Analysis

Analysis questions test how well you understand how the writer has written something. You will be asked to comment on how the writer has expressed an idea but NOT on the idea itself.

The main areas of analysis are:

1. Word choice2. Register3. Imagery4. Tone5. Punctuation/sentence structure6. Linking (sometimes understanding)

Word-choice questions

A word choice question will often ask you to ‘quote an expression’. An ‘expression’ just means either a single word or a phrase (a short group of words). If a single word only is required, the question will say so and you must suggest a single word.

You should always use a quotation or quotations in a word choice answer.

What sorts of things are asked about the writer’s ‘word choice’?

You may be asked: For an expression which conveys a particular shade of

meaning/connotation A question on contrasting words A question on jargon A question on register

To be able to answer word choice questions effectively, you need to understand the difference between the denotation of a word and its connotations.Denotation = the basic, plain meaning of a word – its definition.Connotation = what the word implies or suggests. For example, red could imply danger, or love. Describing people as a ‘pack’ suggests something about their behaviour.

Word Denotation ConnotationUnderweight Thin A clinical, or medical term, being

seen as in need of treatmentSkinny Thin In an unattractive way, suggesting

something angular or bonySlim Thin In an attractive way, suggesting a

smooth, elegant appearance.

SHADES OF MEANING/CONNOTATIONS

Key Strategies:

1. You are being asked to select a key word and show how the connotations of this word are being used by the writer.

2. A useful strategy is to replace the word with a more ‘neutral’ word, e.g. ‘she strode into the room.’ A more neutral word would be ‘walked.’ You should try and think about why the word ‘strode’ has been used instead.

Q. What does the word suggest that ‘walked’ does not?A. It suggests a purposeful action by a confident person

3. There are no marks for simply picking out the word or repeating the question, which is a very common mistake.

4. Avoid vague answers, e.g. ‘This shows the writer feels negatively towards the teacher.’ You must show how the choice of words helped you to understand the writer’s attitude.

Word ChoicePractice

_________________________________________________________Extract from text (1):Dinner is finally served, and the child is sent off to some unfortunate person in the kitchen. The house shakes with his screams. Dinner over, he returns, his sword point sharpened. His parents again ask him how he feels. It’s ten o’clock. Is he tired? No! he says. You, on the other hand, find yourself exhausted, and you make for the door, swearing never to have kids, or if you already did, never to visit your grandchildren. You’ll just send cheques.

Question:How does the writer’s word choice in this sentence clearly show her displeasure with the child’s behaviour?

2A

Extract from text (2):There were the shoppers who sneakily took 11 or 12 products to the ten-items-or fewer express checkout; who tried to get out with CDs hidden in boxes of camembert. Then there were those who vented their anger on Sam because they thought – mistakenly – that she was overcharging them; or who ignored her as they marched past her till while talking on their mobile phones.

Question:Explain fully how two examples of the writer’s word choice make clear that Sam was critical of the supermarket customers.

4A

Extract from text (3):‘Please’, said the wizened church official with the beaky nose and the black cassock, nudging me in the ribs. ‘Please take.’ I wasn’t in the mood to be nudged. It had been yet another embarrassing day with Caravaggio, attempting to say something that illuminated his story while painfully conscious that he did his own lighting, thanks very much; and that words were feeble fluttering things beside the muscular bulk of his painting. In the cathedral chapel at Valetta in Malta, my back to Caravaggio’s painting The Beheading of St John the Baptist, face to the camera, speech had never been so redundant. I wanted to be out of the musty dimness of that church. I had had my fill of art.

Question:How does the writer’s contrasting word choice convey his difficulty in describing Caravaggio’s painting for the television programme?

2A

Extract from text (4):In my hand was an ancient iron key about five inches long. The looped handle end had got furry in the way very old pieces of metalwork do, but the entry end sported massive squared –off teeth. I had used keys like this before when I had taught at Cambridge University and occasionally had to open doors with 17th century locks. But why was I getting this key in the cathedral of the Knights of St John? I smiled uncomprehendingly

back at the caretaker, now vaguely aware that I had seen this particular key somewhere before. The gnomic figure in back now tightly grasped my free hand, as if I were a child and he a schoolteacher, and turned me round to face Caravaggio’s painting. And, of course, there it was: one of three keys handing from the belt of the grimly handsome prison officer who was pointing to the basket in which the head of John the Baptist was about to be deposited.

Question:Which word from the above extract makes it clear that, at first, the writer did not realise the significance of the key?

1A

Extract from text (5):But memorising text is only part of the process. Comprehension is considerably more important. This is why one would imagine that the Scottish Government’s pledged support for more resources to teach Scots language in schools would be welcomed by all. How can anyone hope to enjoy the beauty, mischief and grace of Burns without having a working knowledge of the vocabulary, syntax and grammar that he employed to fashion his great works? Curiously, however, the reports in the press of the government’s support for a relatively ordinary piece of legislative cultural maintenance were accompanied online by screeds of unpalatable bile by furious bloggers.

Question:a) Show how the writer’s word choice conveys her delight in the poetry

of Burns? 2Ab) What is the writer’s attitude to the bloggers, and how does her word

choice draw attention to that attitude? 2A

Extract from text (6):Here’s another story: once upon a time, there was a little boy who got a new pair of wellies, inside which, around the top, his mother inscribed his name in felt pen. This child, asserting the inalienable rights of small boys everywhere, then proceeded to go out and fill his wellies with water. The ink of his name ran, and by the time the bell rang for school that Monday morning, the small boy had vivid blue smudges, like vicious bruises, ringing his calves. His teacher, a zealous young woman, ever alert to the omnipresence of evil, took one look at the marks and lifted the phone to the social work department. ‘Come quickly,’ she hissed. ‘This boy is clearly being abused.’

When the social workers rushed to examine the boy and quiz his mother, they could find evidence of nothing. Soap and water had washed away the dreadful bruises, and the mother’s relationship with her son turned

out to be impeccably healthy. The only mistake this unfortunate family had made was to fulfil society’s constant, lurking expectation that all children are in danger all the time.

Question:Read the story the writer tells in lines 9 – 31.How does the writer’s word choice in these lines make clear her attitude either to the teacher or to the social workers?

2A

_________________________________________________________

More Word-ChoiceREGISTER, DIALECT, CONTRASTING WORDS and JARGON

Word-choice is often affected by the register of writing, i.e. whether it has a formal or informal style. This can have an impact on tone.

Key strategy:

1. Identify the style/register – but you get 0 marks for simply identifying the style.2. Quote examples of words or phrases which contribute to this style.3. Comment on the effect of this language, e.g. on the tone, the impact on the reader.

FORMAL LANGUAGE

Usually written No abbreviations, e.g. ‘I did not’ Grammatically correct Longer, more complex sentences Complex, more intellectual words, e.g.

‘belligerent’, ‘jurisdiction’ A distant, impersonal tone (the writer

may put his/her feels aside in order to be impartial)

‘Literary’ punctuation marks, e.g. semi-colons, colons.

INFORMAL LANGUAGE

Usually spoken or is written in a conversational tone

Abbreviations, e.g. ‘didn’t,' ‘wouldn’t’. May use dialect and ‘looser’ sentence

structures More common, everyday words, and

perhaps non-standard English or colloquial language, e.g. ‘bonnie’, ‘big deal’, ‘dosser’

A chatty, personal tone (using ‘I’ and ‘you’ more frequently)

Standard English, e.g. ‘extremely important’, ‘good morning’.

Tends to be factual

May include feelings Simple punctuation marks such as

commas, question marks, full stops and explanation marks.

DIALECT AND SLANG are both forms of informal or conversational language, but are not the same thing. Dialect refers to a way of speaking which is specific to a particular region or area – the Glasgow ‘patter’ for instance. Slang is non-standard conversational word-choice – “that’s cool” instead of saying something is good.

The effect of using more conversational language is to create a common bond or identify between the reader and writer or for the purpose of humour.

CONTRASTING WORDS are words that are opposites or near opposites. You may be asked to show the effect of ‘contrasting’ word choice, or between two views of an issue.

JARGON is a specialised kind of formal language which is used by expects in a particular field of work or subject. For example, the words ‘byte’, ‘window’, ‘USB port’, ‘icon’ all belong to computing jargon.

The term ‘jargon’ can have negative connotations (associations), and is sometimes described as being unnecessarily complex and pompous, i.e. it tries to make something simple sound impressive:

ExampleProbation Officer: “He hails from a multi-delinquent family with a high incarceration index.”Judge: “You mean the whole lot are inside?”

ANALYSIS IMAGERY QUESTIONS

Key strategies:

1. Ask yourself what is being compared to what and identify the figure of speech (metaphor, simile, personification…)

2. Show that you understand the ‘root’ of the image and the implications (connotations, associations) of it. In the example ‘as genetically weakened as a

battery hen’, you would show that you know what a battery hen is and understand that their environment is unnatural, restricted, unhealthy.

3. Think about how the two things that are being compared are similar and show that you understand how the writer uses this to make a point.

Formula for comparison questions (simile/metaphor/personification):

Root of the image literally means (denotation)… This suggests that (connotation)… Relate this to the writer’s point.

Example:

Extract from the textToo many tourists are so wedded to their camera that they cease to respond directly to the beauty of the places they visit. They are content to take home a dozen rolls of exposed film instead, like a bank full of Monopoly money.

QuestionShow how the simile used here highlights the writer’s disapproval of the behaviour of tourists.

2A

AnswerThe simile suggests that the writer disapproves of the tourists’ behaviour because although there are so many photographs being brought home, and ‘bank’ suggests that they are valuable, they are actually of no value in the same way that Monopoly money has no value outside of the game. This shows that the tourists had not really experienced or valued the things they were photographing at the time, something the writer disapproves of.

Extract from text (7):When the water finally boils my father shakes the strands of pasta out of the blue sugar paper that looks for all the world like a great long firework, and stands them in the bubbling water. They splay out like one of those fibre-optic lights we saw at the Ideal Home Exhibition on the BBC.

Question:

Choose one example of imagery, and explain how the writer uses it to demonstrate how unusual the pasta seemed to him at the time.

2A

Extract from text (8):‘Will I like it, Dad?’ I ask, half hoping he’ll change his mind and Mum will cook us all chops.

‘Just try it,’ he says, a somewhat exasperated tone creeping in to his voice. ‘Just try it.’

‘I think you should put some salt in, ‘ chirps Mum.Aunt Margaret is looking down at her lap. ‘Do I have to have some?’ I think she is going to cry.

‘I think it must be done now,’ says my father twenty minutes later. He drains the slithery lengths of spaghetti in a colander in the sink. Some are escaping through the holes and curling up in the sink like nests of worms.

Question:Why is the imagery used to describe the spaghetti appropriate here?

2A

Extract from text (9):Welsh fell victim to the same brand of ingrained snobbery that afflicted the Scots language: the imported notion, eagerly parroted by the gentry, that local languages and dialects denoted inferior social status. We are hopefully beyond that brand of cringe today, and the owner of the ‘pan loaf’ accent is more likely to face ridicule than anyone conversing in the hybrid mix of Scots and English, which is the stuff of common conversation. But we are not beyond the continuing fear that the richness of our language will disappear because of a failure to knit it more comprehensively through everyday transactions.

Question: How effective is the writer’s use of imagery in making her point clear?

2A/E

ANALYSISOTHER TYPES OF IMAGERY

Imagery Focusing on Sound

Alliteration (repetition of consonant sounds, e.g., ‘t’, ‘r’) is often used to increase the impact of a phrase. The alliteration of Lady Macbeth’s words after the murder of Duncan:‘I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry’ is effective because of the harsh abrasive ‘cr’ sound which is a nerve grating sound like finger nails on a wall, which perfectly expresses the high tension of the moment.Sometimes alliteration acts as a tongue twister and forces you to pronounce the words properly. This makes you notice them more and draws your attention to what the writer is saying.

Assonance is the precise term for a similar repetition of vowel sounds, e.g., ‘doomed youth’

Onomatopoeia is the term used for sounds which imitate what it describes like ‘hiss’ or ‘buzz’. Onomatopoeia can be used to make writing sound more realistic or dramatic. For example, ‘The apes yawn’. Yawn makes the reader slow down because of the long vowel sounds and the way you have to make your mouth open wide to say it. In the poem it suggests the tiredness of boredom of the animals in the zoo.

Alliteration: Example

‘By the bang of blood in the brain’

AnswerAll the stressed words here begin with the ‘b’ sound. The repetition of this sound at the beginning of all the stressed words imitates the throb of a pounding headache that is difficult to get rid of.

Extract from text (10):…Fatigued with indolence, tiger and lion

Lie still as the sun. The boa-constrictor’s coilIs a fossil. Cage after cage seems empty, orStinks of sleepers from the breathing straw.It might be painted on a nursery wall.

Question:Show how the poet uses sound effects and imagery to give strong impression of the animals.

4A

Extract from text (11):The apes yawn and adore their fleas in the sun.The parrots shriek as if they were on fire, or strutLike cheap tarts to attract the stroller with the nut.

Question:Identify an example of onomatopoeia and explain its effectiveness.

2A

ANALYSISOTHER LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES

Hyperbole (or deliberate exaggeration) is a very common figure of speech/language technique which candidates often fail to notice in examinations. When you say:‘I’ve been there hundreds of times’ you actually mean a large number of times. Using hyperbole emphasises the regularity. Very often hyperbole is used for comic effect: ‘His eyes popped out of his head.’

Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole, and achieves its effect in an ironic way. ‘He was not very happy’ can often mean ‘He was extremely angry.’ This effect may be humorous, or it may contribute to the suspense.

Euphemism is a way of expressing something in a gentler way than the harsh truth. Many euphemisms are associated with death, e.g., ‘My old dog was put to sleep.’

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory terms appear side by side, e.g. ‘cruel kindness’; ‘friendly fire’

Extract from text (12):Elizabeth sat daintily on the edge of her chair sipping her tea. The gold plated china tea cup quivered slightly in her hand as she struggled to maintain control of her situation. She did not want to be rude, but what was she to do?

‘I’m so sorry,’ she gasped, ‘it’s the call of nature. I will be back shortly.’ And with that she rushed from the room with as much composure as she could manage.

Question:Explain why the writer’s use of euphemism is appropriate in this context?

2A

Extract from text (13):I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.

Question:Show how the writer’s use of language is effective in creating humour. 2A

Extract from text (14):I had to get up in the morning at 10 o'clock at night, half an hour before I went to bed, eat a lump of cold poison, work 29 hours a day down mill, and pay mill owner for permission to come to work, and when we got home, our Dad would kill us, and dance about on our graves singing "Hallelujah."

Question:Show how the writer’s use of language is effective in creating humour.

2A

Extract from text (15):

The aftermath of the bomb was terrifying: no screams filled the air, no children cried; there was no sign of life at all. The air was filled with a deafening silence that washed eerily across the city, instilling terror in those left alive.

Question:Show how the writer was successful in describing the effect of the silence on the survivors of the bomb.

2A

Extract from text (16)1. The little low-ceilinged cabin below was rather larger than a

hearse, and as dark as a vault. It had two coffins on each side – I mean two bunks. A small table, capable of accommodating three persons at dinner, stood against the forward bulkhead, and over it hung the dingiest whale-oil lantern that ever peopled the obscurity of a dungeon with ghostly shapes. The floor room unoccupied was not extensive. One might swing a cat in it, perhaps, but not a long cat.

QuestionShow how the writer uses comparisons, imagery and understatement to suggest the tiny cabin in this old boat is claustrophobic and unsafe.

10A

ANALYSISOTHER SOUND TECHNIQUES

Hard Consonants

Hard consonant sounds like p, t, and k make the line sound sharp and hard. For example:

‘The parrots shriek…or strut like cheap tarts…’

Hard consonants need to be pronounced carefully. They make you say each word separately and draw attention to the words, emphasising the raucous noise and obviously showing-off the parrots. Look out for the effect the hard consonants may have when answering alliteration questions.

Soft Consonants

Soft consonant sounds like b, d, n, m, s, l, r, make the line sound softer and gentler. For example:

‘Fatigued with indolence, tiger and lionLie still as the sun.’

Soft consonants are easier to run together. They can imitate a murmuring sound, or make the poem sound sleepy, reflecting the laziness and boredom of the animals in the zoo.

ANALYSIS TONE QUESTIONS

The tone of a piece of writing reflects the attitude of the writer to his/her subject. Consider a simple question like:

‘What have you been up to?’

Think about how it would be said by:

someone talking to a friend who they haven’t seen in a while a parent talking to their son or daughter who has arrived home at 4

am

The same words might be used, but they would be said in very different ways. This is what is meant by tone.

To decide on tone, it can be helpful to decide what the writer’s purpose is. Is he/she being funny or serious? Is he/she trying to stir up some sort of feeling in his/her reader? Is he/she trying to believe in a point of view?

Key strategy:

1. Identify the tone – but you may get 0 marks for mere identification of tone2. Give the evidence – quote words or phrases which gave you a clue to the tone (1

mark)

3. Comment on the effect of the tone (1 mark)

EXAMPLES OF TONE

It would be impossible to list every tone a writer might use, but below are a few you might come across.

1. Humorous/comical: where the author finds the subject funny and hopes the reader will too. This might be expressed by making jokes, and using techniques such as hyperbole.

2. A flippant tone is where he writer shows an irreverent (i.e. disrespectful/mocking/light-hearted) attitude towards something that is usually taken seriously – “death and all that jazz”, “she’s popped her clogs”

3. A chatty or conversational tone suggests the writer is talking to or confiding in a friend. The writer might use slang, abbreviations and short sentences as though talking to a friend. Often personal comments will be included.

4. An effusive, or enthusiastic, tone might be used for something the writer feels passionately about, particularly in a positive way. It often sounds as though the writer is ‘gushing’ about their subject, e.g. “the magnificent craftsmanship”, “that wonderful island”

5. Irony is one of the most important techniques to convey tone. It is the name given to the figure of speech where an author might say the opposite of what he/she really means – if a teacher were to say “I can’t wait to get back to school” during the summer holidays, we could presume he/she was being ironic.

6. A satirical tone is an extreme form of irony. The writer is being funny, but is really ridiculing quite aggressively their subject. An example of this might be Spitting Image, a satirical political show which appeared light-hearted but was actually mocking the government very severely.

7. A serious tone is obviously needed for serious purposes – a funeral speech, or a speech following a great tragedy for instance.

8. An emotive tone aims to stir up emotions such as anger, pity or sympathy. Strong, emotional words are used expressing extremes of feeling. Details involving children or the elderly might be stressed.

9. An argumentative/persuasive tone uses positive expressions, such as ‘biggest’, ‘best’ and is very typical of adverts persuading you to buy. Emotive language may be used. When it is an opinion that is being put forward, rhetorical questions and the use of first person are common techniques employed.

Identifying the tone…

Being able to describe the tone, which in itself can be very tricky until you have had lots of practice or are a very skilled reader, will often not actually get you any marks. You need to be able to identify how that tone is achieved.

The writer may put across a particular tone through:

style of language or register word-choice sentence structure (syntax)

ExampleThe truth was that [Ali] was dead scared of flying. Two months earlier, on his way to the U.S. boxing trials, he had been violently buffeted during a turbulent flight across the California. It was the first time he had ever travelled by air and he swore he would never fly again. This was marginally inconvenient when he was one of the hottest hopes America had for Olympic boxing gold.

Question‘This was marginally inconvenient…boxing gold’

What tone is adopted by the writer in this sentence? Go on to explain the effect of this tone in this context. 2A

AnswerThe tone adopted by the writer here is ironic. He says ‘marginally inconvenient’ when he in fact means it would be very inconvenient. It makes the sentence amusing as he suggests that it is ironic that the unafraid boxer was scared of flying.

Method

Key strategy step 1:The reader has identified the tone as ironic. Most people would say he was being sarcastic, as this is the tone most people pick when they realise the word doesn’t exactly mean what it says. However, sarcasm is much more cruel and harsh than the tone here, so ironic might be a better answer.

Key strategy step 2:The reader has then identified the phrase which suggests the tone – if reading this extract out, one might stress ‘marginally’ because in fact the refusal to fly is massively inconvenient, not marginally. Imagine reading the extract out loud – what voice would you use, and which words would you stress?

Key strategy step 3:As well as identification of tone and words which contribute to the tone, the reader has explained why it is amusing – and therefore comments on the effect of the tone, meeting all three steps of the key strategy.

TASK:

1. Read the following extracts below and identify the tone of each

2. Pick out the words or phrases which helped you to identify the tone

3. Comment on the effect of the tone

1. In the morning I went to Elvis Presley’s birthplace. A path behind the house led to a gift shop where you could buy Elvis memorabilia – albums, badges, plates, posters. There was a visitors’ book by the door. The book had a column for remarks. Reading down the list they said, ‘Nice’, ‘Real nice’, ‘Very nice’, ‘Nice’. Such eloquence.

2. Star Wars (1977). A technically dazzling and enjoyable science fiction film for children of all ages. The plot is the bad buys (the galactic empire) vs. the good guys (the rebels). You’ll root for the good guys and hope the beautiful young princess will be rescued by two young Prince Charmings. You’ll enjoy the film on TV.

Now try the following question:

3. Yet Ireland has managed to attract its young entrepreneurs back to help drive a burgeoning economy. We must try to do likewise.

We need immigrants. We cannot grow the necessary skills fast enough to fill the gap sites. We need people with energy and commitment and motivation, three characteristics commonly found among those whose circumstances prompt them to make huge sacrifices to find a new life.

QuestionShow how the writer uses tone to demonstrate her strength of feeling in these lines.

2A

Extract from text (17):However, the issue of over-parenting raises a number of sticky questions. For example, is it really wrong of us to push our children to excel in areas where they are talented? One parent of a seven-year-old boy was told by an art teacher that his child was a truly gifted artist. So they next morning the parent suggested to the boy that he take an art class after school, and got the following response: ‘I don’t want to go to class and have a teacher tell me what to do – I just want to draw…Why do grown-ups have to take over everything?’ The parent backed off, ashamed. If the fathers of Mozart and the Williams sisters had done the same thing, the history of human achievement would have been different.

Question:How does the writer suggest a tone of anger in the seven-year-old boy’s response to his parent?

2A

Extract from text (18):‘Please,’ said the wizened church official with the beaky nose and the black cassock, nudging me in the ribs. ‘Please take.’ I wasn’t in the mood to be nudged. It had been yet another embarrassing day with Caravaggio, attempting to say something that illuminated his story while painfully conscious that he did his own lighting, thanks very much; and that words were feeble fluttering things beside the muscular bulk of his painting. In the cathedral chapel at Valletta in Malta, my back to Caravaggio’s painting The Beheading of St John the Baptist, face the camera, speech had never been so redundant. I wanted to be out of the musty dimness of that church. I had had my fill of art.

Question:How does the writer create a weary, tired tone at times in this paragraph?

2A

Extract from text (19):

”We …are…going to have…spaghetti, no, SPAGHETTI…just try a bit of it. You don’t have to eat it if you DON’T LIKE it.” Mum is yelling in to Auntie Margaret’s ‘good’ ear. Quite why she thinks there is a good one and a bad one is a mystery. Everyone knows the old bat doesn’t bother to use either ear.

Question:How does the writer establish a tone of dislike, or disapproval, in the last sentence of paragraph one?

2A

Extract from text (20):Naturally, everyone despised being made to learn and recite huge tracts of Tennyson, Chaucer, Burns, Coleridge and Shakespeare at school, but I’ve come to appreciate it in adulthood. Being able to trot out yawning sections of The Lady of Shallot by memory may not afford pleasure to someone forced to listen, but it’s oddly comforting that it will always be there. Similarly, most of my generation take for granted that we probably have at least a dozen long Burns poems permanently stored, ready to quote, mull over, or simply to recite to blinking, uncomprehending non-Scots should the occasion demand.

Question:Show how the writer’s use of language creates a smug tone.

2A

Extract from text (21):

Melanie Reid considers the developments of Children’s Television over the decades.

Even more tragically, the idea of having fun making things is going. The concept of ‘useful’ is fast becoming meaningless. There is hardly a child born since 1990 who could be bothered cutting out cardboard and constructing anything. Oh no. Today’s kids have watched television and learned their lessons well: they just snap their fingers and get driven to the nearest superstore to buy the item in trendy rubber, or sparkly neoprene, or shiny plastic. On their parents’ credit card of course.

Question:What, in your opinion, is the tone of the above paragraph?

2A

PUNCTUATION and SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Understanding punctuation is essential for answering sentence structure questions, which play a large part in close reading. Below is a list of the different punctuation marks and their uses, which you will need to learn.

COMMA ( , ) * to separate items in a list

PAIR OF COMMAS (, … ,) * to mark off an extra piece of information the information goes

between the commas

DASH ( - ) * to introduce a list, example or explanation

PAIR OF DASHES ( - … - ) * to mark off an extra piece of information

BRACKETS (…) * to mark off an extra piece of information – the information goes between the brackets

_____________________________________________________________________

COLON ( : ) * to introduce a list, example or explanation

_____________________________________________________________________

SEMI-COLON ( ; ) * to finish off one part of a sentence or used instead of a comma to separate two ideas in a sentence

Key Strategy

1. Identify the type of sentence structure which is used.2. Say what the effect of it is (e.g. why has the writer decided to use that particular type

of sentence?)

When answering sentence structure questions, there are three things you need to consider.

Step OneFirstly, you must look out for what type of sentence the writer is using. She/he may use:

1. Statements. These tell you something and end in a full stop. Most sentences are statements. Writing which is used up of statements alone may have a calm or impersonal tone.

2. Questions. These ask you something and always end with a question mark. Using questions may challenge the reader or show uncertainty in the writer. RHETORICAL QUESTIONS, however, are a specific type of question which do not expect an answer.E.g. what kind of an answer is that?These questions often aim to stir up strong feelings in the reader and, as such, rhetorical questions are often present in emotive or persuasive tones.

3. Commands. These tell you to do something, e.g. think of a number. They are used when the writer tries to create the effect of talking directly to the reader.

4. Exclamations. These express excitement or surprise and often create an emotive or dramatic tone.

5. Minor Sentences. These do not contain a verb.E.g. ‘What now?’ or ‘Time for a rest.’They are very short and may create a tense or dramatic mood. They are typical of informal language and may be used in direct speech, notes or diary entries.

Practice

Identify, using the list above, identify which type of sentence each of the following is:

1. What time does the match start?2. Give me the money.3. What an ordeal my interview turned out to be!4. What do people care nowadays?5. The dance will begin at nine o’clock.6. Eleven thirty. Still no sign of anyone!7. Why is she so upset?8. Come in!9. Quite right!10. He came here many years ago.

Step Two

Consider whether sentences are long or short.

Long sentences contain several verbs are called complex. Usually, the more complex the sentences, the more formal the language is.

Sentences with only one verb are called simple. These are very typical of speech and types of language which aim to communicate very quickly and directly.

Step Three

Look at the arrangement of words within the sentence.

Word Order

A reversal of normal word order is called inversion.

E.g. “back we went” instead of “we went back.”Using inversion puts emphasis onto a particular part of the sentence – in this example the word ‘back’ is stressed.

Particular Patterns in Sentences

Patterns which are especially common are: listRepetitionClimax

Julius Caesar’s legendary saying, ‘I came, I saw, I conquered’ is an example of all three of these techniques at once.

The list of verbs ‘came, saw and conquered’ creates a sense of action.The repetition of the personal pronoun ‘I’ suggests a speaker who is egotistical and dominating.

The verbs in the list have a sense of progress and end with the most powerful, leading to the effect of a climax.

When answering a question on sentence structure, consider the following checklist of techniques. The right hand column shows a typical effect.

A – Long and complex/short simple sentences

Complex sentences may mimic complex ideas; short sentences have impact

B – Repetition of words or phrases Repeated ideas will be emphasised or spotlighted

C – List (may follow a colon or dash) Provides detail, complexity, etc.D – Climax / anticlimax following a list Creates suspense/shows easing of

tensionE – Questions / exclamations / commands

Achieve a particular tone, e.g. emotive (arousing strong feelings)

F – Sentences with no verbs (minor sentences)

Create a colloquial (informal) style or build tension

G – Unusual word order, e.g. inversion (subject of sentence is delayed)

Alters emphasis; may build tension

H – Sentences with symmetrical pattern of structure but with contrasting (opposite) ideas

Provide contrast

J – Parenthesis Adds extra information, comment or clarification

Finally…

The LINK question, which will ask you how one sentence provides a link between two topics which follow one another. What you need to look for is the sentence (the link sentence) which provides a connection between topics. Common linking words and phrases to look out for are:

Therefore However Additionally As well as this SoYet But Although Firstly/

SecondlyWhereas

You must comment on two things:

1. How the sentence links back to the previous argument (look for your linking word/phrases)

2. How it links forward to the new topic.

Example

In the 2002 Close Reading text on the subject of ‘Bears’, the fifth paragraph began:

So let us imagine that a bear does go for us out in the wilds. What are we to do?

The words ‘a bear does go for us’ refer back to the previous paragraph in which the author had talked about bears attacking people. The question ‘What are we to do?’ links forward to the previous topic, which is a discussion of the advice given to people who are being attacked.

Key Strategy:

1. Identify the link word/phrase which refers back to the previous topic

2. Summarise the topic which it refers back to, in your own words

3. Identify the link word/phrase which refers forward to the new topic

4. Summarise the topic which it refers forwards to, in your own words

For Practice

In the 2004 paper about an amateur African safari guide, the following question was asked:

Show how the sentence ‘That’s not what I’m worried about’ is a successful link between paragraphs 3 and 4.

2A

Paragraph 3 described the danger to the group on a safari from armed rebels; paragraph 4 described the narrator’s anxiety at having to lead the expedition with his limited knowledge.

Can you select two quotations from the designated sentence which could refer to each of these topics?

Extract from text (22):Settled for the night? Well maybe, maybe not. Remember my first night? The Scouser? ‘Course you do. He kicked me out of my bedroom and pinched my watch.

Question:How does the sentence structure give the impression that the character is talking to you?

2A

Extract from text (23):

Link describes what it is like to sleep rough on the streets.

So, you lie listening. You bet you do. Footsteps. Voices. Breathing, even. Doesn’t help you sleep.

Question:How does the sentence structure help you to understand what the character is feeling at that moment?

2A

Extract from text (24):Dr Uher’s research group is now extending its study to look at patients with eating disorders and obesity. Professor Carey Cooper, psychology and health professor at Lancaster University, said: ‘I think they’re really on to something with this. For centuries women have had a providing role – preparing and cooking food for their families. And it’s part of that role to make sure the food is safe. They will therefore be much more sensitive to food than men are, and I would not be surprised if that was now built into their DNA. If the female brain reacts to food because it historically has developed neural pathways to do this, then food will be the way they

express their stress. Food is a tremendous stimulant for women, and a comfort.

But other experts have warned that more research must be done before the results can be confirmed. American scientist Angelo del Parigi of the John B. Pierce Laboratory in New Haven, Connecticut, said: ‘Looking at an f MRI alone cannot confirm whether the stronger reaction in women is due to innate differences or a learned process.’

Question:Show how the sentence ‘But other experts…can be confirmed’ provides a link between the previous paragraph and the one that follows.

2A

Extract from text (25):I don’t like watching violence, but I find it both fun and useful to be frightened – spooked, terrified, scared witless! – by movies. And the reason they don’t haunt me afterwards (not or long anyway) is that nothing I encounter is ever much worse than the dark material that already exists in my own head.

Question:Using quotation to support your answer, show how the writer uses word choice, sentence structure and punctuation to develop her idea of being frightened in the cinema.

3A

Extract from text (26):They started with some physics, explaining how the concept of ‘lift’ ensures aeroplanes can actually fly without engines just in case one or two drop off mi-flight. And they offered well-honed responses to floods of questions unleashed from the hall’s nervy gathering. Yes, pilots undergo regular and vigorous training. Yes, aeroplanes are maintained thoroughly. Yes, there are multiple hydraulic systems in case one fails. No, the intercom ‘bing bongs’ are not coded messages of doom. And wings wobble because if they were rigid ‘it would be like driving a Reliant Robin down a cobbled street with no suspension.

Question:Comment on any aspect of sentence structure which you consider to be particularly effective.

2A