War

WarWar

The Spirit of WarThe Spirit of War

The moral significance of warThe moral significance of war

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Jus ad bellumJus ad bellum

Justice (in going) to war What would justify going to war?

Justice (in going) to war What would justify going to war?

Jus in belloJus in bello

Justice in war What are the rules of conduct in war?

Justice in war What are the rules of conduct in war?

Arguments that War is sometimes justifiable

Arguments that War is sometimes justifiable

Rectificatory justiceRectificatory justice

How can you right a wrong? How can you right a wrong?

Rectificatory justiceRectificatory justice

How can you right a wrong? Aristotle:– This must be done by a proper authority: a

judge with authority to adjudicate– It is for a just cause: there must have been an

injustice that harmed someone– It is intended for a just purpose: to set things

right again, to make things as if the injustice had never occurred

How can you right a wrong? Aristotle:– This must be done by a proper authority: a

judge with authority to adjudicate– It is for a just cause: there must have been an

injustice that harmed someone– It is intended for a just purpose: to set things

right again, to make things as if the injustice had never occurred

Going to warGoing to war

Just war theory (Aquinas): Classic answer, based on rectificatory justice

A war is just if:– It is waged by a proper authority– It is for a just cause: the enemy deserves to be

attacked for some fault– It is intended for a just purpose: to advance

good and avoid evil

Just war theory (Aquinas): Classic answer, based on rectificatory justice

A war is just if:– It is waged by a proper authority– It is for a just cause: the enemy deserves to be

attacked for some fault– It is intended for a just purpose: to advance

good and avoid evil

Proper AuthorityProper Authority

A war must be waged by a proper authority Wars must be waged by legitimate

governments or international organizations granted such authority by legitimate governments (e.g., NATO, the UN)

Decisions to go to war must be made by proper authorities within those governments or organizations

A war must be waged by a proper authority Wars must be waged by legitimate

governments or international organizations granted such authority by legitimate governments (e.g., NATO, the UN)

Decisions to go to war must be made by proper authorities within those governments or organizations

Just CauseJust Cause

Wars must be fought for just causes, on account of faults

Faults that might justify war:– Aggression (countries may defend themselves,

their citizens, or one another, against attacks)– Danger (countries may attack a country

preemptively if it endangers them?)– Human rights (countries may defend citizens

from violations of their rights?)

Wars must be fought for just causes, on account of faults

Faults that might justify war:– Aggression (countries may defend themselves,

their citizens, or one another, against attacks)– Danger (countries may attack a country

preemptively if it endangers them?)– Human rights (countries may defend citizens

from violations of their rights?)

Just PurposeJust Purpose

Wars must be intended for just purposes: to advance good and avoid evil

Wars must be waged, not for self-interest, but because it’s the right thing to do

Good purposes:– Restore peace– Defend citizens– Save lives– Advance freedom and democracy– Protect human rights

Wars must be intended for just purposes: to advance good and avoid evil

Wars must be waged, not for self-interest, but because it’s the right thing to do

Good purposes:– Restore peace– Defend citizens– Save lives– Advance freedom and democracy– Protect human rights

Just wars: World War IIJust wars: World War II

Allies waged war by proper authority: official declarations of war by legitimate governments

Allies waged war by proper authority: official declarations of war by legitimate governments


Just cause: response to attacks (Germany attacked Poland, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Russia, and Britain; Japan attacked China, various East Asian countries, and the United States)

Just cause: response to attacks (Germany attacked Poland, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Russia, and Britain; Japan attacked China, various East Asian countries, and the United States)


Just purpose: intended to stop aggression and restore peace

Just purpose: intended to stop aggression and restore peace

Unjust warsUnjust wars

Lack of just authority: Those not waged by the proper authority– Rebellions, revolutions not authorized by any

legitimate body– Wars waged by illegitimate governments– Private wars, vigilante actions

Lack of just authority: Those not waged by the proper authority– Rebellions, revolutions not authorized by any

legitimate body– Wars waged by illegitimate governments– Private wars, vigilante actions

No just authority: Che GuevaraNo just authority: Che Guevara

No just authority: Sept. 11No just authority: Sept. 11


Lack of just cause: Those not in response to some fault– Wars of aggression (Italy attacking Ethiopia;

Germany attacking Poland et al.; Japan attacking China & the US; North Korea attacking South Korea; Iraq attacking Kuwait)

– Wars based on misunderstanding– Wars to maintain unjust control (USSR invading

Hungary, Czechoslovakia)

Lack of just cause: Those not in response to some fault– Wars of aggression (Italy attacking Ethiopia;

Germany attacking Poland et al.; Japan attacking China & the US; North Korea attacking South Korea; Iraq attacking Kuwait)

– Wars based on misunderstanding– Wars to maintain unjust control (USSR invading

Hungary, Czechoslovakia)

Aggression: Blitzkrieg, 1940Aggression: Blitzkrieg, 1940

Unjust control: Hungary, 1956Unjust control: Hungary, 1956


Lack of just purpose: Those waged for a reason other than seeking good and avoiding evil, e.g., revenge, hatred, envy, aggrandizement, cruelty, the fever of revolt, the lust for power

Lack of just purpose: Those waged for a reason other than seeking good and avoiding evil, e.g., revenge, hatred, envy, aggrandizement, cruelty, the fever of revolt, the lust for power

Unjust Purpose: Iran-Iraq War, 1980

Unjust Purpose: Iran-Iraq War, 1980

Unjust Purpose: Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, 1812

Unjust Purpose: Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, 1812

Unjust Purpose: Hitler’s Invasion of Russia, 1941

Unjust Purpose: Hitler’s Invasion of Russia, 1941

Unjust Purpose: Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait, 1990

Unjust Purpose: Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait, 1990

Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)Hugo Grotius (1583-1645)

On the Law of War and Peace: “The grounds of war are as numerous as those of judicial actions. For where the power of law ceases, there war begins.”

On the Law of War and Peace: “The grounds of war are as numerous as those of judicial actions. For where the power of law ceases, there war begins.”

Justifiable Causes of WarJustifiable Causes of War

Defense: “Injury, or the prevention of injury, forms the only justifiable cause of war.”

Indemnity: right to recovery, redress, damages, compensation for injury

Punishment: punish aggressor, deter future aggressors

Defense: “Injury, or the prevention of injury, forms the only justifiable cause of war.”

Indemnity: right to recovery, redress, damages, compensation for injury

Punishment: punish aggressor, deter future aggressors

How does injury justify war?How does injury justify war?

Principle of self-preservation: you may kill an aggressor if – you are threatened with

immediate danger – the danger can’t otherwise be

avoided

Aggressor forces people to risk their lives for the sake of their rights

Aggression justifies forceful resistance

Principle of self-preservation: you may kill an aggressor if – you are threatened with

immediate danger – the danger can’t otherwise be

avoided

Aggressor forces people to risk their lives for the sake of their rights

Aggression justifies forceful resistance

The Domestic AnalogyThe Domestic Analogy

There exists a society of independent states This society has a law establishing rights of its

members Any use of force, or immanent threat of force,

by one state against another is a criminal act Aggression justifies wars of self-defense and of

law enforcement Nothing but aggression can justify war Aggressors can be repulsed and punished

There exists a society of independent states This society has a law establishing rights of its

members Any use of force, or immanent threat of force,

by one state against another is a criminal act Aggression justifies wars of self-defense and of

law enforcement Nothing but aggression can justify war Aggressors can be repulsed and punished

Arguments for PacifismArguments for Pacifism

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

Ahimsa: Non-violence “Non-violence is

infinitely superior to violence.”

Gandhi argues for pacifism: violence is morally unacceptable

Ahimsa: Non-violence “Non-violence is

infinitely superior to violence.”

Gandhi argues for pacifism: violence is morally unacceptable

The Ethics of KillingThe Ethics of Killing

Killing is intrinsically wrong

The only exception: when it is in the interest of the one being killed

Even then, it would be hard to have confidence that killing is right

Killing is intrinsically wrong

The only exception: when it is in the interest of the one being killed

Even then, it would be hard to have confidence that killing is right

Deontological ArgumentsDeontological Arguments

It is wrong to cause pain or kill– Out of anger– For a selfish purpose– Or with the intention of

harming it

Non-violence ennobles those who lose their lives

It is wrong to cause pain or kill– Out of anger– For a selfish purpose– Or with the intention of

harming it

Non-violence ennobles those who lose their lives

Consequentialist ArgumentsConsequentialist Arguments

Non-violent responses to aggression defuse anger

It is not weakness, but pitting oneself against the will of the tyrant

It can achieve political objectives

In the long run, it results in the least loss of life

Non-violent responses to aggression defuse anger

It is not weakness, but pitting oneself against the will of the tyrant

It can achieve political objectives

In the long run, it results in the least loss of life

When Killing is JustifiedWhen Killing is Justified

One must destroy life to live— but one should do it as little as possible

One can kill to stop suffering

One can kill a crazed person running amok

One must destroy life to live— but one should do it as little as possible

One can kill to stop suffering

One can kill a crazed person running amok

Justifying WarJustifying War

Some wars are justified: WWII, Korea

But the future is unpredictable Unforeseen effects always

outweigh foreseen effects So, it’s impossible to know, at

the time, that a decision to use violence is justified

Some wars are justified: WWII, Korea

But the future is unpredictable Unforeseen effects always

outweigh foreseen effects So, it’s impossible to know, at

the time, that a decision to use violence is justified

Objections to PacifismObjections to Pacifism

If killing is wrong, it must be because life has value

But then why can’t someone kill to protect or defend life?

Orwell: Gandhi gained independence for India, but from the British— would it have worked against a ruthless, totalitarian foe?

How can a pacifist protect the persecuted?

If killing is wrong, it must be because life has value

But then why can’t someone kill to protect or defend life?

Orwell: Gandhi gained independence for India, but from the British— would it have worked against a ruthless, totalitarian foe?

How can a pacifist protect the persecuted?

Preventive WarPreventive War

Can one ever attack first? Talmud: “If a man is coming to kill you, wake

up early and kill him first.”

Can one ever attack first? Talmud: “If a man is coming to kill you, wake

up early and kill him first.”

Against Preventive WarAgainst Preventive War

Preventive war presupposes a standard for measuring danger

Fought to maintain balance of power

Utilitarian argument:– The balance of power maintains

order that makes liberty possible– Fighting early reduces cost of

defense

Preventive war presupposes a standard for measuring danger

Fought to maintain balance of power

Utilitarian argument:– The balance of power maintains

order that makes liberty possible– Fighting early reduces cost of

defense

Against Preventive WarAgainst Preventive War

Second-level utilitarian argument:– Accepting that argument leads to

countless wars whenever shifts in power relations occur

– Threats might justify war, but fear doesn’t; how can we tell them apart?

– It’s best to rely on legalist paradigm

Second-level utilitarian argument:– Accepting that argument leads to

countless wars whenever shifts in power relations occur

– Threats might justify war, but fear doesn’t; how can we tell them apart?

– It’s best to rely on legalist paradigm

For Preventive WarFor Preventive War

Sometimes, it really is less costly to fight early

Example: Nazi occupation of Rhineland, 1936; WWII could have been prevented

It’s hard top gauge likelihood or magnitude of future attacks

But cost the attack will impose, multiplied by probability, may be very high

Sometimes, it really is less costly to fight early

Example: Nazi occupation of Rhineland, 1936; WWII could have been prevented

It’s hard top gauge likelihood or magnitude of future attacks

But cost the attack will impose, multiplied by probability, may be very high


Suppose there’s a 50% chance of an attack

Cost of that attack: 100 Expected cost: 50 If a preventive war would cost

less than 50, it’s justified

Suppose there’s a 50% chance of an attack

Cost of that attack: 100 Expected cost: 50 If a preventive war would cost

less than 50, it’s justified

For Preventive War: TerrorFor Preventive War: Terror

This argument is especially strong when applied to terrorism

Terrorists can do vast damage Retaliation and deterrence are

difficult– Hard to track who’s responsible– Terrorists may be widely

dispersed– Suicide bombers can’t be

punished after the fact

This argument is especially strong when applied to terrorism

Terrorists can do vast damage Retaliation and deterrence are

difficult– Hard to track who’s responsible– Terrorists may be widely

dispersed– Suicide bombers can’t be

punished after the fact


Domestic analogy: we punish people for planning to commit crimes

Evidence has to be convincing, but standard is weaker for violent crimes

Individuals who can’t be deterred can be punished in advance

Domestic analogy: we punish people for planning to commit crimes

Evidence has to be convincing, but standard is weaker for violent crimes

Individuals who can’t be deterred can be punished in advance


What are the proper rules of warfare?

Walzer: That one may not shoot someone in the act of surrendering shows that there are such rules

Not everything is permitted “War is distinguishable from

murder and massacre only when restrictions are established on the reach of battle.”

What are the proper rules of warfare?

Walzer: That one may not shoot someone in the act of surrendering shows that there are such rules

Not everything is permitted “War is distinguishable from

murder and massacre only when restrictions are established on the reach of battle.”


When and how can soldiers kill? Walzer: This appears largely conventional.

Limitations of weapons (e.g., chemical and biological weapons treaties); limitations on questioning, torture

But are these merely conventional?

When and how can soldiers kill? Walzer: This appears largely conventional.

Limitations of weapons (e.g., chemical and biological weapons treaties); limitations on questioning, torture

But are these merely conventional?

Treatment of prisonersTreatment of prisoners

235,000 American and British prisoners were held by the Germans and Italians; 4% died

132,000 were held by the Japanese; 27% died American aircraft machine-gunned Japanese

survivors swimming for shore; Americans often shot surrendering Japanese

Japanese doctors performed horrendous experiments on prisoners

Johnson: “moral confusion”

235,000 American and British prisoners were held by the Germans and Italians; 4% died

132,000 were held by the Japanese; 27% died American aircraft machine-gunned Japanese

survivors swimming for shore; Americans often shot surrendering Japanese

Japanese doctors performed horrendous experiments on prisoners

Johnson: “moral confusion”

Rules of WarRules of War

Whom can they kill? War is a combat among

combatants Killing someone not currently

engaged in the business of war is a crime

Whom can they kill? War is a combat among

combatants Killing someone not currently

engaged in the business of war is a crime

Rules of WarRules of War

Grotius: we may defend ourselves against allies of our enemy

We may attack even when the attack endangers innocent lives

Grotius: we may defend ourselves against allies of our enemy

We may attack even when the attack endangers innocent lives

Von ClausewitzVon Clausewitz

War is an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfill our will

Object is to disarm the enemy

War is a political act, “a mere continuation of policy by other means”

War is an act of violence intended to compel our opponent to fulfill our will

Object is to disarm the enemy

War is a political act, “a mere continuation of policy by other means”

All’s fair in warAll’s fair in war

“…in such dangerous things as War, the errors which proceed from a spirit of benevolence are the worst.”

Nice guys finish last: “…he who uses force unsparingly, without reference to the bloodshed involved, must attain a superiority is his adversary uses less vigour in its application.”

“…in such dangerous things as War, the errors which proceed from a spirit of benevolence are the worst.”

Nice guys finish last: “…he who uses force unsparingly, without reference to the bloodshed involved, must attain a superiority is his adversary uses less vigour in its application.”

Virtue in war is not a meansVirtue in war is not a means

“…to introduce into the philosophy of War itself a principle of moderation would be an absurdity.”

Prussian General von Moltke: “The greatest kindness in war is to bring it to a speedy conclusion.”

“…to introduce into the philosophy of War itself a principle of moderation would be an absurdity.”

Prussian General von Moltke: “The greatest kindness in war is to bring it to a speedy conclusion.”

Hard Cases: Enemy CitiesHard Cases: Enemy Cities

Roosevelt, 1939: Asked belligerents to refrain from the “inhuman

barbarism” of bombing civilians But that attitude didn’t survive for very long

Roosevelt, 1939: Asked belligerents to refrain from the “inhuman

barbarism” of bombing civilians But that attitude didn’t survive for very long

Hard Cases: German CitiesHard Cases: German Cities

Churchill, July 8, 1940: “When I look round to see how we can win the

war I see that there is only one sure path. . . . [T]here is only one thing that will bring [Hitler] back and bring him down, and that is an absolutely devastating, exterminating attack by very heavy bombers from this country upon the Nazi homeland.”

Churchill, July 8, 1940: “When I look round to see how we can win the

war I see that there is only one sure path. . . . [T]here is only one thing that will bring [Hitler] back and bring him down, and that is an absolutely devastating, exterminating attack by very heavy bombers from this country upon the Nazi homeland.”

Hard Cases: German citiesHard Cases: German cities

Historian Paul Johnson: “The policy . . . marked a critical stage in the

moral declension of humanity in our times.” Took about 25% of Britain’s war production;

killed 600,000 Germans Hamburg, night of July 27-28, 1943: 800-

1000° C over the city; destroyed half the housing, 37.65% of the population killed

Historian Paul Johnson: “The policy . . . marked a critical stage in the

moral declension of humanity in our times.” Took about 25% of Britain’s war production;

killed 600,000 Germans Hamburg, night of July 27-28, 1943: 800-

1000° C over the city; destroyed half the housing, 37.65% of the population killed

Hard Cases: DresdenHard Cases: Dresden

February 13-14, 1945: over 650K incendiaries dropped on the city

Firestorm engulfed 8 square miles, killed 135,000 men, women, and children

There were not enough survivors to bury the dead

Goebbels: “It is the work of lunatics.”

Pilots: “It was the only time I felt sorry for the Germans.”

February 13-14, 1945: over 650K incendiaries dropped on the city

Firestorm engulfed 8 square miles, killed 135,000 men, women, and children

There were not enough survivors to bury the dead

Goebbels: “It is the work of lunatics.”

Pilots: “It was the only time I felt sorry for the Germans.”

Dresden: beforeDresden: before

Dresden: afterDresden: after

The Bombing of TokyoThe Bombing of Tokyo

March- July 1945: 100K tons of incendiaries dropped on 66 cities, wiping out 170,000 square miles of densely populated streets, killing 260,000

March 9-10, 1945: killed 83,000 in Tokyo, injured 102,000

March- July 1945: 100K tons of incendiaries dropped on 66 cities, wiping out 170,000 square miles of densely populated streets, killing 260,000

March 9-10, 1945: killed 83,000 in Tokyo, injured 102,000

The Bombing of TokyoThe Bombing of Tokyo

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Hard Cases: HiroshimaHard Cases: Hiroshima

Oppenheimer, quoting the Bhagavad Gita: “I am become as death, the destroyer of worlds.”

August 6, 1945, 8:15am: out of 245,000, 100,000 died immediately, 100,000 died subsequently

August 9: Nagasaki, 75,000 killed

Oppenheimer, quoting the Bhagavad Gita: “I am become as death, the destroyer of worlds.”

August 6, 1945, 8:15am: out of 245,000, 100,000 died immediately, 100,000 died subsequently

August 9: Nagasaki, 75,000 killed

Utilitarian justificationUtilitarian justification

June 6, 1945: Japanese Supreme Council approved plan to “prosecute the war to the bitter end”

10,000 suicide planes; 2 million troops on the beaches; 4 million tropps, 28 million militia in reserve

Allies projected 1 million American casualties, 10-20 million Japanese

June 6, 1945: Japanese Supreme Council approved plan to “prosecute the war to the bitter end”

10,000 suicide planes; 2 million troops on the beaches; 4 million tropps, 28 million militia in reserve

Allies projected 1 million American casualties, 10-20 million Japanese

Hiroshima: beforeHiroshima: before

Hiroshima: afterHiroshima: after



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