The War Years, �9��-�9�5
T hewaryearsintensifiedtheneedtoestablishnationalforest priorities–oneofwhichwasincreasingnationalforestwoodoutputs throughtheTimberProductionWarProject.Thebiggestsinglewoodusewaspackingcratestoshipmilitarysupplies;butotherimportantuseswereforbridges,railroadties,gunstocks,ships,docks,barracks,otherbuildings,andaircraft.TheForestProductsLaboratoryinMadison,Wisconsin,greatlyexpand-editsresearchtofulfillmilitaryneeds.TheForestServicealsowascalledupontoleadahigh-priorityproject—producingarubbersubstitutefromtheguayuleplant—ashrubnativetotheSouthwest.ApilotprojectwasbeguninSalinas,California,andby1944,morethan200,000acresofguayulewereunderculti-vation—producing3millionpoundsofrubbersubstituteforuseonairplanes,ships,andvehicles,especiallyfortires.TheprojectwasabandonedafterthewarwhenrubberfromSoutheastAsiaagainbecameavailable.
Aeneas Aircraft Warning Service Lookout, Okano-gan National For-est (Washington), 1943
USDAForestService
Recreationwasde-em-phasizednationwideduringthewar;forestfireprotectionbecamequiteimportant,espe-ciallyalongthewestcoast.AircraftWarn-ingStations(AWS),usuallyatselectedforestlookouts,wereestablishedin1942towarnofimpendingairattacksonthewestandeastcoasts.Almost2,000ForestServiceemployeesjoinedtheArmedForces.In1943,manyconscien-tiousobjectorsathomevolunteeredforsmoke-jumperduty.Sixtywerechosenforthisverydangerouswork.AsduringWorldWarI,womenwereagainemployedasfireandaircraftlookouts,whilecivilianvolunteersandoutdoorgroupswereencouragedtoform“ForestServiceReserves”tohelpwithlookoutandfirefightingworkonthenationalforests.TheCooperativeForestFirePreventionCampaign—ajointventurebetweentheForestServiceandStateforestryofficials—wasorganizedduringthewar,whenitbecamevitallyimportanttoprotecttheNation’stimbersupply.In1944,thisprogrambecametheSmokeyBearcampaign.
8� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Lyle F. Watts— Seventh Chief, 1943-1952
LyleFordWattswasborninCerroGor-doCounty,Iowa,in1890.WattsservedasChiefduringtheturbulentyearsofWorldWarII.Withtheobviousprogressbeingmadeinthewareffort,hisatten-tionturnedtoplanningwhatthenation-alforestsandtheForestServicewouldbelikeafterthewar.Heandhisstaffrealizedthatthenationalforestsneededtobeopeneduptodevelopmentinthemostscientificandorderlymanner.
WattsencouragedtheForestServicetohireuniversityforestrygraduatestohelpdevelopforestroadsystemsandinten-sivelymanaged,sustained-yieldforests.
HeoversawtheexpansionoftheFederalroleofcooperatorwiththevariousStatesandprivateindustryinthefieldsofforestfireprotection,pestcon-trol,treeplanting,woodlandmanagementandharvesting,wood-productmarketingandprocessing,grazing,andsoon.
LyleF.Wattswrote:
ForestServiceconservationinvolvesmuchmorethanthegrow-ingofcropsonforestlandstosupplyrawmaterialinoneformoranotherforanever-growinglistofuses.Forestrymustbecoupledwiththesocialandeconomicwelfareofruralcommuni-ties,especiallyinregionsprimarilydependentuponforestindus-tries.ImprovingforestproductivityshouldmeanagreatdealtoruralAmericainaugmentingtheincomeoffarmfolk,maintain-ingpayrollsinsmallcommunities,andsustainingthetaxbasetosupportlocalgovernmentfunctions.
The Sustained-Yield Forest Management Act of �9�� and Sustained-Yield Units
TheSustained-YieldForestManagementActof1944authorizedtheestablish-mentofsustained-yieldtimberunits.Tostabilizecommunities,cooperativeunitsweretocombinethemanagementofFederaltimberlandwithprivateland.Federalunits,theothercategory,reservednationalforesttimberforonlyonegeographicarea—usuallyonecommunityandonemill.Theactwasfirsther-aldedasprotectingmillsandjobsinthecommunities,butsooncompaniesandcommunitiesthatwerenotincludedintheagreementsthoughtittobemonopo-
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 83
listic,noncompetitive,andexclusionary.TheShelton(Washington)CooperativeSustained-YieldUnitagreementwassignedin1946—theonlycooperativeuniteverestablished–andstillinoperationtoday.FiveFederalsustained-yieldunitswereestablished:Vallecitos,NewMexico(CarsonNationalForest);GraysHarbor,Washington(OlympicNationalForest);Flagstaff,Arizona(CoconinoNationalForest);Lakeview,Oregon(FremontNationalForest);andBigValley,California(ModocNationalForest).OnlytheLakeviewunitisactivelyoperatingtoday.
Shelton, Washing-ton—Location of the Shelton Cooperative Sustained-Yield Unit
USDAForestService
Smokey Bear Artist Rudolph Wendelin
USDAForestService
Smokey Bear
In1944,SmokeyBearbecametheofficialfirepre-ventionsymboloftheNation.ThefirstSmokeyposterwasdistrib-utedthefollowingyear.OnJune27,1950,ayoungbearcub–theonlysurvivorfromamassivefireontheLincolnNa-tionalForest—wasmovedtotheNationalZooinWashington,DC,wherehebecamethesymbolofSmokeyBearInMay1975,theoriginalSmokeyBearwasretiredfrompublicduties.Hediedquietlythefollow-ingJanuary,withSmokeyIItakinghisplace.Inthesummerof1990,SmokeyIIdied.TherearenomorelivingSmokeyBearsattheNationalZoo.
8� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
THE STORY OF SMOKEY BEAR
AdaptedfromGladysD.DainesandElsieCunningham“PreventionPrograms:1944to1994andBeyond”Fire Management Notes,Volumes53-54,SpecialIssue1992-93
In1942,aJapanesesubmarineshellingofanoilfieldnearSantaBarbara,California,veryclosetotheLosPadresNationalForest,reinforcedforestmanagers’concernsaboutforestfires.OngoingwareffortshaddrainedtheUnitedStatesofforestfirefightersandheavyequipmentusedtofightfires.Thus,theForestServicewantedtoencouragethegeneralpublictopartici-pateinforestfireprevention.
ThefirststepwastakenwhentheCooperativeForestFirePreventionCam-paignwasbegun.TheforestsupervisorofCalifornia’sAngelesNationalFor-estcontactedthenewlyformedWartimeAdvertisingCouncilforhelp.Thecouncilwasmadeupofbusinessandadvertisingpeoplewhowerewillingtodonatetheirtimeandtalentforthewareffort.WithanadditionalpledgeofsupportfromtheNationalAssociationofStateForesters,anationwideforestfirepreventioncampaignwaslaunched.Foote,ConeandBeldingCommunications,Inc.,ofLosAngeles,becamethevolunteeragencyforthecampaign.Between1942and1944,firepreventionpostersusedwartimeslogans,thenBambi.Theydecidedtheywantedabearillustrationonthepostersfor1945.
OnAugust9,1944,SmokeyBearwasdescribedbyRichardHammett,directoroftheWartimeForestFirePreventionProgram,ashavinga“noseshort(Pandatype),colorblackorbrown;expressionappealing,knowledge-able,quizzical;perhapswearingacampaign(orBoyScout)hatthattypifiestheoutdoorsandthewoods.”Bluejeanswereaddedlater.Thebearwasnamed“Smokey”after“Smokey”JoeMartin,whowastheAssistantChiefoftheNewYorkCityFireDepartmentfrom1919to1930.
AlbertStaehle,anationallyknownartist,wasaskedtopaintthefirstbear,whichwascompletedin1944anddistributedthefollowingyear.ThisfirstSmokeypostershowedhimpouringwateronacampfire.In1945,Smokeymadehisdebutinmanymagazineandnewspaperadsandhundredsofradiostationsdonatedvaluablebroadcastingtimeforhismessage.
Whenthewarwasover,theWartimeAdvertisingCouncil,renamedtheAd-vertisingCouncil,continuedtosponsorpublicservicecampaigns,includingSmokeyBear’smessage(anddoestothisday).In1946,Rudolph“Rudy”WendelinreturnedtotheForestServiceafterservingintheNavy—heworkedcloselywiththeAdvertisingCouncilonSmokeyBearposters.RudywasoneofthebestknownSmokeyBearartistsandsoonbecameknownasthe“caretakeroftheSmokeyBearimage.”Afterhisretirementin1973,
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 85
RudycontinuedtopaintSmokeyandactasaSmokeyBearprogramcon-sultant.HarryRossoll,anotherfamousForestServiceartist,createdfourSmokeycartoonsamonthintheUnitedStatesandCanada.
In1950,somecarelesspersonstartedtheterribleCapitanGapforestfireontheLincolnNationalForestinNewMexico.Whenastrongwindsuddenlysweptthefiretowardagroupofthecourageousfirefighters,25ofthemhadtoruntoarockslide,layfacedown,andcovertheirfaceswithwethand-kerchiefstoescapethedeadlyflames.Theyemptiedtheircanteensovertheirclothesandswattedburningembersfromeachother’sbacks.Finally,thefirepassedandthesmokecleared.Theonlylivingthingthosefire-fight-erssawwasabadlyburnedbearcubclingingtoablackenedtree.Theytookthelittlebeartoarangerstationtotendtoitsburns.Hewasnamed“Smokey”aftertheoriginalfamousposterofSmokeyBear.
Aftertheburnshealed,thelittlebearwassenttoliveattheNationalZoologicalParkinWashington,DC,wherehebecamethelivingsymbolofforestfireprevention,aswellasthemostvisitedattractionatthezoo.Anotherorphanedbearwasfoundin1961intheMagdelenaMountainsofNewMexico.“Goldie,”asshewasnamed,wassenttothezootobecomeSmokey’scompanion.
TheoriginalSmokeyBearwasretiredfrompublicdutiesinMay1975anddiedquietlyonNovember5ofthatsameyear.HewasburiedattheSmokeyBearStateHistoricalParkinCapitan,NewMexico(theideafortheparkoriginatedfromtheCapitanWomen’sClubandopenedonMay15,1976).Smokeywasburiedunderahugerocknearwherehewasfound26yearsbefore.Abronzeplaquewiththefollowinginscriptionhasbeenplacedontherock:
SMOKEYBEAR.ThisisthefinalrestingplaceforthefirstlivingSmokeyBear.In1950whenSmokeywasatinycub,wildfireburnedhisforesthomeinthenearbyCapitanMountainsoftheLincolnNationalForest.Firefightersfoundthebadlyburnedcubclingingtoablackenedtreeandsavedhislife.InJune1950,thecubwasflowntoourNation’sCapitaltobecomethelivingsymbolofwildfirepreventionandwildlifeconservation.After25yearshewasreplacedbyanotherorphanedblackbearfromtheLincolnNationalForest.
AftertheoriginalSmokeyretired,SmokeyIItookhisplace.SmokeyIIdiedinthesummerof1990.TheForestServicehassincedecidednottoreplacethelivingsymbolofSmokeyattheNationalZoo.
BecauseoftheSmokeyBearProgram’sgrowingpopularity,CongresspassedtheSmokeyBearActin1952toprotecttheSmokey’simageandtheworkoftheCooperativeForestFirePrevention(CFFP)Council.Theact
8� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
prohibitsSmokeyBear’suseandwearingtheSmokeyBearcostumewithoutpermission,permitslicensingtheuseofSmokeyBear,andallowstheForestServicetokeepanySmokeyBearroyaltiesandputthemintoafundtobeusedonlyforforestfireprevention.
In1952,IdealToysmanufacturedthefirstSmokeyBearstuffedtoy.Itcamewithacardthatchildrencouldfilloutandmailtobecome“JuniorForestRangers.”Childrenreadilyrespondedandby1955therewere500,000Ju-niorForestRangers.ChildrenwereencouragedtowritetoSmokeyandby1965SmokeyBearwasgivenhisownzipcode—20252!
Thefamousmessage“OnlyYOUCanPreventForestFires”wascreatedin1947bytheAdCouncil’svolunteeragencyandisstillusedtoday.Inarecentstudy,95percentofthepeoplesurveyedcouldfinishthesentencewhengiventhefirstwords,“Remember,OnlyYOU....”Thesamesurveyfound98percentofthosepolledcouldidentifySmokeyBearwhenshownhispicture.OnAugust13,1984,theU.S.PostalServicehonoredSmokeyBear’s40thbirthdaywithacommemorativestamp,drawnbyRudyWendelin.
TheSmokeymessagehasbeenorientedtowardschildrenages4to12intheformofposters,films,videos,comicbooks,pins,handouts,wallandpock-etcalenders,bumperstickers,exhibits,balloons,andevenaSmokeyhotairballoon.Asearlyas1950,anumberofStateorganizationsbegandesigningSmokeycostumesthatwere(andstillare)usedinschools,inparades,andotherplaceswherechildrenandadultscanseeandhearthefirepreventionmessage.TheSmokeycostumehasvariedovertheyears,eventuallyevolv-ingintothefamiliarcostumethatresemblestheWendelincharacter.ForashorttimetherewasaSmokeyJr.,costumeandthen—inthelateryears—agrayingfurcostumeasSmokeywasshowinghisage.
The50thanniversaryofthefirstSmokeyposterhasbeencharacterizedasacelebrationofoneofthemostsuccessfuladvertisingcampaignsinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates.Anewseriesof50thanniversaryposters,pins,andothermemorabiliaweredistributed,aswellasaspecial25-minutehis-toricalvideoproduction.Thevideowasentitled“FiftyYearswithSmokeyBear”andfocusedonthevisualcharacterandreallifeofSmokey.AspecialgoldenanniversaryslogancompetitionwassponsoredbytheNationalAssociationofStateForesters.ThewinningsloganwassubmittedbytheOhioDivisionofForestry:“REMEMBER...SMOKEYHASFORFIFTYYEARS.”
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 87
USDAForestService
Smokey Bear as a Cub with Judy Bell
88 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
The Postwar Development Era, �9��-�959
D ueinparttothevastlyincreaseddemandforwoodproductsandthe constructionofnewhomes,thepostwarnationalforestmanagerswere activeinopeningvastforestareastotimbermanagement.Untilthen,thetimberindustryviewedthenationalforestsashugetimbersourcesthatneededtobekeptoffthemarketsothatthetimberindustrycouldkeepprivatetimberpriceshigh.Thetimberindustrynowsoughtcheapnationalforesttimbertosupplementorreplaceheavilycutoverprivateforestlands.TheopeningofthenationalforeststotimberharvestingandroaddevelopmentafterWorldWarIIwouldhaveconsequencesthatwearestillfeelingtoday.
Timber Management
Thetechnologyofextractingtimberfromthewoodschangeddramatically.BeforetheDepressionandwar,muchlumberingwasdonewithaxesandcrosscutsaws,butafterthewar,everyonewasusingthenew,highlyefficientchainsaws.Logtransportationevolvedfromhorses,oxen,floatinglogsdownrivers,andrailroadstothenewsystemsofroadsandtrucks,andevenballoonsandhelicoptersbythe1970’s.Withtheincreasedemphasisontimberproduction,thenumberoftimbersalesjumped.ForestryschoolsaroundtheNationweretrainingthousandsofnewforesterswhowerededicatedtofindingmoreefficientandintensivemethodsofmanagingthenationalforests.TheForestServicewasenteringwhathasbeencalledthe“hardhatera.”Intensiveforestmanagementwasbeginninginearnest.CongresspassedtheTongassTimberActonJuly27,1947,whichauthorizedfour50-yeartimbersalesonAlaska’sTongassNationalForest.
USDAForestService
Logging truck on Pole Road, Clearwater National Forest (Idaho), 1935
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 89
A Large Douglas-Fir Tree Being Felled by Ax and Crosscut Saw in Western Washington, circa 1899
USDAForestService
Early Chainsaw (Gas) Felling Sugar Pine, Stanislaus Na-tional Forest (California), 1948
USDAForestService
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TREE CUTTING TECHNOLOGY
AdaptedfromEncyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History(1983)andothersources.
Treecutting(logging)technologyhasundergoneextensivechangesinthelast200years.Whencolonistsarrivedontheeasternseaboard,theaxwastheonlymethodtofelltreestoclearfarmland,buildhouses,andprovidefirewoodforthehearth.YetearlysettlerswerefacedwithmanyproblemsintheNewWorld,includingthefactthatthetreeswereverylargeandverytall,unlikethetreesthesettlershadleftinEurope.
By1789,theAmericanfellingaxevolvedtomeetthesettlers’needs.Thisuniqueaxwasstraighthandledandsinglebitted(oneblade),whichgavegreatbalanceandmorepowertothestroke.Itsshort,heavy,wedge-shapedbladewasbothdurableandeasilyextractedfromthewood.Curvedhandlesbecamestandardduringthe19thcentury.Sometimearound1850,loggersbeganusingadouble-bittedax.Thisnewinventionprovedtobeverypopular.Theaxhadtheadvantageofhavingtwocuttingedges,yetstillpossessedthebalanceanddurabilityofthesingle-bittedax.Bythe1880’s,Americansweremakingthesebladesofcaststeel—ratherthanironwithasteelcuttingedgeweldedon.
AmericansettlersalsomodifiedEuropeancuttingorchoppingtechniques.InsteadofmakingV-shapedcutsatalmostthesamelevelonoppositesidesofatreetrunk,Americansmadeonecutlowerthantheother(theunder-cut)andmadebothcutsflatonthebottom.Thismethodgavethefellergreatercontroloverthedirectionthetreewouldfallandreducedthetime-consuminguseofwedgesandlevers.
Beginninginthe1870’s,crosscutsawswereadaptedtofellingtrees—amajorinnovation.Crosscutsawshadlongbeenusedtocutlogsintolengthsoncetheywereontheground,butnowthesawswereusedinthehorizon-talpositiontocutthetreesdown.Twocrosscutsawdevelopmentshelpedthismajoradvance:Theinventionofrakerteeth,whichwhencoupledwithcuttingteethandgulletscarriedawaythesawdustandtreepitchorsapthatwouldoftenclogthesawblade.Theinventionresultedinasawthatcouldcutgreenstandingtreeswithoutbindingtheblade.Theotherinventionwastheadoptionofthetemperedsteelblade,whichwasstrongerthanprevioussawsandwouldremainsharpthroughhoursofuse.Useofcrosscutsaws,especiallythetwo-mansaws,spreadrapidlyandbecametheindustrystan-dardformanyyears.Bytheturnofthe20thcentury,newsawdesignswithdifferentteethhadbeendevelopedforuseondifferenttreespecies.Inthe1920’s,thebucksawreplacedthecrosscutsawintheNortheastandCanada.Thebucksawwaslighter,butnotsuitableforlargetrees.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 9�
ThespringboardwasintroducedinthefarWestandincypressloggingintheSouth.Essentially,springboardsweremetal-tippedplanksthatwereinsertedintonotcheschoppedintothetreetrunk.Thesespringboardsservedasplatformsonwhichthefellersstood,allowingthemtobeabovethedenseundergrowthandabovetheswollenbaseoftheold-growthtrees,whichwereoftenpitch-ladenandfullofrottenwood.
Duringthisperiod,loggingoperationswereoftenalongtheedgesofstreamsandrivers,makingthetransportationoflogsdownstreamtothemillarelativelyeasytask—riverlogdrives.Asharvestingproceeded,loggingoperationsmovedfartherandfartherawayfromtheriver’sedge,creatingaproblem—howtomovetheheavylogs.Loggersrespondedbycuttingsmallerlengthlogsor,inthecaseofredwoodsandotherlargetrees,bysplitting(riving)thelogslengthwise.
Yardingorskiddingofthelogsalsochangedoverthedecades.Themostdifficultaspectwasmovingthelogsfromwheretheywerefelledtoaplacewheretheycouldbetransportedtothemill.Logmovingtechnologypro-gressedquicklyintheUnitedStatesfromthehumaneffortappliedthroughbruteforceandprimitivetoolstooxenandhorses.IntheNortheastandLakeStates,logswereveryoftenhauledduringthewintermonthswhenhorsescouldeasilypullheavilyladensledsovertheiceandsnow.
Mechanizationcametothewoodsintheformofhigh-wheelloggingwherelogsweresuspendedunderanarchthatconnectedasetoflargewoodenwheels.Highwheels,astheywerecalled,werepulledbyhorsesoroxen,andlatersteampoweredtractors.Beginninginthe1880’s,railroadswithspecialgearedlocomotiveswereusedtotransportthelogsfromtheforesttothemill.Threewell-knowngeardrivenlocomotivesweremanufacturedbyShay,Climax,andHeisler.ManyofthefirstForestServicetimbersaleswererailroadoperations.Agreatimprovementonhaulinglogstotransportationsiteswastheinventionofthestationarysteam-poweredDolbeerdonkeyenginestoyard(pull)logsfromwheretheyfelltoacentrallocation.Theprocesswasreferredtoasgroundleadlogging.
Thecrawler-typetractor,firstpoweredbygasoline,thendieselengines,wasusedbeginninginthe1920’stopulllogsalongthegroundorusedwithbigwheels,archedsteelaxles,andA-frameloggingarches.Inthe1920’s,withtheinventionofthecable-operatedbladebyForestServiceemployeesinPortland,Oregon,the“cat”wasreadytoreplacethedonkeyenginetohaullogsorbuildroadsinalmostanyterrain.Gasoline-thendiesel-poweredloggingtruckswereusedintheforestsbeginningaroundWorldWarI,buttheirmainimpactcameshortlyaftertheendofWorldWarII.Sincethattimealmostallloggingoperationsonnationalforestshaveusedloggingroadsandtruckstocarrylogsfromtheforesttothemill.
9� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Newertechnologicalinventions,suchashigh-leadloggingwithaspartree,skylinefull-suspensionsystemswithoneormorespartreesortowers,bal-loon,andhelicopteroperations,allowedlogstobecarriedhighovertheforestwithverylittledraggingofthelogsthroughtheoftensteep,rug-gedcountrywithfragilesoils.Manyofthesenewsystemswouldbecomerequiredonthesteepmountainouscountrythatwascharacteristicofmanynationalforests.
Thefirstpowersawwasbuiltinthe1870’swhentheRansomesteamtree-fellerwasdesigned.Whatmayhavebeenthefirstgasoline-poweredchainsawwastestedin1905atEureka,California.Theseearlyexperimentswerefollowedbyair-andelectric-poweredmodels.Moderatelysuccessfuldrag(reciprocating)sawswereusedtocutfallenlogstolengthandtomakeshortboltsforshingles.Alloftheseexperimentalmodelsprovedtobetoocum-bersome,tooheavy,andtooundependable.Thenin1927,AndreasStihlofStuttgart,Germany,builtaportable,gasoline-poweredchainsawthatrevo-lutionizedtheindustry.ButbecauseoftheGreatDepression,powersawsremainedrelativelyrareuntilafterWorldWarII.
Thechainsawsoonreplacedthecrosscutandbucksawsforfellingtrees,aswellastheremainingaxwork.Thechainsawalsomadenewfellingtech-niquespossible.Inthebigtimbercountry,theHumboldtundercutwasused.Afteraninitialhorizontalcutonthetreetrunk,asecondanglewassaweduptothehorizontalcut;thenthe“wedge”ofwoodbetweenthetwocutswasremovedfromthestump.Thetreetrunkwasthencutfromthebacksidealongthehorizontalcutonthefrontsideuntilitwouldfalldown.Thiswouldleavethebuttendofthelogwithasquareend.
Bythe1940’s,hydraulicshearsappearedthatcouldcutthroughstandingtreeswhenpressurewasappliedtoheavy-dutyblades.Bythe1960’s,ava-rietyoftractor-mountedshearswereinuse,withmanymachinesdesignednotonlytocutthetrees,butalsotoremovethebarkandlimbs,cutthetreetodesiredlengths,andstackthelogs.Thesenewsystemsworkedverywellonrelativelyflatterrainandwithsmall-diametertrees.Anotheradvantagewasthattheycouldoperateduringeitherthedayornight.
Otherinventionshaveplayedrolesintheevolutionofloggingtechnology,someofwhichhavecomeintowidespreaduse—otherslimiteduse.WithincreasingpressurefromtheFederalagenciestoreducegrounderosiondur-ingandafterloggingoperations,restrictingtheuseofheavyequipmenthasbecomethenorm.Full-suspensionoflogs,useoflow-pressuretire-tractors,selectivecutting,directionalfelling,andaerialremovaloflogsareallmea-suresthatmayberequiredofloggingcompaniesinordertologonnationalforestsorBureauofLandManagementlandstoday.Inanycase,thenewtechniquesandequipmentareeasierontheland,usuallymoreefficient,butalsomorecostly.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 93
H.J. Andrews
USDAForestService
Research Builds
Duringthesameperiod,nationalforestresearchcameofage.Researchsta-tionsandnewexperimentalforestsconductedstudiestofindbetterwaystoharvesttrees,constructnewroads,andmeasuretheeffectsofloggingandroadsonstreamsandwatersheds.Asystemofmultifunctionalresearchcenterswasestablishedin1946,witheachcenterconcernedaboutitsownassignedresearchterritory,andanewprogramwasdesignedtoaddresslocalforestandrangeprob-lems,withapplicationstoregionalandnationalissues.
Experimen-tal Forest Willamette National For-est (Oregon), 1953
TheBLMintheDepartmentoftheInteriorwasformedin1946fromtheGraz-ingServiceandtheGLO.TheBLMcurrentlymanagessome264millionacresofFederalland—mostlygrazinglandwiththeexceptionoftheoldO&CRailroadGrantlandinwesternOregon,whichisheavilytimbered.
Forest Protection
TheForestPestControlActof1947pavedthewayforincreasedprotectionfrompestoutbreaks.TheactencouragedFederal,State,andprivatecooperationintheprevention,control,andeveneradicationofforestinsectsanddiseasesthatreducedtreegrowthorkilledtrees.In1948,theForestServicebecameinvolvedintheYazoo-LittleTallahatchieFloodPreventionProject—thelargesttreeplant-ingprogramthecountryhaseverknown–withsome621,000acresplanted.Theprojectwasdesignedtorehabilitateseverelyerodinglands–withsomegulliesasmuchas50feetdeep—inMississippi.TheUSDASoilConservationService(nowcalledtheNaturalResourcesConservationService),aswellasotherFederal,State,19counties,andmanylocalagencies,cooperatedinthisextensiveprojectuntilitendedin1985.Newtechnologyineveryfieldbecameveryimportantinmanagingtheforests.
9� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Richard E. McArdle— Eighth Chief, 1952-1962
RichardEdwinMcArdlewasbornonFebru-ary25,1899,inLexington,Kentucky.In1952,McArdlebecameChiefoftheForestService.AsthefirstChieftoholdaPh.D.andtohavebeenaresearcher,hefelttheneedforbalancedmanagementofthenationalforests.DuringhistenureasChief,The Timber Resource Reviewwaspublished;itevaluatedthetotaltimberresourcesintheUnitedStates.ThelandmarkMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960establishedpolicyforthebroaddevelopmentandadministrationofthenationalforestsinthepublicinterest.
McArdlewassuccessfulinincreasingintensivemanagementofthenationalforests,aswellasprovidingforreforestationofloggedandotherlands,curbingminingandgrazingabuses,andacceleratingvariousrecreationprojects.Duringhistenure,theForestServicewasassignedthemanage-mentof4millionacresofwesternplainslandsdesignatedasnationalgrasslands.McArdlealsowasinstrumentalinupgradingForestServicepersonnel,hiringnewspecialiststobringaboutintensivemanagement,andincreasingtheprofessionalismofemployees.Heimprovedrelationswiththetimberindustrybybackingawayfromearlierproposalstoregulatetimberharvestingpracticesonprivatelands.
RichardE.McArdlewrote:
FarmwoodlandandothersmallprivateforestsholdthekeytothisNation’sfuturetimbersupply.Theselands,generallyinpoorcondition,arethegreatestpotentialsourceofwoodfiber.Pro-ducingmorewoodontheselandsrequiresconcertedeffortbyStateandFederalforests,forestindustries,andthelandowners.
New Specialists and Land
Duringthe1950’s,forestengineers,landscapearchitects,andsilviculturistsbecamecommonintheForestService.In1954,theagencybecameresponsibleformanagingapproximately4millionacresof“landutilizationprojects”(referredtoasL-Ulands),whichwerebasicallygrazinglandsontheGreatPlains.Theselands,acquiredbytheFederalGovernmentduringtheDepressionyearsofthe1930’s,wereinmanycasesrelinquishedorabandonedfarms.In1960,theearlierlandutilizationprojectsbecamethefirstnationalgrasslands.
In1953,theDepartmentofAgriculturetransferredforestinsectanddiseasere-searchandcontrolworkfromotherDepartmentagenciestotheForestService.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 95
NATIONAL GRASSLANDS
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sEssayonNationalGrasslands
TheoriginoftheUSDAForestService-administerednationalgrasslandsbeginswiththedisposalofpubliclandsintheearly20thcentury.TheEn-largedHomesteadActof1909,forexample,offeredfreelandtothosewhowouldcultivatetheGreatPlains.MarketdemandforwheatduringandafterWorldWarIfurthermotivated“sodbusters”tosettlepreviouslybypassedgrasslandareasandplowthemforcultivation.
Theremovalofthegrassthathelddownthesoilonthesemarginalfarmlandscontributedtotheerosionofthe“dustbowl”inthedroughtyearsofthe1930’s.Inthatdecade,anestimated21/2millionpeopleabandonedtheirsmallfarms,mainlyontheplains.Manyofthemmigratedtothewestcoasttoworkinthefields.TheyoungauthorJohnSteinbeckwassoaffectedbythesightofthesefamiliespouringintoCaliforniatoworkthefruitharveststhatheimmortalizedtheminthenovelThe Grapes of Wrath.TheeconomicandecologicalplightoftheNationspurredGovernmentactiontoaddresstheeffectsoftheDepression,especiallyinthe“dustbowl”areaoftheGreatPlains.
In1931,anationalconferenceentitled“LandUtilization”calledforasurveyofsubmarginalfarmlands.Oncetheselandswereidentified,theGovern-mentbegantopurchasethemundertheauthorizationoftheNational
Little Missouri National Grassland, Custer Na-tional Forest (North Dakota), 1995
USDAForestService
9� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
IndustrialRecoveryActof1933andEmergencyReliefAppropriationsActof1935.Theaimwastocontrolerosion,producemoreforage,andensureeconomicstabilityforruralresidentswhohadremained.Depletedcroplandwasplantedwithgrassandthegrazingofcattleandsheeponthepublicrangelandschangedfromyeararoundgrazingtograzingonarotatingbasis.Variousgovernmentprogramsundertookwaterandsoilconservationproj-ects.
ThepurchasedlandswerecalledLandUtilization(L-U)projectsafterthetitleofthe1931conference.TheGovernmentobtainedtitleto11.3mil-lionacresin45Statesfor$47.5million(about$4.40anacre)byvoluntarysales.AftertheL-Ulandswerepurchased,theywereusedforpracticaldem-onstrationsofthebestsoilconservationtechniquestosetanexampleforadjacentprivatelandholders.Between1933and1946,therewere250L-Uprojectsthatfocusedongrazing,forests,recreation,wildlife,andwatershedprotection.DuringtheDepressionyears,reliefagencieshiredunemployedlocalstoworkonL-Usoilconservationprojects,enablingmanywhostayedonthelandtosurvive.SpecificprojectsoftheSoilConservationService(SCS)(nowNaturalResourcesConservationService)includedbuildingstockwaterpondsandreservoirs,plantingtrees,seedinggrasslands(withcrested-wheatgrass,abunchgrassoriginallyimportedfromSiberia),andcontrollingerosionandfire.
ThelandswerefirstadministeredbytheU.S.ResettlementAdministration,latercalledtheFarmSecurityAdministration.TheBankhead-JonesFarmTenantActof1937gavecustodyoftheL-UlandstotheSecretaryofAg-ricultureandauthorizedmoreextensiveconservationefforts.In1938,theSCSwasgiventhetaskofmanagingtheL-Ulands.TheperiodafterWorldWarIIwasoneofintenserangerehabilitationbytheSCS.
BySecretaryofAgricultureAdministrativeOrderdatedDecember24,1953(effectiveJanuary2,1954),managementoftheremaining5.5millionacresofL-UlandswastransferredfromtheSCStotheForestService.Theorigi-nalintentwasthattheForestServiceactasinterimmanagerpendingfinaldisposaloftheseacquiredlands.By1958,about1.5millionacreshadbeenincorporatedintoadjacentnationalforests.Discussionoverthefutureoftheselandscontinued.
OnJune20,1960,some3,804,000acresweredesignatedasthe19na-tionalgrasslands.TheForestServicewasnowresponsiblefortheperma-nentretentionandmanagementofthegrasslands.The1960orderstatedthatthenationalgrasslandsweretobeadministeredaspartoftheNationalForestSystemundertheBankhead-JonesFarmTenantActandthattheFor-estServicewastomanagetheselandsforoutdoorrecreation,range,tim-ber,watershed,andwildlifeandfish.Thisnewtaskcreatedsomeinternalconfusionabouttheplaceofthenationalgrasslandsintheagencyandtheirnationalfunction.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 97
WhentheForestServicetookovermanagementofthegrasslands,existingSCSpolicieswerenotreadilyacceptedbytheForestService.TheForestServicehadmanagedrangelandfor50yearsandmanyofitsrangestafffeltthatthenewnationalgrasslandsshouldabidebyestablishedagencypractic-es.Oneareaofdifferencewasworkingwithgrazingassociations.In1939,theSCShadenteredintocooperativeagreementswithGreatPlainsStates’grazingassociationsanddistricts.TheseassociationsoriginatedontheGreatPlainsasearlyas1931whenstockmenorganizedtorequestthatCongresswithdrawpublicdomainlandfromhomesteadingandpermitittobeleasedonalong-termbasis.
ForestServiceofficialswerereluctanttosurrendertograzingassociationscontrolofactivitiessuchasissuingpermits,collectingfees,andcontrollingtrespassandfires.However,themasstransferofSCSemployeesinMon-tanaandtheDakotastotheForestServiceinthistransitionperiodledtotheeventualacceptanceofmanyoftheSCSpractices.Thecurrentpolicyistorelyongrazingassociationswherepractical.ThisarrangementismostcommoninthelargerL-UrangelandsinthenorthernGreatPlains.Bythe1970’s,nationalgrasslandsinnorthernNewMexico,Oklahoma,andTexasceasedtohavegrazingassociations.Instead,theForestServiceissuedindi-vidualgrazingpermitsandfencedoffgrasslandunitstomakeseparatepas-tures.Thechangewasalogicaladaptationtotheregion’secologyandlandusepatterns.(TheL-UlandspurchasedinNewMexico-Oklahoma-TexasareaweresmallerthanthoseonthenorthernGreatPlains.Forexample,theBlackKettle[Texas]allotmentsrangedfrom30to1,500acres.)
Thenationalenvironmentalfocusofthe1970’sand1980’sonthenationalforestsspilledovertothenationalgrasslands.Districtrangersonbothnationalgrasslandsandnationalforestdistrictsfoundthatlocalconcernsoverspecificprojectimpactsweretransformedintonationalissues.Onthegrasslandsthishasmeanttheemploymentofmorewildlifebiologistsandanincreasedstressonnoncommodityresources.
Inthelate-1990’s,managementofthenationalgrasslandsintheDakotaswasgivengreateremphasiswhentheyweregiventhesamemanagementtreatmentasthenationalforests–onesupervisor’sofficetomanageseveralgrasslands.Futuremanagementofthenationalgrasslandswillinvolvemanymorespecialists,ecosystemmanagement,collaborativestewardship,andcooperativeeffortsbetweenallthespecialinterestgroups.Itwillnotbeaneasytask.
Mining
In1955,theMultiple-UseMiningActhelpedpreventabusesofmininglawsandcurtailminingabusesthatinterferedwithmanagingnationalforestlands.Anim-portantfeatureofthislawwasthat,afterpropernotice,miningclaimantscould
98 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
berequestedtoprovethevalidityoftheirminingclaims.Thisprocedurequicklyeliminatedthousandsofabandonedminingclaimsonthenationalforests.
Theyear1956sawthefirstpracticalairplanetankerairdropofwaterandchemi-calsonaforestfire.ManyoftheairplaneswereconvertedWorldWarIIbomb-ers,nowwiththeirbombbayswerefullofBorateandothermixturesratherthanbombs.
Air Tanker Dropping Chemical on a Fire
USDAForestService
MINING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
“Prosperousminingisimpossiblewithoutprosperousforests,”ForestSer-viceChiefGiffordPinchottoldtheminingindustryin1901inhisquestforsupportforforestconservationandFederalforestreserves.Thelinkagebe-tweenthefortunesofminingandforestsintheUnitedStatesgrewfollowingdiscoveryoftherichComstocksilverlodeatVirginiaCity,Nevada–largeundergroundminesneededminetimberstosupportthetunnels.Between1860and1880,anestimated600millionboardfeetoftimberfromSierraNevadaforestswereusedintheComstock.Manynewsawmillswerebuiltaroundthecountrytosupplyminetimbersfromlocalforests.
Pinchotwasaftermorethanjustaskingminerstoconservelumberwhenhetoldthemabouttherelationshipbetweenforestryandmining.MinersandprospectorshadbeenearlyopponentsoftheproposedFederalforestreserves.TheyworriedthatminingwouldberestrictedonsuchreservesandvoicedtheirconcernsinthecongressionaldebateovertheOrganicActof1897.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ 99
TheGeneralLandOffice’s(GLO)firsttimbersale(CaseNo.1)wasmadein1898totheHomestakeMiningCompanyfortimberfromtheBlackHillsForestReserve.Homestakepurchased15millionboardfeetatadollarperthousand.Thecontractrequiredthatnotreessmallerthan8inchesindiameterberemoved,andthatthebrushresultingfromtheharvestbe“piled.”
TheFederalGovernment’sregulationofminingwasnotacriticalissueinCongressuntiltheCaliforniaGoldRushof1849andlaterrushesinColo-rado,Nevada,Idaho,andMontana.These“finds”resultedinclaimsbeingworkedonpublicdomainlands.AftertheCivilWar,Congresspassedanumberoflawsintendingtoestablishsomesemblanceofordertothemin-ingindustry.Twooftheselaws—theLodeLawof1866andthePlacerActof1870—merelylegalizedwhathadbeentheunofficial“lawoftheland.”
TheGeneralMiningLawof1872consolidatedtheearlierlawsandcon-firmedtheprinciplethatmineralsfoundonpublicdomainlandbelongedtothepersonwhofound(located)them.The1872lawalso:
• Setstandardsformakingmineralclaimsonpublicland• Setnoroyaltyfeesforproduction• Setfeesfortransferofthelandfrompublictoprivateownership($2.50
peracre)• Setthesizeoftheclaims• Allowedaclaimanttoholdthelandindefinitelyaslongasminimalwork
wascompleted($100valueperyear)ontheclaim
Aclaimwassetat20acres,withnolimitonthenumberofclaimsthatcouldbefiled.Apersoncouldholdhisclaimbyperforming$100worthofworkeachyearorbyobtainingpermanentlegalownershipofthemineralsandlandsurfacebypayingafeeto“patent”theclaim.Mostimportantly,theclaimantwasgrantedlegalclaimtothediscoveryofavaluablemineraldeposit.
ThetransferoftheforestreservesfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgriculturein1905removedmuchoftheUSDAforesters’impedimentinregulatingtheforestreserves;however,miningremainedundercontroloftheDepartmentoftheInterior.RichardBallinger,ap-pointedin1907toheadGLOandelevatedtoSecretaryoftheInteriorin1909,differedwithChiefGiffordPinchotovercoalclaimsinAlaska.Ballingerwantedthempatented,whilePinchotarguedforFederalleasing.Pinchotfearedanationalcoalfaminewouldresultiftheprivatesectorwasallowedcompletefreedomtoexploitcoalfieldswithoutconcernforfutureneeds.TheminingindustrydepictedPinchotasouttocurtailthecitizen’srighttoengageinfreeenterprise—the“littleguy”wasbeingcrushedbyGovernment.By1910,thedisputebetweenPinchotandBallingerreachedthepointthatPresidentTaftfiredPinchot.Historiansnownotethatthecoal
�00 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
debatewasonlyasmallpartoftheconflictbetweenPinchot,PresidentTaft,andhiscabinetovernaturalresourcemanagementpolicies.
In1920,CongresspassedtheMineralLeasingAct,whichincorporatedoilandnaturalgas,oilshale,phosphates,sulfates,carbonites,andothersurfaceandsubsurfaceresourcesunderasystemofrentalandroyaltyfees.TheGovernmentstillretainedownershipoftheland.The1947MaterialsDis-posalActsetstandardsfortheFederalGovernmenttosellmaterialssuchassand,gravel,buildingstone,clay,pumice,andcindersfromFederallands.Competitivebiddingwasanintegralpartoftheact.
Intheearly1950’s,theForestServiceandseveralconservationgroupslaunchedacampaigntoexposeabusesfoundunderthevariousmininglaws.Theresultinginvestigationsfoundwidespreadproblems—miningclaimswerebeingusedashomeandrecreationcabinsites,excusestocutthetimber,fishingandhuntingcampsinremoteareas,commercialbusi-nesses,andeventrashdumps.CongressrespondedbypassingtheMultiple-UseMiningActof1955.Asaresult,theForestServicewasabletoreclaimthousandsof“mineral”claimsthatwereneverusedfortheirauthorizedandintendedpurpose,othersthathadnominerals,andevenmorethathadnotliveduptoannualworkrequirementsontheclaim.
TheFederalLandPolicyandManagementAct(FLPMA)of1976changedtheproceduresforfilingmineralclaims—thepaperworkhadtobefiledwiththeBureauofLandManagement(ratherthanthelocalcountycourt-house)andallclaimsneededtoberefiledby1979.AsaresultofFLPMA,theFederalGovernmentfoundthatsome1.1millionminingclaimswerelocatedonFederallandsandalsoeliminatedmanyfraudulentclaims.
Legislationto“fix”theGeneralMiningLawof1872hasbeenproposedmanytimesovertheyears,buteveryefforthasbeensuccessfullyblockedbytheminingindustryandwesterncongressionaldelegations.
Recreation and Timber Demands
Recreationaldemandsonthenationalforestswereincreasing;millionsofnewvisitorsusedthenationalforestsandparks.“OperationOutdoors,”a5-yearpro-gramdesignedtoimproveandreplacemanyoftheolderCCC-builtstructures,waslaunchedin1957toexpandtherecreationfacilitiesandopportunitiesonthenationalforeststomeetdemand.
In1958,theForestServiceissuedtheresultsofthenationwideTimberResourceReview,“TimberResourcesforAmerica’sFuture.”Thisextensivenationalstudy,begun6yearsearlierandpreparedwiththeassistanceofotherFederal,State,andprivateorganizations,foundthattheNationneededtogrowmoretimbertomeetexpecteddemands.Thestudywasapreviewofmoreextensivetimberresourceassessmentsthatwouldbemadeinthefuture.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �0�
Atthesametime,therewasagrowingconcernthattheForestServicewasclearcuttingtoomanyareasthatwerealsousedforrecreation.Thisissueandothersaboutresourceprioritieswouldinvolvemanyoutdoorgroups,timberindustryorganizations,theForestService,andCongress,andwouldresultintheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960.
Mostofthenationalforestswere“openedup”throughanextensivenetworkofroadsfortimber,recreation,andprotectionactivities.Manyoftheoldertrailswerereplacedbythegrowingroadsystemusedtoaccessremoteforestareas.
Winter Olym-pics at Squaw Valley, Tahoe National For-est (Califor-nia), 1960
USDAForestService
�0� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
The Fully Managed, Multiple-Use Forest Era, �9�0-�970
I ntheearly1960’s,anewwaveofnationalconcernabouttheconserva- tionofnaturalresourcesbegan.Itresultedinseveralcontroversiesover themanagementofthenationalforestsandinthepassageofmanyenvi-ronmentalprotectionlaws.
Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of �9�0
ThefirstoftheenvironmentalprotectionlawswastheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960.Itspurposewastoensurethatallpossibleusesandbenefitsofthenationalforestsandgrasslandswouldbetreatedequally.The“multipleuses”includedoutdoorrecreation,range,timber,watershed,andwildlifeandfishinsuchcombinationsthattheywouldbestmeetandservehumanneeds.
Wildlife Biologist Bernie Carter Measuring Seed Production,Umatilla National Forest (Oregon), 1964
USDAForestService
ThisactwasnecessarybecausemanymembersofCongressandinterestgroupsfeltthattheForestServicewasgivingtoomuchattentiontotimberharvestingonthenationalforests—just15yearsafterthehugepost-wardevelopmentpushtoopenthenationalforestsforneededtimbertobeusedinthenationalhous-ingboom.Multiple-useforestrywasin“full-swing,”withanincreasingemphasisbeingplacedonnontimberresources,whiletimberproductionincreasedtothemaximumintheprivatesectorandapproachedthatforthenationalforests.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �03
Hiker at In-dian Peaks Wilderness on the Roosevelt National Forest (Colorado)
Intheearly1960’s,thefamilyofGiffordPinchotdonatedGreyTowers,thefamilyhomeandsurroundinglandinMilford,Pennsylvania,totheForestService.Extensivestabilizationandrepairworkwasneededonthemagnificentbuilding.GreyTowersisoneoftwoForestServicebuildingslistedasaNationalHistoricLandmark.TheotheristheTimberlineLodgeonthesouthfaceofOregon’sMt.HoodontheMt.HoodNationalForest.ThenewlyformedPinchotInstituteforConservationStudieswasdedicatedatGreyTowersbyPresidentJohnF.KennedyonSeptember24,1963.ThePinchotInstitutecurrentlyresidesinWashington,DC.
USDAForestService
�0� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Oregon Governor Mark Hatfield and Astronaut Walter Cunningham Talk-ing During Moon Walks Preparation on Lava Beds, Oregon, Willamette and Deschutes National Forests
PhotoCredit:USDAForestService
President Kennedy and Chief Cliff at Pinchot Institute Dedication (Pennsylvania), 1963
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �05
Edward P. Cliff— Ninth Chief, 1962-1972
EdwardParleyCliffwasborninthetinycom-munityofHeberCity,Utah,onSeptember3,1909.ServingasChieffrom1962to1972,Cliffexperiencedadecadeofrapidchangewithintheagencyandaroundthecountry.Hedevotedmuchtimetopromotingabetterunderstand-ingofpublicforestmanagementproblemswithgrazinginterestsandthetimberindustry—andespeciallywiththegeneralpublic.Publicinter-estinthemanagementofthenationalforests,aswellasdemandsfornumerousforestresources,expandedduringthisera.HehelpedtheForest
Servicedevelopalong-rangeforestresearchprogram.
ImportantforthenationalforestrecreationistswasCliff’svisionofmovingtheForestServiceintomorerecreationalimprovementsandprograms–causedbyan“explosion”inoutdoorrecreation—hiking,camping,wilder-nesstravel,mountainclimbing,andmanyothernationalforestoutdooractivities.TheWildernessActof1964gavecongressionalblessingtoanewNationalWildernessPreservationSystemandestablishedmorethan9mil-lionacresofpreviously“wild”or“wilderness”areasasthecore.TheForestServicehostedthenewJobCorpsprogram,whichoperatedover50campsonnationalforestlands.Theagencyalsobecameinvolvedinthenationwidenaturalbeautycampaign,ruralareadevelopment,andthewaronpoverty.
EdwardP.Cliffwrote:
Asthepopulationofthecountryrisesanddemandsonthetim-ber,forage,water,wildlife,andrecreationresourcesincrease,thenationalforestsmoreandmoreprovideforthematerialneedsoftheindividual,theeconomiesofthetownsandStatesandcon-tributetotheNation’sstrengthandwell-being.Thusthenationalforestsservethepeople.
MULTIPLE-USE SUSTAINED-YIELD ACT OF 1960
TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActofJune12,1960(MUSY),wasthecongressionalembodimentof55yearsofForestServicemanagementandpolicy.TheOrganicActof1897guidedtheagencyfordecadeswiththemanagementideasofprotectionoftheforestsandwaterandtheproductionoftimber.Forthemostpart,Federalforestmanagementwasnotcontrover-
�0� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
sialduringthisperiod,butmajorchangeswereonthehorizon.Partofthereasonfortheactwasarealizationthateveryonecouldnotgeteverythingtheywantedorneededfromthenationalforests’finiteresources.Evenanequalbalancingactbetweentheavailablenaturalresourceswasnotpos-sible.
Bythemid-1950’s,thefirstinklingofashiftinmanagementphilosophycamewiththecongressionaldebatesaboutmultiple-usebills.ThefirstwasintroducedbySenatorHubertH.HumphreyofMinnesota.Basically,therewasagrowingconcernthatinthedecadeofrapiddevelopmentofthena-tionalforestssincetheendofWorldWarII,theForestServicewasleaningsomuchtowardmanagingoftimberthatotherresources,especiallyrecre-ation,weregettingshortshrift.
Initially,theForestServicewasopposedorneutraltoamultiple-usebill.However,theForestServicewasbeginningtofeeltheheatfromgrowingoppositiontoitspoliciesaboutlogginginornearrecreationsites.OnefocusofthiscontentionwasinCalifornia’sDeadmanCreekarea.The3,000-acresitecontainedastandofold-growthJeffreypine.WhentheForestServiceannouncedplanstodo“sanitationsalvage”inthearea,reactionwasswiftandallegationsweremadethattherecreationandscientificvalueswerebe-ingignoredforthetimbervalue.SimilarconflictsaroseinmanypartsoftheWest.
Bythelate1950’s,theconservationgroupsgenerallysupportedtheHum-phreybill,withtheexceptionoftheSierraClub,whichfeltthatsupportofthemultiple-usebillwouldjeopardizeitseffortstopassawildernessbill.Duringthespringof1960,agreementsweremadewithvariousgroupstoclarifywordingintheactsothattimberwouldnotdominate,thatrecre-ationwouldbeequaltootherresourceusesonthenationalforests,andthattheOrganicActof1897wouldonlybesupplemented,notreplaced.
Aftertheactwassignedin1960,theForestServicewasactiveinmanagingthenationalforestswhereallresources(timber,wildlife,range,water,andoutdoorrecreation)weretreatedequally.Manyrangersdidtheirutmosttoembodytheprinciplesofmultipleuseintotheirmanagement.Forsome,however,theactsimplyredefinedwhattheForestServicehadbeendoingfordecades:Timberharvestingandroadconstruction.Manypeopleout-sidetheagencysawthatforestswerenotmanagedanydifferentlyunderMUSY—itwasstilljustaroadleadingtoanuglyclearcut.This example of redefinition of the old ways rather than managing differently on the ground had implications for the forest management controversies of the 1970’s, 1980’s, and 1990’s.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �07
ThepassageoftheWildernessActof1964,opposedbytheForestSer-viceasbeingauthorizedbyMUSY,setthestageforstridentantagonismexpressedbytheoldconservationorganizationsandnewenvironmentalgroupsthatwouldbefeltbytheForestServicetothisday.Oneimpor-tantaspectoftheMUSYwasthecreationofmultiple-useplanning,whichbroughtanumberofnewspecialistssuchassoilscientistsandwildlifebiologistsintodailylandmanagementdecisions.
Work Programs
In1963,theForestServicebecameinvolvedwiththeAcceleratedPublicWorks(APW)programthatwasdesignedtoputunemployedmen(therewerestillnowomenontheseprojects)toworkonprojectstodeveloporimprovenationalforestresources.The1963-64programprovidedimmediateworkforover9,000menonmorethan100nationalforestsin35States.Italsobroughtincreasedbusinesstomanycommunitiesadjacenttonationalforests—providingmuch-neededbooststotheireconomies.APWprojectsincludedworkingoncampandpicnicareas;plantingtrees;thinningtimberstands;improvingfishandwildlifehabitat;andconstructingorimprovingroads,trails,firelookouts,andotherfacilities.
USDAForestService
Ojibway Job Corps Enrollee and Ottawa Na-tional Forest Fish Biologist Taking Water Samples, Ottawa National Forest (Michi-gan),1967
Anewworkprogramforyoung,unemployedyouthbeganin1964andwascalledtheJobCorps.TheJobCorpswasdesignedtogiveyoungmen(youngwomenwereadmittedlater)fromdeprivedbackgroundsbasicschooling,traininginskills,andvalu-ablejobexperiencebeforetheyreturnedtotheirhomecommunities.ItresembledtheolderCCCprogramoftheGreatDepression—par-ticipantswereinvolvedinfirefighting,communitywork,buildingconstruction,andforestryactivitiesonthenationalforests.In1989,theJobCorpsprogramcel-ebratedits25thanniversary,havingservedmorethan1.4millionyouths.
�08 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers Acts
Afteryearsofstruggle,theWildernessActof1964wassignedintolaw.ThisuniquelawestablishedaNationalWildernessPreservationSystemofmorethan9millionacres—incorporatingtheexistingForestServicewildernessareasandcreatingseveralnewones.OneprovisionintheWildernessActcalledforevalua-tionofanynationalforestareasthatwerewithoutroads(hencethename“roadlessareas”)thatmightbeconsideredforfuturewildernessstatus.In1967,theForestServiceundertookaRoadlessAreaReviewandEvaluation(RARE)toidentifyandstudythese“de factowildernesses.”
TheWildandScenicRiversActof1968authorizedanumberofimportant,dis-tinctiveriverstobeclassifiedaswild,scenic,andrecreational.Today,theForestServicemanagesmorethan4,000milesofsuchriversonnearly100riversorriversegments.
USDAForestService
John Muir Wilderness, Sierra Na-tional Forest (California), 1963
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �09
WILDERNESS ACT AND HOWARD ZAHNISER
PassageoftheWildernessActof1964involveddecadesofworkonthepartofmanypeoplebothinsidetheForestServiceandfromavarietyofinter-estgroups.Asearlyasthe1910’sand1920’stherewereseveralimportantproponentsofwildernessdesignationinthenationalforests.ThreemenareconsideredpivotalintheseearlyyearsandallwereForestServiceemploy-ees:AldoLeopold,ArthurH.Carhart,andRobertMarshall.Theireffortsweresuccessfulatthelocallevelincreatingadministrativelydesignatedwildernessprotectionforseveralareasacrossthecountry.Atthenationalpolicylevel,therewasaseriesofpolicydecisions(L-20andURegulations)inthe1920’sand1930’sthatmadewildernessandprimitiveareadesigna-tionrelativelyeasy,butwhatwaslackingwasacommonstandardofman-agementacrossthecountryfortheseareas.Also,sincethesewildernessandprimitiveareaswereadministrativelydesignated,thenextChieforRegionalForestercould“undesignate”anyoftheareaswiththestrokeofapen.
HowardC.Zahniser,executivesecretaryoftheWildernessSociety(foundedbyBobMarshall),becametheleaderinamovementforcongressionallydes-ignatedwildernessareas.Asearlyas1949,ZahniserdetailedhisproposalforFederalwildernesslegislationinwhichCongresswouldestablishana-tionalwildernesssystem,identifyappropriateareas,prohibitincompatibleuses,listpotentialnewareas,andauthorizeacommissiontorecommendchangestotheprogram.Nothingmuchhappenedtotheproposal,butit
Canoeing on the Wild and Scenic Chattooga River, Sum-ter National Forest (South Carolina), 1986
USDAForestService
��0 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
didraisetheawarenessfortheneedtoprotectwildernessesandprimitiveareasfromallformsofdevelopment.
In1955,ZahniserbegananefforttoconvinceskepticsandCongresstosupportabilltoestablishaNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.HesoughttorallypublicopinionthroughwritinginThe Living Wildernessandotherpublications,aswellasorganizingmanytalkstocitizensgroupsacrossthecountry.Draftsofabillwerecirculatedthenextyear.Bythelate1950’s,itseemedthatthewildernessbillwouldeventuallybecomelaw,buttherewerestillmanylegislativebattlestobefought.Atthesametime,theMultiple-UseSustained-YieldAct(MUSY)wasalsobeingpushedthroughCongress.SomehavesuggestedthattheForestServicestronglysupportedMUSYtocounteractthewildernesslegislation.AfterthepassageofMUSYin1960,therewerealsomanywhofeltthattherewasnoneedforasepa-ratewildernessbillbecausewildernesswasoneofthemanymultipleusesallowedintheact.SenatorHubertH.Humphrey(D-MN)becameamajorsupporterofthewildernessbill,butStatewateragencies,andmining,tim-ber,andagriculturalinterestswereverymuchopposed.TheForestServiceand,ironically,theNationalParkServicewerealsobothinitiallyopposedtothebill.Thewildernessbill,whichwasstalledforseveralyearsinCongress,finallycameoutofcommitteewithacompromisethatallowedmininginnationalforestwildernessesuntil1984.
Ironically,HowardZahniser,whopushedsohardfortheact,diedonMay5,justafewmonthsbeforethebillbecamelaw.DougScott,policydirectorofthePewWildernessCenterrecalledHoward’slastdays.“Zahnie[ashewasaffectionatelyknown]wasn’ttheretoseeit[thewildernessbill]...Just2daysaftertestifyingat[thefinalcongressionalhearing],Zahniediedattheageof58...But,hiswidow,Alice,andOlausandtheincomparableMardyMuriestoodatLyndonJohnson’ssidewhenthewildernesslawwaspassed.”PresidentLyndonJohnsonsignedthebillintolawonSeptember3,1964.BecauseofZahniser’srelentlessefforts,hehasoftenbeencalledthe“FatheroftheWildernessAct.”
Theactdesigned9.1millionacresofwilderness,mostlyfromnationalfor-estlands.Overnight,alloftheexistingForestServicewildernessesbecamepartoftheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.AteamofForestSer-vicewildernessmanagersmetsoonafterwardinWashington,DC,tocomeupwithimplementingregulationsforthesenewcongressionallyestablishedwildernesses.Whattheythoughtwouldbeaneasytasktookmanymonthsastheyfoundthattherewerenoconsistentoragreed-uponwaystoman-agetheexistingwildernesses.PartoftheWildernessActof1964alsosetupprocedurestoevaluateexistingprimitiveandroadlessareasforpossibleinclusionintothewildernesssystem.Forthenext20years,theroadlessar-easreviews(RAREandRAREII)wouldplayanimportantandcontroversialroleinForestServicemanagementofthenationalforests.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ���
Using Litigation To Settle Disputes With the Forest Service
Acontroversyeruptedinthemid-1960’sintheSierraNevadamountainrangeofCalifornia.WaltDisneyEnterprisesproposedaskidevelopmentontheSequoiaNationalForestthatwasdesignedtomaketheMineralKingareaadestinationresort.Severalorganizationsfoughtthedevelopment,whichwouldalsohaveaffectedthenearbySequoiaNationalPark.AlawsuitwasfiledbytheSierraClub(SierraClubv.Morton),buttheorganizationeventuallylostthecase,yetitsetprecedentthatorganizationscoulduselitigationinsettlingdisputeswiththeFor-estService.Theskiareawasneverdeveloped.
��� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
The Environmentalism and Public Participation Era, �970-�993
T herewasgrowing,widespreadpublicconcernthatnewlawsand regulationswereneededtopreserveandprotecttheenvironment. SeveraloftheselawsderivedfromanewenvironmentalawarenessbroughtaboutbyRachelCarson’sbookSilent Springin1962,whichdocumentedtheoveruseofpesticides,especiallyDDT.Theuseofchemicals,suchasherbi-cidesandpesticides,cameintocontentiononthenationalforests,leadingtonumerousdemonstrations,lawsuits,andoccasionalviolencebythoseinfavorandthoseopposed.ThesecontroversiesledtheForestServicetoreconsidermanyoftheagency’slandmanagementpractices.
National Environmental Policy Act of �9�9
TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969(NEPA),signedintolawJanu-ary1,1970,mandatedthatenvironmentalimpactsofproposedFederalprojectsbecomprehensivelyanalyzed.Animportantpartoftheactmadeitmandatorythatagenciesseekpublicparticipationonprojects,fromtheplanningstagetothereview-of-documentsstage.Theserequirementswerequicklyincorporatedintothemanyprojectsthatwereunderwayonthenationalforests.EarthDay,onApril22,1970,foreshadowedthebeginningsofanewandfundamentallydifferentconservation-environmentalmovement.
Public Partici-pating in For-est Planning, 1989
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��3
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT OF 1969
OnJanuary1,1970,PresidentRichardM.NixonsignedtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969(NEPA)—theculminationofyearsofstrugglebyspecialinterestgroupsandtheauthorsoftheact—SenatorHenryM.JacksonandCongressmanJohnD.Dingle.Theactrequiredthatanenvironmentalimpactstatement(EIS)bepreparedwhenanyFederalagencyproposeda“majorFederalactionsignificantlyaffectingthequalityofhumanenvironment.”ThebillhadnotprovokedanymajorcontroversyinCongress,anditonlyreceivedcursorycommentfromlegaljournalsandthepublic.ButitwastohaveprofoundimplicationsforeveryFederallandmanagementagency.
NEPAestablishedathree-memberCouncilonEnvironmentalQuality(CEQ)asapartoftheExecutiveOfficeofthePresident.TheCEQisre-quiredtoassesstheNation’senvironmentalqualityannuallyandreviewallFederalprogramsforcompliancewithNEPA.SectiononeofNEPAstatesthattheFederalGovernment’spolicywillbe“touseallpracticalmeans—tocreateandmaintainconditionsunderwhichmanandnaturecanexistinproductiveharmonyandfulfillthesocial,economicandotherrequirementsofpresentandfuturegenerationsofAmericans.”
TheNEPArequirementforproducingEIS’sonmajorFederalprojectswasfelttobetheminimumnecessarytodescribealltheplannedactivities,al-ternativestoeachproposedaction,andconsequencesofimplementingeachalternativetotheaffectedFederalagenciesandthepublic.Provisionsoftheact,aswellasitsimplementingregulations,requirepublicinvolvement,op-portunitiesforthepublictocomment,andtheagency’sresponsestothesecommentsintheEIS.Aftermorethan25yearsofNEPA,FederalagencieshavepublishedthousandsofEIS’srunningfromafewpagestomanyvol-umesonenvironmentalprojects.
NEPA’sdrivingforcetodayisthroughtheEISprocess.WhilesomehavecriticizedtheNEPAprocessaslongandcostly,itspublicinvolvementandparticipationhaveresultedinmoreinformeddecisionsandagenciesnowemploynewnaturalresourcespecialiststohelptheagencyandthepublicunderstandtheimplicationsofitsdecisionsonthenaturalandhumanen-vironments.CourtchallengestoFederaldecisionshavecausedanincreaseinlitigation.Fromthestandpointofspecialinterestgroups,NEPAhasbeenbothaburdenandagodsend:Aburdenintermsofcostandtimeforproj-ectstartupandagodsendintermsofbetterdecisionsbasedonexpectedconsequencesandimpacts.
NEPAhasopenedawholenewavenueforcitizeninvolvementinFederallandmanagementplanninganddecisionmaking.TheNEPAprocesshasbeensosuccessfulthatprocessespatternedafteritarebeingusedinothercountriessuchasAustraliaandthePhilippines.
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Controversies Over Clearcutting
Althoughintensiveforestryandprotectionofthelandhadtakenonevenmoreimportancewiththeadoptionofmanynewforestpracticesandprocedures,cer-tainintensiveforestrypracticesbecameaproblem.Inthelate1960’s,acontrover-sydevelopedoverthemanagementofMontana’sBitterrootNationalForest,whenresidentsbecameconcernedaboutthescenicandreforestationproblemsbeingcausedbyclearcuttingandterracingonsteepslopes.In1970,Montana’sSena-torMetcalfcalledonArnoldBolle,DeanoftheForestrySchoolattheUniversityofMontana,toinvestigatetheallegationsandprepareareport.Bolle’scommitteereportwascriticalofForestServiceoperations,whichwasconsistentwithseveralinternalreportsbytheregionalofficeinMissoula.
USDAForestService
Aerial Spraying
Ontheothersideofthecountry,alegaldecisionagainsttheForestServiceforclearcutloggingontheMonongahelaNationalForest(IzaakWaltonv.Butz)calledtheinterpreta-tionoftheOrganicActof1897intoquestion.Theresultsofthislegalde-cisioncausedanextensivereviewofforestmanagementbytheForestSer-viceandlaterbyCongressin1972.CongressionalhearingswouldlatersetthestagefortheNationalForestManagementActof1976(NFMA).
Skycrane with Logs, Willamette National Forest (Oregon)
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CLEARCUTTING ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS
Clearcutting(fellingandremovingallthetreesfromaspecificarea)hasbeenalong-standingtechniqueusedextensivelyintheUnitedStatesandmostothercountries.Duringthelate1800’sandcontinuingthroughtoday,manypeopleopposedtologging,ingeneral,havefocusedonclearcutting.Ithasalsobeenthefocusofintensivediscussionaboutthepropermethodtoharvestingtreesfortheirwood.
ItwasatGeorgeVanderbilt’sBiltmoreForestEstate(nowpartofthePis-gahNationalForest)inthe1890’sthatGiffordPinchotfirstharboredideasabout“newforestry”—clearcuttingvs.selectiveloggingandleavingyoungtreesstandingduringharvesting,asrecountedinPinchot’s1947autobiog-raphyBreaking New Ground:“TheoldwayoflumberingatBiltmore,andeverywhereelse,wastocutoutalltheyounggrowththatwouldinterferewithcheapandeasylogging,andleavedesolationandafiretrapbehind....Wefoundthatlargetreessurroundedbyadensegrowthofsmallertreescouldbeloggedwithsurprisinglylittleinjurytotheyounggrowth,andthattheaddedcostoftakingcarewassmall,outofproportion,totheresult.Toestablishthisfact...wasofimmenseimportancetothesuccessofForestryinAmerica.”ThusfromthebeginningofprofessionalforestryinAmerica,therewasconcernaboutloggingmethodsthatinvolvedbothecol-ogyandeconomics.
ThefirstmajorcontroversyinvolvingclearcuttingeruptedintheAdirondacksofNewYorkStatein1900-03.AttheCornellDemonstrationForest,BernhardFernow,chairoftheCornellSchoolofForestry,intendedtoconvertthebroadleafforestintoaconiferforest.TheAdirondackscasecameunderpublicscrutiny,withFernoweventuallylosinghispositionatCornellasaresultofthecontroversy,andtheschoolofforestryclosing.
Duringthe1910’sand1920’s,clearcuttingwasemphasizedasthemostdesirablemethodofloggingonnationalforests.Asmostloggingoperationsweretheneitherrailroadorriverlogdrives,theclearcuttingdecisionwaspracticalforthetimberpurchaser.Atthetime,hugeblocksofnationalfor-estweresoldtotimbercompanieswiththeideathatextractingthestandingtimberfromawatershedwouldtakedecades.Buttherewereresearchers,especiallyinthedrypineforestsandelsewhere,whowereadvocatingselec-tivelogging.
InOctober1934,afterreviewingseveralresearchstudies,RegionalFor-esterC.J.BuckdirectedthenationalforestsinwesternOregonandwesternWashingtontobegintimberharvestingbyselectivelogging,ratherthanbyclearcuttinginDouglas-firareas.Basically,therewasafundamentaldis-agreementamongForestServiceandacademicresearchersovertheclearcuttingissue.TwoUniversityofWashingtonforestryprofessors,BurtP.KirklandandAxelJ.F.Brandstorm,arguedthat“selectivetimbermanage-ment”waseconomicallyadvantageousasloggersdidnothavetotakeevery
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treeandthatselectiveloggingdidnotlaythelandscapebare.ForestServiceresearchersLeoIsaacandThorntonT.Munger,however,arguedthatselec-tiveloggingwasashort-termeconomicgimmickusedduringtheDepres-sionthatwould,inthelongrun,depletetheforestsasonlytheprimetreeswouldbetakenfromastand,leavingthelessdesirablespeciesonsite.Theyalsoarguedthatselectiveloggingpracticesdamagedthetreesthatremainedonthesiteandthatclearcuttingwasmuchbetter.TheselectiveloggingmethodwasusedinthePacificNorthwestRegionDouglas-firareauntiltheearly1940’s,whenC.J.BuckwasforciblytransferredtotheWashingtonOf-ficeandthepolicychangedtoclearcutting.
ResearchworkcontinuedinthePacificNorthwestandbytheearly1950’stherewasenoughevidencetoconvincemostprofessionalforestersthatclearcuttingwasthemostdesirablemethodtoharvesttreesintheDouglas-firregion.Thesedatawerecompellingfromboththeeconomicsstandpointandtheecologicalstandpointthattheseedlingsrequireddirectsunlighttogrow.However,theresearchworkoverlookedseveralimportantaspectsorconsequencesofclearcutting:Thevisualdisruptionoftheforestforatleastadecadeuntiltheyoungtreesgrewtallandtheaspectofhavingamono-cultureofgeneticallysimilartrees.Even“hiding”clearcutsbehindarowofstandingtalltreesandaneffortto“educate”thepublictotheadvantageofclearcuttingdidnotovercometheillfeelingstowardthismethodoftreeharvesting.Manypeople,thenandnow,believethatclearcuttingisofeco-nomicadvantage,ratherthananecologicalortreeregrowthnecessity.
Inthelate1960’s,Montana’sBitterrootNationalForest,inaburstoftimberharvestinginresponsetothenationalneedsforwood,beganclearcuttingthenterracingthecutoversteepslopesforbetterseedlingregeneration.Thiscausedacontroversy.TheBitterroot’sretiredForestSupervisorledprotests,theMissouliancarriedaseriesofnewsarticles,andSenatorMetcalfcommis-sionedaUniversityofMontanaStudyteamtostudytheallegedmisman-agement.Theuniversityteam—ledbyArnoldBolle,deanoftheschoolofforestry—wasinstrumentalinbringingtheBitterroot’sclearcuttingissuetonationalattention.
AnotherclearcuttingcontroversyonWestVirginia’sMonongahelaNationalForestcontributedsignificantlytothemanagementdebate.TheIzaakWal-tonLeague,anoutdoorandfishingorganization,filedalawsuitonbehalfofseveralturkeyhunters,onthepremisethatthe1897OrganicActdidnotallowclearcutting.In1973,theFederalDistrictCourtruledagainsttheForestService.AftertheFourthCircuitCourtofAppealsalsoruledagainsttheagencyinAugust1975,theForestServiceandCongressdecidedthatsomethinghadtobedonetochangetheoldlawtoallowtimberharvesting.
Thesetwobattlesresultedinaseriesofcongressionalhearingsoverclearcuttingandforestmanagementingeneral.SenatorFrankChurchofIdahoofferedananalysisreportonclearcuttingthatresultedinthe“ChurchGuidelines”forlimitingthesizeofclearcuts.TheForestServicevoluntarily
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agreedtostaywithintheguidelines.Clearcutswouldnotexceed40acres.ThefinalresultofthecontroversywaspassageoftheNationalForestMan-agementActof1976(NFMA).
Theproblemswithclearcuttinghavepersisted.TheForestServiceisstilltryingtobackawayfromthiscontroversialmethod.In1992,theChiefoftheForestServiceproposedapolicy,withsevencriteria,thatwouldelimi-nateclearcuttingasastandardpracticeandreduceclearcuttingbyasmuchas70percentfromthe1988level.However,backlashfromenvironmentalgroupsandthetimberindustrycontinuetomakeheadlinesoverclearcuttingandthispolicy.IvanDoiginhisclassic1975article“TheMurkyAnnalsofClearcutting”wrote:“Professionalforesterswerehonestlydis-agreeingaboutsilviculturalalternatives,butmostlyoneconomicgrounds...Allinall,[itshould]...serveasaclassiclessonthatdisputesovertheuseofourforestsarenotgoingtobedecidedonecologicalmeritalone.Nowherenearit.”
Youth Conservation Corps, Young Adult Conservation Corps, and Related Programs
In1970,a3-yearpilotYouthConservationCorps(YCC)programbegan—itbecamefullyestablishedin1974.ItwasdesignedtofurtherthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofnaturalresourcesbyAmerica’syouthbetweentheagesof15and19.Theyoungmaleand femaleYCCmembers,fromallpartsofthecountryandallwalksoflife,spentthesummermonthsworkingonconservationprojectsonthenationalforests.
YCC Members Prepare a Lake Area for Public Use
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During1977,anothernewyouthemploymentprogramarrived—theYoungAdultConservationCorps(YACC).Thisprogramwasintendedtofurtherthede-velopmentandmaintenanceofnaturalresourcesbyAmerica’syoungadults(bothmaleandfemale)betweenages16and23.TheForestServiceprovidedmanyopportunitiesforenrolleestoworkonimportantprojectsonthenationalforests.Thisprogramwasshort-livedbecauseitsfundingwaseliminatedin1981.
WoodsyOwl,thesymbolofantipollutionandwiseuseoftheenvironment,wasintroducedin1971withtheslogan“GiveaHoot,Don’tPollute.”JustaswithSmokeyBear,theWoodsysymbolandsloganareprotectedbylawexceptasau-thorizedforantipollutionprograms.In1997,Woodsy’simagewasupdatedandhismessagebecame“Giveahand,CarefortheLand.”
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Woodsy with Children
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In1971,thePresidentsignedtheAlaskaNativeClaimsSettlementActthatauthorizedthetransferof44millionacresoflandinAlaskafromtheFederalGovernmenttovariousAlaskaNativecorporationsinexchangefortheNativesextinguishingaboriginaltitletotheremaininglandsAlaskaNativestraditionallyusedandoccupied.
John R. McGuire— Tenth Chief, 1972-1979
JohnRichardMcGuirewasbornonApril20,1916,inMilwaukee,Wisconsin.WhileservingasChieffrom1972to1979,McGuiremadechangestostrengthenStateandPrivateForestry’sandResearch’sroleinimplementingtheForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesPlanningAct(RPA)of1974andtheNation-alForestManagementAct(NFMA)of1976.McGuirefacedincreasingoppositionforforestrypracticesbeing
carriedoutonthenationalforests.Mostnotablewerethecongressionalhearingsoverclearcuttingonthenationalforests–aresultofcontroversiesonMontana’sBitterrootNationalForestandonWestVirginia’sMonongahelaNationalForest.
McGuirewasinstrumentalinrequiringtheForestServicetoreview,andthenchange,forestmanagementpracticesandmodifyandintegrateitsmethodsoflandmanagement.MajorissuesfacingChiefMcGuireweretheRoadlessAreaReviewandEvaluation(RARE)andRAREIIdecisions;mountingcontroversyoverthemanagementofthenationalforests;newcongressionaldirectionthatmandatedplanningattheforest,region,andnationallevelsthroughRPAandNFMA;andspecialinterestgroups’in-creasedrelianceonlitigationtoinfluencethemanagementofthenationalforests.
JohnR.McGuirewrote:
Perhapsthegreatestchallengefacingforestrytodayisthecalen-dar—namelythearrivalofthe21stcentury.Myquestionis,willAmericanforestrybereadytomeetthe21stcentury?
AmajordeterminantofhowwellAmericanforestrypreparesforthe21stcenturywillbecooperationinresourcesmanagement.ThismeanscooperationamongFederal,State,andprivateown-erships;cooperationacrosslong-standingprofessionalbarriers;andcooperationwithnewanddifferentarrangementsofpeopleandorganizations,atrendwhichisbecomingmoreevidentwitheachpassingyear.Theinterestedgeneralpublicissurprisinglyknowledgeableaboutnaturalresources.Yetpeoplestillneedtohearforestry’smessage—thatsoundforestrypracticescanpro-videbothprotectionanduse.
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National Forest Volunteers
TheVolunteersintheNationalForestsActof1972authorizedtheForestServicetorecruitandtrainvolunteerstohelpmanagethenationalforests.Ahighlysuc-cessfulandvisibleprogram,manyofthevolunteersareretiredpeoplewhoenjoyworkingoutdoorsandwiththepublicinawidevarietyofcapacitiesrangingfrombeingcampgroundhoststoassistingwitharchaeologicaldigs.
Volunteer Helping Hikers, Sumter National Forest (South Carolina),1986
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Senior Community Service Employment Program Enrollee Uses a Dado for a Sign on the Colville National Forest (Washing-ton)
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RARE and RARE II
AstheWildernessActof1964provided,thedraftRoadlessAreaReviewandEvaluation(RARE)reportwascompletedin1972.Thiscontroversialwildernessreviewprocessevaluatedsome55.9millionacresoflandand1,449roadlessareasforpossibleinclusionintotheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.Thefinalreportwaspublishedin1973,with274oftheroadlessareas(12.3mil-lionacres)selectedforpossiblewildernessdesignationbyCongress.Thedeci-sionbecameimmediatelyembroiledincontroversy.AlawsuitinCaliforniaoveraroadlessareathathadnotbeenselectedresultedintheAssistantSecretaryofAgricultureandtheChiefoftheForestServiceorderinganewstudyofallroad-lessareas,calledRAREII,in1977.
French Pete Drainage Wilderness Controversy, Willamette National For-est (Oregon)
Endangered Species Act of �973
TheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973providedforprotectionofrare,threatened,andendangeredanimalandplantspecies.ItestablishedFederalproceduresforidentifyingandprotectingendangeredplantsandanimalsintheirnative,criti-calhabitats.Itdeclaredbroadprohibitionsagainsttaking,hunting,harming,orharassingthelistedspecies.Theintentoftheactwastorestoreendangeredspe-ciestolevelswhereprotectionwouldnolongerbeneeded.Implementingthisactwouldhavedrasticconsequencesonthemanagementofnationalforesttimberandroadconstructionprogramsduringthe1980’sand1990’s.
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National Forest Planning
Theearlytomid-1970’ssawacontinuedmajornationalforestplanningeffortundertheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960.Bythemid-1970’s,unitplans(rangerdistrictlevel)andseveralforestplanswerebeingdeveloped.Manynationalforestscreatedplanningteamstoassistinthemultiple-useplanningoftheirmanyresources.NewForestServicespecialistswerehiredbecauseoftheplanningneeds—wildlifebiologists,soilscientists,landscapearchitects,andhydrologists.
Northern Spotted Owl
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In1974,theForestandRangelandRenewableResourcesPlanningAct(RPA)becamelaw.Theactprovidedthatbeginningin1976,theForestServicewoulddevelopaprogramorassessmentevery5yearsthatoutlinedtheproposedex-pectednationalforestproductionofvariousresources.WiththeRPAprograminhand,theForestServicewouldgotoCongresstoobtainthenecessaryfundingtoimplementitsprogram.ThisactrepresentedCongress’sfirstlegislativerecogni-tionthatmanagementofournaturalresourcescouldonlyoccurwithlong-rangeplanningandfunding—notplanningandfundingonayear-to-yearbasis.
Monitoring Fish Popula-tions, Ouachita National Forest (Arkansas)
Hydraulic Monitor Mining Nozzle
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TheBolleReport(aboutMontana’sBitterrootNationalForest)andacourtdeci-sionagainsttheForestServiceintheMonongahelaNationalForestclearcuttingcasespawnedtheNFMA.TheNFMAamendedRPAandalsorepealedmajorpor-tionsoftheOrganicActof1897.NFMAmandatedintensivelong-rangeplanningforthenationalforests—themostcomprehensiveplanningeffortinthewesternworld.NFMAspecificallyincorporatedpublicparticipationandadvisoryboards,variousnaturalresources,transportationsystems,timbersales,reforestation,pay-mentstoStatesforschoolsandroads,andreportingontheincidenceofDutchelmdisease.
AcommitteeofscientistscreatedNFMA’simplementationregulations,whichbe-camefinalin1979,andanintensivenewforestplanningeffortbegan.TheForestServicehiredmanynewspecialists,manyofthemwomen,toaddressthevariousprovisionsofNFMA—includingpublicaffairsspecialists,economists,archeolo-gists,sociologists,geologists,ecologists,andoperationsresearchanalysts.TheForestServicealsobegananextensivepublicinvolvementefforttopreparethenewplans.In1997and1998,anewcommitteeofscientistsmettoevaluateandrecommendchangestoNFMAandtherevisedforestplanningregulations.
Clearcutting Patterns on the Shelton Ranger District, Olympic National Forest (Washington), 1957
USDAForestService
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Regional Forester Dick Worthington at RARE II Press Confer-ence, Pacific Northwest Region (Portland, Oregon), 1979
Experimental Helistat Bal-loon with Four Helicopters, Oregon
Inthelate1970’s,RAREIIonceagainlaunchedtheForestServiceintothepublicarena.ThedraftRAREIIreport,publishedin1978,ledtomanypublicdemon-strationsandletter-writingcampaigns.ThefinalRAREIIreport,publishedinJanuary1979,recommendedthatCongressadd15millionacres(only12.3mil-lionacreswererecommendedinRARE)totheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.However,roadlessdecisionsandwildernesslegislationwouldhavetowaituntilCongressacted.Today,afteraseriesofcongressionalactsthatestab-lishednewwildernesses,theForestServicemanagesover35millionacresofwil-derness.Thisisapproximately18.4percentoftheentireNationalForestSystem.
Biddingfornationalforesttimberreachedanall-timehighin1979and1980,justbeforeawood-prod-ucts“depression”hitthetimberindustry.Becauseofveryhighinterestrates,thenew-homemarketbecameverydepressed,withthedemandandpriceforlumberproductsfallingtoalmostrecordlows.Timbercom-paniescouldnoteconomicallyharvestthetimbertheyhadpurchasedathighprices.Nationally,anumberoftimbercompaniesstruggled,somegoingbank-rupt,untiltheeconomypickedupinthemid-tolate1980’s.TheForestServiceexperimentedwithalighter-than-airballoonandtetheredhelicoptermix,whichwasreferredtoasa“helistat,”totransportlogsfromremoteareas.Aftermanyat-tempts,theeffortfailed.
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Inthelate1970’sandearly1980’s,theillegalgrowingofmarijuanaonthena-tionalforestlandscausednumerousmanagementproblems.Manyofthenationalforestsrespondedtothisproblemandotherlawlessnessbyhiringlawenforce-mentspecialists,whohaveworkedcloselywithotherFederal,State,andlocalauthorities.
InthePacificNorthwest,MountSt.HelensonWash-ingtonState’sGiffordPinchotNationalForestrumbledtolifewithahugevolcanicex-plosiononMay18,1980,thatsentasharoundtheworld.PresidentJimmyCartervisitedtheForestandwasinstrumentalinestablishingtheMountSt.HelensNationalVolcanicMonumentin1982.
Mount St. Helens Before and During the May 18th Eruption, Gifford Pinchot National For-est (Washing-ton), 1980
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Forest Products Laboratory’s Timber Truss-Framed Con-struction
TheForestProductsLaboratorydesignedanewstrong,lightweightsystemforwoodconstruction.Calledthetimbertruss-frame,thesystemhasbeenwidelyusedbythehomeconstructionindustrysincethe1980’s.
NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT ACT OF 1976
Congressionalhearingsbeganintheearly1970’sontheclearcuttingcon-troversiesontheBitterrootandMonongahelaNationalForests,aswellasaFederalcourtdecisionovertheOrganicActof1897.Bythemid-1970’s,argumentsinCongressrevolvedaroundhowspecificanynewlawshouldbetodirecttheForestServiceinthemanagementofthenationalforests.Somememberswantedbroadstatementsthatwouldgivelandmanagersdiscretionaryauthoritythatwouldcoveranypossibility;otherswantedlan-guagetomandatespecificactionsontheground.In1989,formerChiefR.MaxPetersonwouldsay:“ItbecameobvioustomostthatneitherCongressnoranyoneelsecouldpossiblywritemanagementprescriptionsthatwouldfitthemanyphysicalsituationsonnationalforests....Thisledtoarecogni-tionthatthelegislationwouldhavetosetforthaprocessratherthanspecifyanswers.”
NFMAwassignedintolawonOctober22,1976.NFMAamendedRe-sourcesPlanningActof1974(RPA)toprovideacomprehensiveblueprintformanagingthenationalforests.OneoftheNFMA’sprovisionswasthattheSecretaryofAgricultureappointacommitteeofscientists—notofficersoremployeesoftheForestService—toprovidescientificadviceandcounselonhowtoimplementitsintent.Ittookalmost3yearsfortheseimplement-ingregulationstobecomefinal.
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R. Max Peterson— Eleventh Chief, 1979-1987
ThefirstnonforesterChiefsinceGiffordPinchot,RalphMaxPetersonwasbornnearDoniphan,Missouri,onJuly25,1927.Petersonwasthefirstengineertoholdtheposition.HeservedasChieffrom1979to1987,duringatimeofincreasingturmoilandcriticismoftheForestService.
Majoraccomplishmentsduringthiserawereestablishingregulationsforimple-mentingtheNationalForestManagement
Actof1976(NFMA),dealingwiththeaftermathoftheRAREIIdecision,addressingthe“timberdepression”andhousingslumpoftheearly1980’s,respondingtoarapidlyrisingconcernabouttheuseofherbicidesandpesticidesonthenationalforests,supportingvariouswildernessbillsbeforeCongress,addressingagrowingconcernabouttheloggingofoldgrowthandbelow-costtimbersales(especiallyinAlaska),anddevelopingwaystomeettheneedsofthreatenedandendangeredspecies.Agencyfundingwasreduced,whichresultedinasubstantialreductioninthenumberofem-ployees.Althoughthepublic’strustthattheForestServicecouldeffectivelymanagethenationalforestsfellbecauseofthemultipleissues,Petersonwasabletooverseethechangingmanagementofthenationalforestsduringthesetryingtimes.
Theregulationsrequiredthebeginningofalong-rangeplanningprocessforeachnationalforest.OtherNFMArequirementsmandatedpublicin-volvementintheplanningprocess,aredefinitionofsustainedandnonde-cliningyield,andclearcutting,whichtheactdefinedasanacceptableprac-tice.Anotherrequirementwasto“preserveandenhancethediversityofplantandanimalcommunities...sothatitisatleastasgreatasthatwhichwouldbeexpectedinanaturalforest.”NFMAalsogavefullstatutorystatustotheNationalForestSystem—manyofthenationalforestshadbeenes-tablishedinaseriesofPresidentialproclamationsfrom1891to1907.
AnactsimilartoNFMAwaspassedandsignedintolawfortheBureauofLandManagement(BLM).This1976act,theFederalLandPolicyandManagementAct,hassimilarprovisionsrequiringlong-rangeplanningontheBLM-administeredlands.
In1998,asecondcommitteeofscientistswasformedtorewritetheNFMAregulations,whichwerefeltbymanytobeoutdated.Thecommit-teerecommendedmanychangestotheregulations.Draftregulationswereannouncedinthesummerof1999,alongwithapublicreviewperiod.Thefinalregulationswereprintedin2000.
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R.MaxPetersonwrote:
Thepublic’ssuddeninterestinenvironmentalandresourceis-suesinthe1960sand1970siswellknowntoallofyou.Thenationalforestswereofparticularinterestandconcernforsev-eralreasons.Nationalforestsarelocatedin44statesandwithinaone-daydriveof90percentoftheU.S.population.Theyprovidemoreoutdoorrecreation,morehuntingandfishing,moretimberharvest,morehydroelectricpower,andmorewildernessthananyotherpublicorprivatelandsystem.Inaddition,theyareasourceofhigh-qualitywaterandanumberofimportantstrategicminerals,andprovidesignificantdomesticlivestockgrazing.Inshort,theresourcesoftheselandsarewantedbyalargenumberofdiverseuserswhoseethemascriticaltomeetingtheirfutureneeds.Manyalsoseetheirowndesireduseaseitherexclusiveofotherpotentialusersoratleastincompatiblewiththem.Inanylanguage,thatspellscontroversy.
Internal Struggles
AsexdiscriminationlawsuitagainsttheForestService’sPacificSouthwestRegion(California)resultedina1980“consentdecree.”Thedecreeacceleratedadvancementofwomenandminorityemployeestomanagementandlineofficerpositions.In1985,GeriB.LarsonwasnamedtheForestSupervisoroftheTahoeNationalForestinCalifornia—thefirstfemaleforestsupervisorinForestServicehistory.
Geri B. Larson, First Woman Forest Supervisor
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Charles “Chip” Cartwright, First Black District Ranger on the Gifford Pinchot National Forest (Washing-ton),1983
Forester Lea Dotson Examines New Growth on Loblolly Pine, Sumter National Forest (South Carolina), 1986
USDAForestService
Budgetcutsinthemid-1980’sreducedthenumberofForestServiceemployeesandeliminatedanumberofpositionsthatwerecreatedinthelate1970’s.Inthe1990’s,reducingthenationaldeficitbecameapriorityoftheClin-tonadministration.Therehavebeenseveralattemptsovertheyearstoreorganizetheagency,butlittlecameofthem.Themostrecentattemptwastorevampmostoftheregions,aswellastoreducetheorganizationalcomplexityandnumberofemployees.Thereorganiza-tionoftheregionswasnotaccomplishedbecauseofcongressionalopposition,whileotheraspectswereim-plemented.Today,theForestServicehasaround28,100permanentemployees,downfrom35,400in1992.
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Muchofthelong-rangelandandresourcemanagementplanningwasplacedinthehandsofforestspecialists.Publiccontroversyeruptedoverthemanage-mentrequirementsforwildlife,waterandsoils,old-growthtimber,dispositionofremainingroadlessareas,roadconstructioncosts,andbelow-costtimbersalesintheNFMAplanningprocess.TheForestServicemadeadecisionintheearly1980’stouseaparticularlinearprogrammingmodel,FORPLAN,oneachnationalforestforthenewforestplanningeffort.TheForestServiceadoptedtheDataGeneralcomputersystem,whichelectronicallylinkedallagencyloca-tions—WashingtonOffice,researchstations,regions,nationalforests,andrangerdistricts.IthasrecentlyadoptedanIBM/UNIX-basedsystemtoreplacetheDataGeneral.
Regional For-ester James Torrence Us-ing the Data General Com-puter System, Pacific North-west Region (Oregon)
Beginningin1984withtheOregonandWashingtonWildernessActs,whichcontainedmuch-sought-after“releaselanguage”forremainingroadlessareas,anumberofState-by-StatewildernessbillspassedCongress(16additionalState-widewildernessbillswerepassedin1984).StilllongawaitedarewildernessbillsfortheimportantStatesofIdahoandMontana,whichcontainmillionsofacresofunroadedlands.
In1985,tostalltheso-called“SagebrushRebellion,”theReaganAdministra-tionproposedthattheForestServiceandtheBLMinterchangecertainlandsintheWestforeaseofmanagement.Thisproposalarousedgreatpublicoutcry,evenafteramajorrevision,andwastabledbyCongress.Inthe1990’sthenew“WiseUse”or“PropertyRights”or“CountySupremacy”movementreplacedtheSagebrushRebellion.CountycommissionersinNyeCounty,Nevada,andCatronCounty,NewMexico,haveputnewemphasisonlocalcontroloverFederalland.TherehavealsobeenarashofbombingsandthreatstoForestServicefacilitiesandemployees.However,followingtheOklahomaCitybombing,thisviolentextremehasseeminglycooled.
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�3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
F. Dale Robertson— Twelfth Chief, 1987-1993
F.DaleRobertsonwasborninDenmark,Arkan-sas,onJuly17,1940.Soonafterhisappoint-mentasChiefin1987,RobertsonhadtofaceapublicwaryofeverythingtheForestServicehadtosayorproposedtodo.Especiallytrou-blingwasthegrowingcontroversyabouttheharvestofold-growthtimber(ancientforest)treesinthePacificNorthwestandtheprotec-tionofseveralspeciesofanimalsandplantsthatfellundertheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973.
Heappointedseveraltaskforcestoconsideralloptions,butwhenthedeci-sionsweremade,theydidnotsatisfyeveryone.
SeveralnewresourceprogramsweredevelopedunderRobertson’sleader-ship,includingthehighlysuccessful“RisetotheFuture,”aprogramde-signedtoenhancetheproductionoffishonthenationalforests.RobertsonledtheForestService’sefforttofindnewandcreativewaystomanagethenationalforestsespeciallybyemphasizingthenoncommodity(nontimber)resources,newforestry,newperspectives,andtheneweraofecosystemmanagement.Robertson,andhisAssociateChief,GeorgeLeonard,werereassignedfromtheForestServicetotheDepartmentofAgricultureonOctober29,1993,aftertheyfacedincreasingcriticismbytheClintonAdministrationthattheForestServicewasnotchangingfastenough.
F.DaleRobertsonwrote:
HerearewhatIperceiveasourstrengths:First,ourbasicmissionof“caringforthelandandservingpeople”isveryimportant.Ourmissionisawinnerandnaturallyattractsstrongpublicsup-port.Second,Itrulybelievewehavethebestgroupofpeopleeverputtogetherinonelargeorganization.We’rethebestatwhatwedo.Weknowourjobsanddothemwell.Third,wecol-lectivelyhavemoreknowledgeaboutthemanagementofnaturalresourcesthananyotherorganization.Noonecanmatchourcapability,knowledge,andknow-how.Fourth,wehaveastrongorganizationwitharichcultureandgoodcorevalues.Fifth,wearerichinlandandresources.
Eventhoughthenationalforestsandgrasslandsrepresentonlyabout81/2percentoftheUnitedStates,inmanyways,theyarethe50percentlands:
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �33
- Wehave50percentoftheNation’sbiggameanimals;- 50percentofthecoldwaterfisheries;- 50percentofanadromousfishspawninggroundsalongthe
Westcoast;- 50percentoftheNation’sstandingsoftwoodsawtimber;- Morethan50percentoftheprecipitationintheWest;- 43percentoftheFederalmarketshareinoutdoorrecreation;- About80percentoftheWilderness;- Morethan50percentoftheWildandScenicRiversinthe
lower48States;- Inthegrazingbusiness,wedon’tcomeanywherecloseto50
percent,butwestillplayanimportantroleinmeetingtheNation’sneeds.
ThenationalforestsandgrasslandsareatremendouseconomicandenvironmentalassettothecountryandastrengthoftheFor-estService.Sowhenyouaddallofthesestrengths—ourmission,thecapabilityoftheForestServicepeople,ourknowledgeandknow-how,ourrichcultureandstrongcorevalues,andbeingrichinlandandresources–it’sprettyimpressive.
Owls and Other Wildlife
Therehasbeengrowingpublicconcernoveruniquewildlife,severalspeciesofwhichwerethreatenedorendangered,thatlivedornestedonnationalforestsaroundthecountry.IntheWest,spottedowls,marbledmurrelets,grizzlybears,caribou,Pacificsalmon,andwolvescausedconcern,whileTexasandtheSouth-eastwereconcernedaboutthered-cockadedwoodpecker.Otherregionshavedifferentspeciesofwildlifeandplantsthatareuniquetocertainareas.In1987and1988,variousenvironmentalgroupssoughttohavethespottedowllistedwiththeDepartmentoftheInterior’sU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceasathreat-enedorendangeredspecies.AjudgelaterdeclaredthattheFishandWildlifeServicehadnotprovidedsufficientinformationaboutitsdecisionnottolistthebird.Subsequently,theU.S.FishandWildlifeServicedeclareditsintenttorestudytheissue,andinJune1990,itdeclaredthespottedowlthreatenedinwesternWashington,westernOregon,andnorthernCalifornia.
Otherplantandanimalspeciesinhabitingthenationalforestshavejoinedthespottedowlasspeciestobeconsideredforthreatenedorendangeredstatus.ConsiderablecontroversyhasarisenoverthereintroductionofthewolfintotheYellowstoneecosystem.Otherconcernshavebeenexpressedovermanyanimalandplantspeciesinvariouspartsofthenationalforests,includingthebaldeagle,peregrinefalcon,easterntimberwolf,PuertoRicanparrot,MountGrahamredsquirrel,steelheadtrout,bulltrout,andotherspecies.
�3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
Thelatestroundofforestplanning,inwhicheveryForestServiceregionandnationalforestdevelopedcomprehensive,NFMA-directedforestplans,wasbasicallycompletedbytheendof1990;however,numerousappealsandlaw-suitsbythetimberindustryandenvironmentalandothergroupshavedelayedtheimplementationofmanyoftheseplans.Onsomenationalforests,appealsandlawsuitshavebeensuccess-fullyresolvedthroughane-gotiationprocessinwhichthecontendingpartiessatdownanddiscussedoptionsandeventuallycametoanagreement.
Red-Cockaded Woodpecker
Visitors at Old Growth Exhibit “Play-ing” the For-est Manager Game, 1991
USDAForestService
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �35
WILDLIFE AND THE NATIONAL FORESTS
AdaptedfromTerryWest’sCentennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service(1992)
Interestinwildlifewasanimportantpartoftheconservationmovementofthelate19thcentury.Althoughwildlifedidnothavetheeconomicimpor-tanceofotherresourcessuchastimber,forage,andwater,nordiditcapturethepublic’sattentionasmuchaseffortstopreservescenicwaterfallsorgeysers,biggamespecieswereperhapsthemostendangeredresourceofthatperiod.
ReformerssuchasGeorgeBirdGrinnell,founderofField and Streammaga-zine,andTheodoreRoosevelt,acofounderoftheBooneandCrockettClub,werealarmedbythefateofbiggameintheWesternStates.WhenRooseveltsponsoredGiffordPinchotformembershipintheclub,Pinchotwasabletoexpandthenotionofforestconservationtoembracethecauseofbiggameprotection.Yet,whentheFederalforestreservesweretransferredfromtheDepartmentoftheInteriortotheDepartmentofAgriculturein1905,theForestServiceapparentlydidnotseemuchofarelationshipbetweenna-tionalforestadministrationandwildlife.Anemphasisontimberresourcessetthefuturetoneoftheagency.
Moreover,theagencyhadtobecautiousaboutregulatinggameanimalsandbirdsontheforestreserves(whichwererenamednationalforestsin1907)forfearoftramplingStatesrightsandgivingitswesterncriticsreasontodis-bandthereserves.ThepolicyoftheForestServicewasto“cooperatewiththegamewardensoftheStateorTerritoryinwhichtheyserve...”accordingtothefirstbookofdirectivesissuedbytheagencyin1905(The Use Book).Twoyearslater,aprovisionintheAgriculturalAppropriationsActof1907madeitalawthat“hereafterofficialsoftheForestServiceshall,inallwaysthatarepracticable,aidintheenforcementofthelawsoftheStatesorTer-ritorieswithregardto...theprotectionoffishandgame.”
TheagencyhelpedpioneerthefieldofwildlifemanagementandstimulatedmanyoftheStatestobeginorimprovetheirownprograms.Huntersandanglerswerethelargestgroupofrecreationistsvisitingthenationalforests,soitwasnaturalfortheForestServicetofocusitsattentiononfishandgameanimals.Federalgamerefugescreatedonnationalforeststoconservewildlifewerehelpfulinincreasingpopulationsofgameanimals,andtheseanimalscouldthenbehuntedonadjacentlands.Thegrowthofdeerpopu-lationsledtoconflictsbetweenhuntersandranchers.Recreationalhunterswantedmoregameanimals;ranchers,concernedwithforagedepletion,wantedfewer.Inthe1920’s,theForestServiceefforttoreducetheoverex-tendedmuledeerpopulationsontheGrandCanyonFederalGamePreserve(KaibabNationalForest)wenttotheSupremeCourt.Theagencywonalimitedvictoryin1924whentheCourtfoundthatForestServiceemploy-
�3� ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
eescouldhuntexcessgameto“preventpropertydamage,”thatis,toprotecttheforageresourcefromovergrazingbydeer.
Itwasthere,intheSouthwest,thatAldoLeopold,aForestServiceemployeefrom1909to1928,developedhisconceptofwildlifemanagementthatledtothefirsttextbook,Game Management(1933).Leopoldfavoredtheeradicationofpredatorsasastepinbringingbackbiggamepopulations.However,afterkillingawolfherealizedthatpredatorswereimportanttothenaturalbalanceofdeerpopulations.
In1929,theForestServicehireditsfirstwildlifebiologist,BarryLocke,whowasstationedintheIntermountainRegion.Heleft2yearslatertoserveasDirectoroftheIzaakWaltonLeague.Atfirst,theeconomicdepressionofthe1930’shaltedwildlifeprogramsforlackofbudgets.Thepublicworksprogramslaterdevelopedtoprovideemploymentinareassuchasnaturalresourcesconservation,includingwildlifehabitatimprove-ment.MuchofthisworkwasdonebythemillionswhoservedintheCivil-ianConservationCorps.
By1936,theyearDr.HomerShantzbecamefirstdirectorofwildlifeman-agement,61peoplewereassignedtowildlifeworkintheForestService.ThenationalforestsintheSoutheastgrewrapidlyinnumberduringtheDepressionthroughFederalpurchaseofseverelycutoveranderodedprivatelands.Themanagementchallengefortheselandswastomaketherecov-eringforestssuitableplacesforwildlife.Fromthisgoalcametheslogan:“Goodtimbermanagementisgoodwildlifemanagement.”
InthePacificNorthwest,theForestServicefoundthatpublicconcernoverelkprotectionsupersededdemandfortimberproduction.ItinvolvedalengthybattlewiththeParkServiceoverthemanagementofMt.OlympusNationalMonument,whichwasestablishedin1909toprotecttheRooseveltelk(namedafterTeddyRoosevelt).ForestServiceofficialsarguedthatthebestuseofthemonument,thenmanagedbytheForestService,andsurroundingnationalforestlandwastoopentheareatoforest(timber)management,whichwouldprovideemploymentandrecreationforthelocalpopulation.Thecontroversycametoaboilduringthemid-1930’swhentheForestServiceandtheBureauofBiologicalSurveyrecommendedthattheelkpopulationinthemonumentbereducedbyshootingtopreventover-grazing,disease,andstarvation.Citizenswereoutraged,especiallytheedi-toroftheSeattle Post-Intelligencer,whosewifewasthedaughterofPresidentFranklinRoosevelt.WhenRooseveltvisitedtheareain1937,hehadalreadydecidedtoincludethemonumentandadjacentnationalfor-estsystemlandsinanewOlympicNationalPark(establishedbyCongressin1939).
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �37
Inthelate1940’s,agencyinvolvementinwildlifewasreducedfollowingtheimprovementofStatefishandgameprogramsandtheriseoftimberharvestingonnationalforests.ProblemareassurfacedassquirrelhuntersintheSouthernRegion,upsetoverlossofoaktreesexclaimedin1956:“Youkillthehardwoods,we’llkillthepine.”Inthe1960’s,turkeyhuntersontheMonongahelaNationalForestcomplainedofclearcutsintheirfavoritehunt-ingareas.Theresultwasalawsuit,congressionalhearings,andpassageoftheNationalForestManagementActof1976.ThislawrequiredtheForestServicetoconductitsplanningtoensureadiversityofplantandanimalspeciesand,therefore,isresponsiblefortherapidincreaseinwildlifeper-sonnelinthelate1970’s.
TheForestServicewasnotcreatedtoprotectwildlife,butitsrangersreal-izedthatiftheydidnotmanagetheseanimals’habitats,nobodyelsewould.Thus,theagencybecameanearlyleaderinthefieldofgamemanagement.PassageoftheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973gaveadditionalauthoritytolandmanagerstoprotectindividualspeciesandhabitatsforthreatenedandendangeredwildlife,fish,andplantspecies.TheForestServicecaughtupwiththisnewrealitywithpublicationofWildlife Habitats in Managed For-ests—The Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington(1979),editedbyfutureChiefJackWardThomas.Itwasthefirstagencybooktoprovide“concretedirectionforthemanagementofgameandnongamespeciesalike.”
Hell Roar-ing Fire in Yellowstone National Park, 1988
Yellowstone Fire in �988
Asaresultoftheter-riblefiresthatspreadthroughYellowstoneNationalParkandadjacentnationalforestlandsinthesummerof1988,theForestServiceandtheNationalParkServicereceivedconsiderablepublicpressuretochangetheirpolicyoflet-tingsomefiresburnnaturally(theso-called“let-burn”policy).Aftermuchpublicandscientificdebateaboutfire’sproperroleintheenvironment,andafterviewingthesubsequent“re-birth”oftheparkandadjacentnationalforests,theagencieshavemodifiedtheirpoliciestoputoutfiresmorequickly,butstilltoallowsomenaturalfirestoburnunderstrictlycontrolledconditions.
USDAForestService
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Development of Partnerships
AseriesofnewprogramsweredevelopedattheForestService’snationallevelinthelate1980’sandearly1990’s.TheChallengeCost-ShareProgram,establishedbyCongressin1986,hasprovidedthemeansfortheForestServiceandthepri-vatesectortosharemanagementandfinancialcostsforprojectsonthenationalforests.
Currently,severalthousandcooperativewildlifehabitatenhancementprojectsonthenationalforestsarecarriedoutbytheForestService,otherFederalandStateagencies,andnonprofitorganizations–likeDucksUnlimited,RockyMountainElkFoundation,andmanyothers.Thehabitatenhancementprogramgrewfrom$2.5millioninfishandwildlifehabitatimprovementsin1986tomorethan$17millioninFederalfundsthatwerematchedby$23millionfrompartnersin1996toaccomplish2,135projects.
ThePresidentialinitiative“America’sGreatOutdoors”wasdesignedtoencouragecooperationbetweentheForestServiceandtheprivatesectorindevelopingandimprovingrecreationalfacilitiesandopportunitiesforthepublic.Anotherpopu-larprogram,inconjunctionwithotherFederalagencies,isthe“ScenicByways”program,whichhasdesignatedabout7,700milesofnationalforestroadsandhighwaysforrecreationalpleasure—oftenscenicroadsthathaveampleoppor-tunitiesforscenicvistas,unusualgeologicandforestfeatures,bicycleandhikingtrails,reststops,picnicareas,campgrounds,boating,fishing,andwildlifeview-ing.InAlaska,theAlaskaMarineHighway(theAlaskaFerrySystem)hasalsobeendesignatedaScenicByway.
Pisgah National Forest Scenic Byway (North Carolina)
USDAForestService
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �39
Severalotherinitiativeshavebeendevelopedtoencouragerecreationalpursuitsonthenationalforests,aswellastoimprovethenaturalresources.Oneofthesehasbeenthesuccessful“RisetotheFuture”program,whichwasdesignedtoenhancefishproductionandencouragefishingontheforestlakesandrivers.Othersinclude“TakingWing,”awaterfowlandwetlandprogramtoenhancehabitatonnationalforestsandsupporttheNorthAmericanwaterfowlplan;“Ani-malInn,”aprogramtocommunicatetheimportanceofmanagingdeadstandingtimberandfallentreesforwildlifehabitat;and“JoinUs,”aprogramtostrengthenpublic-privatepartnershipinfisheriesandwildlifemanagement.
International Forestry
In1990,CongressdirectedtheForestServicetoassumeagreaterroleininter-nationalenvironmentalaffairs.InternationalForestry,anew“leg”oftheForestService(alongwiththeNationalForestSystem,Research,andS&PF),wasestab-lishedin1991tocoordinateandcooperatewithothercountriesonmattersdeal-ingwithforestryandtheenvironment.Althoughpreviousprogramshadworkedcloselywithothercountriestoprovideexpertiseandexperienceinthesematters,theInternationalForestryprogramareahasgivenhigherprioritytoengagingindialogueandcooperationwithothercountriestosolveglobalresourceproblems.The1992signingoftheForestPrinciplesandAgenda21attheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)—the“EarthSum-mit”—wascoordinatedbythisnewbranchoftheagency.DuetoreorganizationoftheForestServiceandfundingcuts,theInternationalForestryprogramwasre-ducedfromaDeputyAreatoaStaffthatreportsdirectlytotheChiefin1997andrenamedtheOfficeofInternationalPrograms.Theprogramcontinuestoworkwithcountriesonnaturalresourcemanagementinternationally.ItfocusescurrentprogramsonIndonesia,Brazil,Canada,Mexico,thenewlyindependentstatessincethebreakupoftheformerSovietUnion,andRussia.
Joe Meade and Guide Dog “Missy,” Deschutes National Forest (Oregon), 1977
USDAForestService
��0 ■ The USDA Forest Service—The First Century
InternationalProgramsisalsothehomeoftheDisasterAssistanceSupportPro-gram(DASP),whichassistswithsupportpersonnelandhumanitarianreliefoninternationaldisasters,bothnaturalandhuman-caused.
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY
AdaptedfromTerryWest’s1991Paper:“USDAForestServiceInvolvementinPost-WorldWarIIInternationalFor-estry”
ItmaybesaidthatForestService’sinvolvementwithforeignforestrybeganaftertheSpanish-AmericanWarof1898.U.S.ArmyCaptainGeorgeP.AhernorganizedthePhilippineBureauofForestryin1900andinvitedUSDABureauofForestrydirectorGiffordPinchottovisitandofferadvicein1902.CreationoftheLuquillo(nowCaribbeanNationalForest)forestre-serveinPuertoRicoin1903furtherinvolvedtheForestServiceintropicalforestry.TheForestProductsLaboratory(Madison,WI)beganaprogramoftropicalwoodresearchshortlyafterbeingfoundedin1910,withemployeeEloiseGerrywritingthefirstofaseriesofresearchreportsonSouthAmeri-canforestsandwoodsofcommercein1918.
In1928,theMcSweeney-McNaryForestResearchActauthorizedtheestab-lishmentofaforestexperimentstationinthe“tropicalpossessionsoftheUnitedStatesintheWestIndies.”Thatactandwordingledtotheestablish-mentoftheTropicalForestExperimentStationinRioPiedras,PuertoRico,in1939.Today,theexpandedInternationalInstituteofTropicalForestry(IITF)hasresponsibilityforprogramsininternationalforestry,Stateandprivateforestry,andresearchanddevelopment.
Institute of Tropical Forestry, Puerto Rico
USDAForestService
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ���
ItwastheonsetofWorldWarIIthatsetthebasisforincreasedU.S.in-volvementininternationalforestry.Duringthewar,U.S.GovernmentdefenseneedsledtheUnitedStatestofosterstudiesofforestconditionsinselectedLatinAmericacountries.TeamsofforestersweredispatchedtoSouthAmericainsearchofsourcesofcinchonabarktomeetwartimequi-nineneedstotreatmalaria.
AfterWorldWarII,foreignaidprojectsbecametheconcernofinterna-tionalforestryintheForestService.Duringthatperiod,twoorganizationsinvolvedU.S.forestersinforestryprojects:TheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)andtheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDe-velopment(USAID).
FAOwasbornin1943whenPresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltconvenedaconferencetoconsiderwaystoorganizeinternationalcooperationonagriculture.FAO’sagendaexcludedforestryuntilagroupledbytheForestServicemanagedtogetitaddedduringFAO’sfirstconferencein1945.
Foryears,forestersstruggledtopersuadedevelopmentalagenciesthatforestrywasacriticalelementinlanduseplanning.Thebasicproblemwasthatmostoftheseagencieswereconcernedprimarilywithagriculturalproductiontofeedtheworld’sgrowingpopulation.ItwaslefttotheForestServicetopromoteforestrywhereveritsstaffcouldfindaforum.
TherewereotherforestryopportunitieswiththeInternationalCooperationAdministration(ICA),asemi-autonomousagencywiththeU.S.DepartmentofState.EarlyICAforestryworkwassmall-scale—onepersonassignedtoacountry.Forexample,intheearly1950’sForestServiceemployeeEugeneReichardservedasforesterforColombiaandBolivia.Nonetheless,thisagencywasaprimaryconduitforForestServiceparticipationininterna-tionalforestry.
In1950,PresidentTrumanannouncedbilateraltechnicalassistancetonewlyindependentcountriesandtootherdevelopingnations.TheForestServicewascalledupontoprovidetwokindsofhelp:1)Recruitingforest-ersandtechnicalleadersforassignmentoverseas,and2)receivingforeignnationalsforacademicstudiesoron-the-jobtraininginforestryandrelatedareas.Overthenexttwodecades(1950to1970)theForestServicefur-nishedover150professionalsforlong-termassignmentsorshort-termde-tailstotechnicalassistantprogramsoverseas;inthesameperiodover2,500foreignnationalswentthroughForestServicetrainingprograms.
In1958,theunitbecameknownastheForeignForestryServiceintheOfficeoftheDeputyChiefforResearch,withA.C.Clinedesignatedasitsdirectorin1959.Twonewsectionswereaddedin1961:1)Technicalsup-portofforeignprograms,and2)trainingofforeignnationals.In1987,theprogramfilledover800requestsfortechnicalconsultationfrom
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50countries.Thesameyear,35ForestServiceemployeesservedon1-yearassignmentsin20foreignnations,with8othersonshort-termprojectsrenderingtechnicalassistanceinsuchareasasrecreationalplanning,rangemanagement,landuseplanning,forestindustries,andnurserydevelop-ment.
Followingpublicityovertheenvironmentalimpactoftropicaldeforestation,the1980’ssawanincreasedpublicinterestininternationalforestry.ChiefR.MaxPetersonin1980wroteof“ourincreasingneedforinvolvementinforestryproblemsbeyondourowndomesticprograms.”Themovementacceleratedwithaflurryofpublications.USAIDactedearlywithitsFor-estResourcesManagementProjectin1980thatledtotheForestrySupportProgram(FSP)intheForestServiceandajointUSAID/PeaceCorpsInitia-tive.
Adecadelater,the101stCongresspassedlegislation—theGlobalCli-mateChangePreventionActandtheInternationalForestryCooperationAct—thatgreatlyexpandedtheroleoftheForestServiceininternationalresourcemanagement.TheGlobalClimateChangePreventionActdirectedtheSecretaryofAgriculturetoestablishanOfficeofInternationalForestryunderanewandseparateDeputyChiefintheForestService.JeffSirmonwasselectedasthefirstDeputyChief.
Since1985,InternationalProgramshaveincludedtheDisasterAssistanceSupportProgram(DASP)andDisasterAssistanceResponseTeams(DART).DASPassistswithsupportpersonnelandhumanitarianreliefoninterna-tionaldisasters—bothnaturalandhuman-caused—includingfires,floods,famine,earthquakes,andcivilstrife.DARTaredeployedbytheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment’sOfficeofForeignDisasterAssistance(USAID/OFDA)toassistOFDAinprovidingdisasterprevention,prepared-ness,andemergencyresponsetodevelopingnationsinAfrica,Asia,LatinAmerica,theCaribbean,andthePacificregions.TheobjectivesoftheDARTresponseteams,whicharecomprisedofvolunteers,areconsistentwiththeStrategicPlanforInternationalCooperationsignedbytheForestServicein1995,theInternationalForestryCooperationActof1990,andtheGlobalClimateChangeActof1990.Overthelast15years,manyreliefteamshavebeensenttoAfricancountries,includingAngola,Namibia,Somalia,Rwanda,Sudan,andSouthAfrica,aswellastoassistwithdisastersoccur-ringinPeru,Yugoslavia,andmanyothernationsthroughouttheworld.
In1997,thepositionofDeputyChiefforInternationalForestrywaselimi-natedandInternationalForestrybecametheOfficeofInternationalPro-grams,reportingdirectlytotheChief.TheprogramcontinuestoworkwithcountriesonnaturalresourcemanagementissuesinternationallyandtosupportDASPandDART.ItfocusescurrentprogramsonIndonesia,Brazil,Canada,Mexico,thenewlyindependentstatesintheformerSovietUnion,andRussia.
The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��3
Ecosystem Management and the Future Era,�993-Present
T hefoundationforecosystemmanagement,basedontheecologyof theland,air,water,plants,animals,andpeople,wasintroducedby ChiefDaleRobertsonin1992.Itwasalogicalconclusiontotheearliermanagementideascalled“newforestry”and“newperspectives.”Althoughtheideashadbeentalkedaboutfordecades,thiswasthefirstefforttoapplytheprinciplestothe191millionacresoftheNationalForestSystem.
InearlyApril1993,PresidentClintonandVicePresidentGore,alongwithfivecabinetmembers,metrepresentativesofthepublicinPortland,Oregon,todiscussthespottedowlandtimberharvestsituationinthePacificNorthwestandnorthernCalifornia.NeverinthehistoryoftheagencyhadtheadministrationputsuchemphasisonresolvingproblemsinthenationalforestsandadjacentBLMdistricts.TheresultoftheForestConferencewasthecallingofthetopfor-estresearcherstodevelopin60daysacrediblescientificsolutiontomanagingtheFederalforestsunderacomprehensiveecosystemmanagementplanforthePacificNorthwest.
TheFederalscientistsandmanagers,alsoknownastheForestEcosystemMan-agementAssessmentTeam(FEMAT),producedacomprehensiveecosystemmanagementassessment(FEMATreport)andmanagementplan(SupplementalEnvironmentalImpactStatement)forthePacificNorthwest.SimilaranalysesarebeingworkedonforforestareasinotherForestServiceregions.TheInteragencyColumbiaBasinEcosystemManagementProject(ICBEMP)in1997includedanassessmentandplanformanagingtheFederalforestandgrazinglandsofahugeareacoveringmuchofcentralandeasternWashingtonandOregon,northernIdaho,andwesternMontana.Otherlarge-scaleassessmentshavebeenproduced,includingtheSierraNevadaEcosystemProject(SNEP)inthePacificSouthwestRegion(1996)andtheSouthernAppalachianAssessment(1996).Otherlong-termassessments,liketheGreaterYellowstone,areintheprocessofstudy.
TheForestService,undertheleadershipofwildliferesearcherChiefJackWardThomas,quicklyadoptedecosystemmanagement—wherethelong-termsustainabilityofecosystemswasthemanagementgoalfortheNationalForestSystemratherthanboardfeetoftimber,dollarsintheTreasuryorcounties,andjobsinthecommunities.
ChiefMikeDombeck,afterhisappointmentasChiefin1997,changedtheemphasisofecosystemmanagementthroughthe“NaturalResourceAgenda.”Basically,theagendaemphasizedfourareasofmanagement:1)watershedhealthandrestoration,2)sustainableforestmanagement,3)nationalforestroads,and4)recreation.InkeepingwiththeintentoftheOrganicActof1897,thisnewagendaputprotectingthenationalforestsastheprimarygoalofmanagement,followedbyprovidingabundant,cleanwater,andfinallyallowingmultiple-re-sourcemanagementontheareasthatcansustainintensiveactivities.OnOctober13,1999,PresidentClintonannouncedthattheForestServicewouldstudytheroad/roadlessareaissueagainandprovideasolutionforpublicreview.
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The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ ��5
ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT
Ecosystemmanagement,thedrivingforcebehindcurrentpolicyoftheFor-estService,USDIBureauofLandManagement,andotherInterioragencies,combinesphilosophy,conservation,ecology,environmentalism,andpoli-tics.Althoughtheterm“ecology”hasbeenaroundsincethe1800’s,man-agementusinganecologicalframeworkisrelativelyrecent.AldoLeopold’sbook A Sand County Almanac(1949)andRachelCarson’sbookSilent Spring(1962)influencedmanypeopletolookatthebroaderpictureofthein-teractionbetweenpeopleandtheenvironment.In1970,LyntonCaldwellpublishedanarticlethatperhapsforthefirsttimeadvocatedusinganecosystemapproachtopubliclandmanagementandpolicy.Theninthelate1970’s,FrankandJohnCraigheadpioneeredeffortstousebroadecosystemsinthemanagementofgrizzlybearsintheYellowstoneNationalParkandsurroundingnationalforests.Bythelate1980’s,manyresearchersandpub-liclandmanagerswereconvincedthatanecosystemapproachtomanagepubliclandswastheonlylogicalwaytoproceedinthefuture.Thefollow-ing10elementscontainwhatecosystemmanagementmeansforpublicandprivatelandmanagement(thankstotheworkofEdwardGrumbine):
1. Multiple AnalysisLevels—Usedifferentlevelsofanalysis,fromthesite-specificlocationtothebroadwatershedperspectiveorevenlarger.
2. Ecological Boundaries—Defineecosystemsbyanalyzingandmanagingthemacrosspoliticalandadministrativeboundaries.
3. Ecological Integrity—Protectthetotalnaturaldiversity,ecologicalpat-terns,andprocesses.Keepallthepieces.
4. Data Collection and Data Management—Requiremoreresearch,betterdatacollectionmethods,andup-to-dateinformation.
5. Monitoring—Trackresultsofmanagementactions.Learnfrommistakes.Takeprideinsuccesses.
6. Adaptive Management—Useadaptivemanagement,aprocessoftakingrisks,tryingnewmethodsandprocesses,experimentation,andmostofallremainingflexibletochangingconditionsorresults.Encouragebet-terpublicparticipationandinvolvementinplanning,decisionmaking,implementation,andmonitoring.
7. Interagency Cooperation—WorkwithagenciesattheFederal,State,andlocallevels,aswellastheprivatesector,tointegrateandcooperateoverlargelandareastobenefittheecosystems.
8. Organizational Change—Changehowthevariousagenciesworkinter-nallyandwithpartnerstoencouragecooperationandunderstanding,aswellasadvancetrainingforon-the-groundemployees.Expandpartner-shipsandcooperationwithotheragenciesandthepublic.
9. Humans Are Part of Ecosystems—Peopleareafundamentalpartofeco-systems,bothaffectingthemandaffectedbythem.Involvepeopleatallstagesintheanalysisanddecisionmakingphases.
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10.Human Values—Thehumanattitudes,beliefs,andvaluesthatpeopleholdaresignificantindeterminingthefutureofecosystemsaswellastheglobalenvironment.Seekbalanceandharmonybetweenpeopleandthelandwithequityacrossregionsandthroughgenerationsbymain-tainingoptionsforthefuture.
Jack Ward Thomas— Thirteenth Chief, 1993-1996
JackWardThomaswasborninFortWorth,Texas,onSeptember7,1934.AmidcontroversyabouthownewChiefsshouldbeappointed,ThomaswasgiventhejobinOctober1993asapoliticalappointeewiththeassurancethathewouldbeconvertedtoacareerappointmentthroughtheSeniorExecutiveService(throughwhichChiefsPetersonandRobertsonwereappointed).SoonafterhisbecomingChief,
Thomashadtoaddressademoralizedagency,withthepublicinoppositiontopracticallyanythingthattheForestServiceproposedtodo.
ThecontroversyabouttheNorthwestForestPlanforthespottedowlregion(westernWashington,westernOregon,andnorthernCalifornia)wasespe-ciallytroubling.YetThomas,aForestServicewildliferesearcherhisentirecareer,ledseveraleffortstoresolveconflictsovermanagementundertheEndangeredSpeciesActof1973,especiallyrelatingtospottedowls.ChiefThomaswasgreetedwithsuspicionbysome,butwashailedbyothers.Dur-inghisrelativelyshorttenureasChief,hemovedquicklyintoimplementa-tionofecosystemmanagementforalltheNationalForestSystemlands.
JackWardThomaswrote:
Wedon’tjustmanageland—we’resupposedtobeleaders.Conservationleaders.Leadersinprotectingandimprovingtheland...withabroadviewofnaturalresourceleadership,andthatincludespeople,becausepeoplearepartofecosystems....TheForestServiceisgoingtobealeaderinecosystemmanagement...rightnowit’smoreaconceptthanapractice....Whatdoesecosystemmanagementmean?Itmeansthinkingonalargerscalethanwe’reusedto.Itmeanssustainingtheforestresourcesoververylongperiodsoftime.Andfromthatwillflowmanygoodsandservices,notjusttimber.Ecosystemmanagementisnotjustatimbersale;it’sputtingthetimbersaleintoabiggerpicture,includingthewatersheds,wildlife,roads,andpeople’sneedsandvalues....Woodproductionwillcontinuetobeasignificantpartofourprogram,butwewilllookmoreat
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Michael P. Dombeck— Fourteenth Chief, 1997-2001
MichaelP.DombeckwasbornonSep-tember21,1948,inStevensPoint,Wis-consin.Hespent12yearswiththeForestServiceprimarilyintheMidwestandWest.InhislastForestServicepostbe-forehebecameChief—NationalFisher-iesProgramManagerintheWashingtonOffice—hewasrecognizedforoutstand-ingleadershipindevelopingandimple-mentingthefisheriesprogramsandforg-ingpartnerships.HethenspentayearasaLegislativeFellowworkingintheU.S.Senatewithresponsibilityfornaturalre-
multiplevariables,notjustproduction.Wewillbemoreproac-tiveonwildlifeprograms,fishprograms,andrecreationpro-grams...wehavetoinvolvethecitizensofthiscountry....Wearegoingtohavetoimproveourtechnicalskillsacrosstheboard....Weneedtobepreparedtomoveintothe21stcenturyorwe’llbeleftinthedust.
sourceandInteriorappropriationsissues.Dr.DombeckwasnamedActingDirectoroftheBureauofLandManagement(BLM)inFebruary1994.
Afterlessthan3yearsasActingDirector,hewasselectedasthenewChiefoftheForestServiceinJanuary1997.Duringhistenure,hefocusedontwomajorobjectives:Creatingalong-termvisiontoimprovethehealthofthelandthroughthe“naturalresourceagenda”andimprovingcustomerservicethroughaprogramentitled“collaborativestewardship.”
MikeDombeckwrote:
Weareabetter,stronger,andhealthierNationduetotheworkoftheForestService.Inthepast,becausetherewerefewerpeopleanddemandsontheland,wecouldachievemanyofourgoalswithlessconflict.GettingfrompointAtopointBwasn’tallthatdifficult.Wehelpeddefinethestartingpointanddecidedhowtogettotheendpoint.Thathasgrownmorecomplexassocietyhaschangedandbecomemorecomplex.Today,wearefacedwithcompetingdemands,newpressuresontheland,andgreaterchallengesthaneverbefore.
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ThereisanongoingdebateinthisNationoverhownationalfor-estsandrangelandsshouldbemanaged.That’sjustfine.Infact,itishealthy.Debateandinformationaretheessenceofdemoc-racy.Thepeopleweserve,allofthepeople,arenowmorefullyengagedindefininghowtomovefrompointAtopointB.Ourtaskisnottodictatethecourseortheoutcome.Rather,weneedtobethefacilitators,thesuppliersofknowledgeandexpertise,theeducatorsandcommunicatorswhohelppeoplesearchforsolutions.
Butasthedebateswirls,wecannotforgetoursuccessesortheessentialservicesthatweprovidedailytopeopleandcommuni-ties.Animportantpartofourjobistoarticulateoursuccesses.Themostenduringandpowerfulmaximofbusinessisthat“moneyflowstothingspeoplewant.”Peoplewanttheirculturalheritageprotected,cleanairandwater,healthyforestsandrange-lands,goodhuntingandfishing,sustainablesuppliesoftimberandforage,etc.Theonesurewaytoguaranteethatwewillhavecontinueddownsizinganddecliningbudgetsisbynottellingpeopleourstory.Weneedtocommunicateoursuccesses.
Myexpectationisthateverythingwedo—everyenvironmentalimpactstatementwewrite,everytimbersale,recreationplan,miningplan,orallotmentmanagementplanweapprove—willnotcompromisethehealthoftheland.IwanttomakeitveryclearthatnoForestServiceprogramhasdominanceoveranoth-er.Timberisnotmoreimportantthanwildlifeandfisheries.Noriswildlifeandfisheriesmoreimportantthantimberorrecre-ation,orculturalresources,andsoon.
Wewillcareforthelandandservepeoplebylisteningtoallourconstituentsandbylivingwithinthelimitsoftheland.Icallthiscommitmenttohealthyecosystemsandworkingwithpeopleontheland“collaborativestewardship.”Ourtaskistohelpbringpeopletogetherontheland.That’swhatcollaborativestewardshipisallabout.Wearetheprofessionals,scientists,andmanagerswhocanworkhand-in-handwithStateagencies,tribalgovernments,regulatoryandotherFederalagencies,conserva-tionists—allwhouseandcareaboutpubliclandsandnaturalresourcestoassurethemostefficientandeffectiveconservationmanagementpossible.
OurvisioncannotbestatedbetterthaninthededicationofBreaking New GroundbyGiffordPinchot,publishedin1947.“TothemenandwomenoftheForestService,whosecourage,devo-tion,andintelligencehavemadeitandkeptitthebestorganiza-tionintheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates.”
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herehavebeenthousandsofchangestothenationalforestsover thelast100-plusyears.Themostsignificantchangehasbeenthe establishmentoftheUSDAForestServicetoadministerournationalforestheritage.ThecreationofthenationalforestsmarkedtheendofthefrontierinAmericanlife.ThepurposeoftheFederalGovernmentchangedfromthatofgivingorsellingthepublicdomaintoreservingandmanagingthepublicforestlandsforthepeopleoftheUnitedStatesandforfuturegenerations.Followingaresomeoftheimportantchangesthathaveoccurredonthe191millionacresofnationalforestsandgrasslands.
National Forests and National GrasslandsPriorto1891,therewerenonationalforests—orforestreservesastheywerefirstcalled—andnonationalgrasslands.Today,thereare187,811,680acresofnationalforests;3,839,174acresofnationalgrasslands;and813,965acresofpurchaseunits,landutilizationprojects,researchandexperimentalareas,andrelatedlands—atotalof192,464,819acresoflandadministeredbytheUSDAForestServiceforthepeopleoftheUnitedStates.
National Forest ReceiptsInthelate1800’s,theforestedpublicdomainland,someofwhichbecamethenationalforests,wasnotontheStateandcountytaxrollsandthuscontributednothingtolocal,State,andFederalfunding.Currently,theForestServicecol-lects$967.8millioninreceipts.Inaddition,thenationalforestscontributetotheStatesandcountiesmorethan$229,035,000aspartofthereceiptscollectedfromtimbersales,grazing,recreation,mineralextraction,andspecialuseautho-rizations(includingfirewood,plants,Christmastrees,cabins,resorts,andoutfit-tersandguides).Thesefunds,usedforschoolsandroads,generallyrepresent25percentofthereceiptscollectedduringtheyear,theother75percentaredepos-itedtotheU.S.Treasury.
FireBefore1905,anestimated30millionacresofforestareawereburnedeachyear.Currently,theamountoffiredamageisapproximately1.9millionacresperyearonallownerships.
GrazingBefore1905,manymillionsofsheepandcattlegrazedthepublicdomainforestlands.Today,theForestServiceadministersapproximately50millionacresofrangelandin33States.Currently,8,783grazingallotments(around9.3millionheadmonths)contribute$7.0milliontotheForestServicereceipts,annually.
Changes in the National Forests— Over �00 Years of Progress
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TimberBefore1905,verylittletimberwasharvestedfromthelandsdestinedtobecomenationalforests.Mostofthetimberthatwasharvestedwasusedbyhomestead-ers,miners,andrailroads.By2002,thenationalforestsproducedabout1.7billionboardfeetoftimbergenerating$164millioningrossrevenues.
ReforestationPriorto1905,therewasnoreforestationoncut-overorburned-overareas.Onehundredyearslater,theForestServiceisplantingtreeson277,900acresannu-ally.Therewillalwaysbeforestsforfuturegenerations.
FishingBefore1905,therewasminimalfishingonwatersinwhatwouldbecomethena-tionalforests.Currently,fishingcontributes18.9millionvisitordaysannuallyon2.3millionacresoflakes,ponds,andreservoirs;128,000milesoffishableriversandstreams;and16,500milesofcoastsandshorelines.TheForestServicealsoadministersmillionsofacresofstreamside(riparian)habitats.In1996,recre-ationalfishinggenerated$8.5billionworthofeconomicvalue.
HuntingPriorto1905,huntingwasminimalonwhatwouldbecomethenationalforests,withmuchcomingfromhardyoutdoorrecreationistsonextendedtripsoronareasnearhomesteadsandcities.Today,huntingonthenationalforestscontrib-utesaround19.4millionvisitordaysannuallyandtheForestServiceadministersmillionsofacresofwildlifehabitatwhiletheStatescontrolthenumbersofhunt-ableanimals.
MineralsPriorto1905,thevalueanddollaramountofmineralsremovedfrompublicdomaintimberlandswasnotknown—butinsomecases,itwassubstantial.Pres-ently,thereareabout7,000activeminingclaimsonapproximately5.9millionacresofNationalForestSystemlandsandanother1,000orsopitsandquarriesthatprovidecommonvarietymineralssuchassand,gravel,stone,andpumice.In1998,about10millionbarrelsofoil,150billioncubicfeetofnaturalgas,and115millionshorttonsofcoalwereproducedonNationalForestSystemlands.
Recreation and TourismBefore1905,recreationwasquitelimitedonwhatwouldbecomethenationalforests,withmuchrecreationusebeingforweeksormonthsatatimeinthemountainpeakcountry,popularhotsprings,andeasilyaccessiblecampingandfishingplaces.Today,recreationuseonthenationalforestsisenormous,withmorethan860millionvisits(orabout341millionrecreationvisitordays)contributingabout$47.6milliontotheTreasuryeachyear.Thereare140skiareas,485resorts,over4,000campgrounds,73majorvisitorcenters,and4,100privatebusinesses,whichprovidemorethan139,000jobsonandadjacenttothenationalforests.
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Soil and Water Resource ImprovementsBeforethenationalforestsexisted,destructionormassivechangestowater-wayscausedbyuncontrolleddevelopmentfrommining,grazing,andtimberingdevelopmentswererampantonthepublicdomain.In1998,restorationforfishhabitatwasaccomplishedonabout1,600milesofstreamsand9,500acresoflakes,withanother38,500acresoflandimprovements.
TrailsPriorto1905,therewerefewtrailsinorthroughthemountains,andmostofthosewereolderAmericanIndiantrails,hunterorgametrails,orstockdrive-ways.Currently,therearemorethan133,000milesofnationalforesttrails,fewerthanseveraldecadesbackbutconsiderablymorethan100yearsago.
RoadsBefore1905,therewereonlyafewroads—mostlyprivate,tollwagonroads—onwhatwouldbecomethenationalforests.Alittleover100yearslater,thereare381,000milesofroads,rangingfromdirtroadstointerstatehighwaysand7,700milesofNationalScenicBywaysin30States.In1998,theForestServicedecom-missionedalmost2,100milesofunneededroads.
WildernessPriorto1905,thenationalforestareasintheWestwerepracticallyalluntrackedwildernessareas;intheEast,whatwouldbecomenationalforestsweremostlylandsthathadbeencut,burned,orfarmed.By1996,therewere387congressio-nallydesignatedwildernessunitsintheNationalWildernessPreservationSys-tem.Thisamountsto34.8millionacresofwilderness(about1acrein6oftheNationalForestSystem).TheForestServicemanages75percentofthedesignat-edwildernesswithinthelower48States,orabout63percentofallwildernessesintheNationalWildernessPreservationSystem.
Wild and Scenic RiversIn1905,theriversonwhatwouldbecomenationalforestswerealmostentirelywild,withafewriversorcreeksdivertedforirrigationandminingoperations.Overacenturylater,Congresshasrecognizedmorethan4,348milesor946,118acresonthenationalforestsaspartoftheNationalWildandScenicRiversSys-tem.
National MonumentsPriorto1905,therewerenonationalmonumentsmanagedbytheForestSer-vice.TheAntiquitiesActof1906authorizedthePresidenttoestablishnationalmonuments.Between1906and1933,aboutadozennationalmonumentswereestablishedonthenationalforests.ThosemonumentsweretransferredtotheNationalParkServicein1933.Sincethen,twonationalmonumentshavebeenestablishedinAlaskaandtwoothersinCalifornia.Twonationalvolcanicmonu-mentshavebeenestablishedinWashingtonandOregon.ThenationalacreagefortheForestServiceisnow3.8millionacres.Inaddition,theForestServicemanagesseveralmonumentsfortheNationalParkService.
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Wildlife Habitat RestorationBeforetheNationalForestSystemwasestablished,wildlifehabitatwasoftenchangedordestroyedbythemanyactivities–someillegal–onthepublicdomainforestlands.In1998,theForestServicerestoredover167,000acresofterrestrialhabitat,includingnearly42,000acreswithinrangelandecosystems.
Forest ResearchPriorto1905,therewerebasicallynoorganizedresearchstudiesonforests.To-day,theForestServicesupportsapproximately3,005researchstudiesconcernedwiththenationalforestresources.
Forest Service EmployeesBefore1905,ahandfulofGovernmentemployeesintheDepartmentofAgri-culturewerepaidtostudytheforestrysituationinAmerica.In2002,theForestServiceemployedabout30,000permanentfull-timepositions(about38percentwomenand16percentminorities)andanother14,700temporarypositions,whichrangefromarcheologiststowildernessguards.
Special Employment ProgramsPriorto1931,therewerenospecialemploymentprogramsonthenationalforestlands.Today,theForestServicehas18JobCorpscenters,with8,976studentsbetweentheagesof16and22employedonconservationprojectsandeducationprograms.JobCorpsstudentsaccomplishedalmost$18.5millionworthofworkonnationalforestprojects.YCCemployedanother894enrolleesonthenationalforestsduringthesummermonths,returning$1.14inworkforeachdollarap-propriated.TheSeniorCommunityServiceEmploymentProgram(SCSEP)hasabout5,873low-incomepersons,55orolder,participatinginnationalforestandotherForestServiceprojects,returning$1.45inworkvalueforeachappropri-ateddollar.
Volunteers in the National Forests Before1905,(andthenext30years)therewereno“official”volunteersonthelandsthatbecamenationalforests.However,over100yearslater,90,678vol-unteershavecontributedworkvaluedat$38million.VolunteersoftenserveashoststooverseethedailyoperationofthemanyForestServicerecreationalfacili-ties.
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Dale N. Bosworth— Fifteenth Chief, 2001–Present
DaleN.Bosworthbecamethe15thChiefoftheFor-estServiceonApril12,2001.Bosworthheldposi-tionsasregionalforesterfortheIntermountainandNorthernRegionsbeforehewaschosentobeChiefoftheForestService.DuringhistimeasChiefoftheForestService,hehasreorganizedtheagencytogivemoreauthorityanddollarstotheregionsandnationalforests,tobetterrespondto“analysisparalysis”(theeffortsbysometoslowForestServiceworkthroughnumerousappealsandlawsuits),andtoimplementtheNationalFirePlan2000.During
Bosworth’stenure,theincreasingdangertocommunitiesfromwildfiresandheavy“fuelloads”inforestsbecamemajorissues.Thefiresof2002wereverydifficultfortheForestService,especiallyintermsofacresburnedandmoneyspentonfirefighting.
DaleBosworthwrote:
On the national forests...long-term ecosystem health drives everything we do. It determines whether or not—and where and how—we decide to cut trees. Our vegetation management projects are guided by the principle that what we leave on the land is more important than what we take away....Some people say we ought to leave the land alone to heal itself. But it is an illusion to think that just leaving nature alone will restore the open old-growth pine forests....Competition for limited resources will keep the dense trees that are there now small forever—or until they are destroyed by insects or fire. In fact, the original open forests were probably never entirely natural; studies suggest that they evolved together with American Indians and their land management practices, particularly burning....Our American Indian heritage teaches the need for active management.
I think we can find common ground for deciding at the local level what our priorities and treatments should be. Today, we have amazing new opportunities for collabora-tion. New technologies such as the Internet allow us to work together with partners all across the landscape....If we work together based on shared goals for the land, everyone benefits. Ecologically, we can benefit the land by restoring ecosystems to something more resembling their condition at the time of European settlement. So-cially, we can benefit our local communities by helping people make themselves safer from wildland fire. Economically, we can benefit our citizens by providing jobs and by helping them take advantage of local business opportunities to utilize excess trees and brush.
When you think about it, the national forests and grasslands are a great unfinished experiment. We as a Nation are testing a hypothesis—the hypothesis that a great system of public lands can provide benefits to many different people, for generation after generation, forever and ever...The jury is still out. People all over the world are watching and waiting to see if what we are doing is the right thing. A lot is at stake. FromanarticleinFire Management Today(basedonhis2002McClureLectureattheUniversityofIdaho.
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Summary— �00 Years of Forest Service Management hephilosophicalfoundationsofpreservingandusingthenatural resourcesonFederallandhavemanydeeprootsthatdatetothe19th century.AfterthedecisionsmadebyCongressinthe1890’s,theNationalForestSystemhasgrowntomorethan191millionacres.Thisland,ownedbythepeopleoftheUnitedStates,hasbeenmanagedbytheUSDAForestServicesince1905.Forestry,asworkedoutbyGiffordPinchot,thefirstChiefoftheFor-estService,issynonymouswithconservationofforestsandothernaturalresourc-esoverthelongterm.Itsequivalenttodayisecology-basedmanagement.
Managementofthenationalforestshasundergonesignificantchangeoverthelast100-plusyears.ProtectingforeststhroughPresidentialandcongressionalac-tionswasessentialintheearly1890’s,aswastryingtogetcongressionalapprovalandfundingtomanagetheseentrustedlands.Duringthefirstpartofthe20thcentury,protectionofthenewlycreatednationalforestsfromfireandabusewasofparamountimportance.TheGreatDepressioncreatedopportunitiesforthena-tionalforestsandtheForestServicetoplayamajorroleinhelpingpeoplesurviveeconomicallythroughconservationworkprogramsandprojects.
FollowingWorldWarII,thenationalforestsbeganplayinganincreasingroleintheproductionoftimberproducts,butledtocontroversyaboutthe“weight”oftimberproductioninthemixofusescomingfromthepublicforestlands.TheMultiple-UseSustained-YieldActof1960wasthefirstimportantlawtoredi-recttheagencytoconsideralluses—notjusttimber.QuicklyfollowingwastheWildernessActof1964,whichsetasidevastareasofcongressionallyprotectednationalwildernesses.
Controversywasonlybeginningasbattlesoverclearcuttingandroadlessareasplaguedtheagency—resultinginaseriesofnewlaws,includingRPA,NFMA,andaseriesofenvironmentalprotectionlaws,suchastheCleanWaterandCleanAirActsandtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969.TheForestServicehashadtoincorporatenewkindsofmanagementintotheadministrationofthenationalforests—themostrecentchangeshavebeentheembracingofecologicalmanagement,nationalfireplanning,partnerships,andcollaborativestewardship.
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The USDA Forest Service—The First Century ■ �55
Thefutureismurky.TherearepowerfulinterestgroupsthatwanttheForestServiceandthenationalforeststoreverttoanintensivemanagementeratopro-tectandpreservejobsandusethetreesandothernaturalresourcestothefullestextentpossible.Whileattheotherendtherearethosewhowanttheresourcestotallypreserved,tohavea“zero-cut”ofthetrees,andtokeeppeopleoutofthenationalforests–apolicyevenmorerestrictivethanthatofthenationalparks.Otherspecialinterestgroupswanttoincreasetheir“share”oftheresourceusesavailableonthenationalforests.Allgroupsseemtobelievethatscienceandmoredatawill“provetheircase.”Buttherealityisthatdecisionsaboutthefutureman-agementofthenationalforests,aswellastheuseofthenaturalresources,arees-sentiallypoliticalinnature.Dataandthescientificmethodcanonlygiveanswerstoquestions,notsetpolicyandpractices.
DiscussionsovertheyearsbyvariousAdministrationsandCongresshavecen-teredonmovingtheForestServiceandthenationalforestsfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturebacktotheDepartmentoftheInterior.OtherproposalshaveputforththenotionofhavingoneFederalagency,suchasaDepartmentofNaturalResources,toadministerallthenationalforestsandparks,wildliferefuges,BLMlands,andothers.Theseideas,aswellascompetingideasabouttheproperroleoftheFederalGovernmentinowningandmanaginglands,willbediscussedagain.
Withouttheforesightanddedicationofagreatnumberofpeopleduringthelate19thandearly20thcenturies,therewouldbenothingtodebatetoday.Thenationalforestswouldhavelongagobeencarvedintomillionsofprivateowner-shipplotsandextensivelyloggedandchangedforever.Thenationalforestsareourlegacyforfuturegenerations.For100years,theForestServicehasbeenthemanagerofthenationalforests.Ithasnotalwaysbeeneasyorwithoutcontro-versy.Tosurviveintothenextcentury,theForestServicewillhavetocontinueincorporatingthepublicneedsandnewideasofmanagement,justasithasforthefirst100years.
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nynumberofbooksdiscusthebeginningandcurrentoperations oftheUSDAForestService.Ashortlistofreadingsshouldinclude:
Fedkiw,John.1999.Managing Multiple Uses in National Forests, 1905-1995: A 90-Year Learning Experience and It Isn’t Finished Yet.FS-628.Washington,DC:USDAForestService.
Hays,SamuelP.1959.Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement 1890-1920.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.
Pinchot,Gifford.1947.Breaking New Ground.NewYork,NY:Harcourt,Brace,andCompany.
Runte,Alfred.1991.Public Lands, Public Heritage: The National Forest Idea.Niwot,CO:RobertsRinehartPublishers.
Steen,HaroldK.1976.The U.S. Forest Service: A History.Seattle,WA:UniversityofWashingtonPress.
Steen,HaroldK.(ed.)1992.The Origins of the National Forests: A Centennial Sym-posium.Durham,NC:ForestHistorySociety.
USDAForestService.1976.100 Years of Federal Forestry.AgricultureBulletin402.Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.
West,TerryL.1992.“CentennialMini-HistoriesoftheForestService.”FS-518.Washington,DC:USDAForestService.
Further Reading
A
Slightly revised April 2005FS-650