Chapter 17
Manifest Destiny and War
(1840-1860)
Chapter 17
Manifest Destiny and War (1840-1860)
Section 1
Manifest Destiny and Expansion
The Roots of Manifest Destiny
Many believed the U.S. was sure to expand all the way to the Pacific Ocean Believed nothing could stop growth from taking place
Expansionist view became known as manifest destiny – term first used by John O’Sullivan
Roots of manifest destiny lay in Americans’ economic, political, and social experiences Puritans believed America was a promised land that God had
given them to set up new society American Revolution added to idea that America was special –
U.S. would prove that democracy could work in large and growing country
Some believed new lands needed to prevent increased social tensions as city populations grew larger
Farmers wanted more land to grow crops, industry needed more natural resources, businesses wanted more markets for American goods
Gone West
By 1840s, many Americans had accepted idea of manifest destiny Thought U.S. chosen by God to spread its
democratic, economic and religious values Americans would spread across the continent taking
liberty, improving the land, and spreading the Christian gospel
Many built settlements beyond the boundaries of the U.S. California, Texas, Oregon – attracted by rich farmland
Supporters of manifest destiny ignored the fact that there were already thousands of American Indians and Mexicans living in the west Saw the west as being not fully developed by those living
there
The Election of 1844 President John Tyler helped make western expansion
an important subject in the election of 1844 Tyler had been elected William Henry Harrison’s vice
president in 1840, became president when Harrison died in April 1841 (31 days into his term)
Tyler = proslavery Whig from Virginia; wanted to extend political power of the southern slave states Believed annexation of Texas would help by adding another
slave state to the country Tyler too unpopular within his own party to win the
nomination for the 1844 election Whigs chose Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky –
started out against the annexation of Texas, but began to waiver under pressure from southern voters
Democratic Party chose former Tennessee governor James K. Polk – favored acquiring both Texas and Oregon
Polk defeated Clay
Acquiring New Territory President Polk was sure that he could bring Oregon
and Texas into the U.S. As more Americans began to settle in the Oregon
Country, they began to ask that Oregon become a part of the U.S. Polk wanted to protect their interests Other politicians wanted Oregon because it would provide a
Pacific port for trade with China
War seemed possible between U.S. and Britain over where the border between the U.S. and Canada should be Expansionists – “Fifty-four forty or fight!” (54°40’ parallel) Neither side wanted war
Acquiring New Territory (continued)
Britain and U.S. signed a treaty giving the U.S. all Oregon land south of the 49th parallel Drew the present-day border between Canada and the U.S. in the
Pacific Northwest Oregon became a U.S. territory in August 1848
Congress approved annexation of Texas by March 1845 – only needed support of Republic of Texas
Texas Congress approved annexation in June and Texas became the 28th state in December 1845 Texas politicians hoped that joining the U.S. would help
solve the republic’s financial and military problems Action angered the Mexican government – called
Texas a “stolen province”
War Breaks Out
Mexico cut off all diplomatic ties to the U.S. Ordered American settlers to leave California and
banned further American immigration there Continued to reject Texas and U.S. claim that
the Rio Grande marked the southern border of Texas; argued real border lay along the Nueces River farther north
June 1845 Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to take U.S. troops into disputed border region Intended to protect Texas from possible attack
Polk sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico City to negotiate the boundary dispute Offer to buy California and New Mexico from Mexican
government for $30 million Officials refused to speak with him
War Breaks Out (continued)
March 1846, General Taylor led troops to the Rio Grande and made camp
April 1846, Mexican commander insisted he remove troops or else
Taylor refused to move; Mexican soldiers crossed the river and attacked a group of U.S. soldiers
Congress declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846
Chapter 17 Manifest Destiny and War
(1840-1860)
Section 2
The Mexican War
Responses to War
At beginning U.S. forces greatly outnumbered but had better weapons and equipment U.S. government called for 50,000 volunteers; got
approximately 200,000 Several “firsts” with Mexican War
First U.S. war fought mainly on foreign soil First time many newspapers covered a U.S. conflict One of the first to be photographed
Home front – men and women collected supplies and wrote patriotic poems and songs
War led to greater national pride Many who supported war said it would spread republican
values
Responses to the War (continued)
Not everyone supported the war Many Whigs believed it was unjustified and unnecessary Upset those who were against expansion or war
Transcendentalist writers Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson
Northern abolitionists opposed war because they feared U.S. would gain lands in Southwest – southern states would try to establish slavery there
Proslavery southerners feared slavery would be banned
American Victories Victories drove Mexican troops back into Mexico
Even before the official war declaration, General Zachary Taylor’s soldiers fought and won battles south of the Nueces River
Defeated Mexican forces at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (May 1846)
Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and occupied Matamoros; waited for reinforcements
Polk ordered Brigadier General Stephen Kearny to attack New Mexico Took Santa Fe without a fight, claimed New Mexico for the
U.S. Marched toward Southern California in June 1846
Bear Flag Revolt Small group of American settlers near Sonoma revolted against
Californios Rebels declared California an independent republic, created a
flag with a single star and grizzly bear John C. Fremont – army explorer who played an important role
American Victories (continued)
During Bear Flag Revolt, U.S. Navy took Monterey – capital of California
Towns of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco fell to Americans
August 1846 – Commodore Robert Stockton declared California belonged to the U.S.
General Kearny was appointed governor of California by President Polk
The War’s End Taylor finally got reinforcements in Mexico
Drove Mexican army deeper into Mexico After U.S. won battle at Monterrey, both sides
spend a few months trying to improve their positions
General Santa Anna took over Mexico’s government Led army north clashing with Taylor’s troops at
Buena Vista Santa Anna sent note demanding Taylor’s
surrender – refused Taylor’s success earned him popularity with
troops and at home – “Old Rough and Ready” Popularity bothered President Polk who feared he
would try to run for president in 1848 Polk also afraid he would not be able to win war
The War’s End (continued)
President Polk gave Taylor’s command to General Winfield Scott – “Old Fuss and Feathers”
Scott sailed to Veracruz (the strongest fortress in Mexico) – after 88 hour attack, fell to Scott
Scott pushed inland toward Mexico City – made it to edge of city by August 1847
Scott ordered massive attack after a truce failed to end the war
U.S. soldiers captured Mexico City on September 14, 1847 – ended the Mexican War
More New Territories Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed February 1848
ceded, or turned over, much of Mexico’s northern territory to the U.S.
Mexican Cession – land included most of Arizona and New Mexico and parts of Colorado and Wyoming
U.S. also got area claimed by Texas north of the Rio Grande Totaled more than 500,000 square miles Increased the size of the U.S. by almost 25%
U.S. agreed to pay Mexico $15 million and to assume claims of more than $3 million held by American citizens against Mexico
Treaty caused controversy Some Americans wanted all of Mexico Antislavery and antiwar activists (thought Mexicans
would not make good republican citizens) and Whigs all against treaty
More New Territories (continued)
Polk pointed to benefits U.S. would gain from the treaty
Senate ratified the treaty in March 1848
Gadsden Purchase negotiated in December 1853 – U.S. paid Mexico $10 million for southern parts of what are now Arizona and New Mexico – continental boundaries of U.S. finally fixed
Chapter 17 Manifest Destiny and War
(1840-1860)
Section 3
More Settlers Head West
Conflicts over LandFlood of trappers, traders, settlers and
speculators moved to SouthwestMost Mexican, Mexican Americans and
American Indians faced legal, economic and social discrimination
American newcomers struggled to control land and other valuable resources such as water and minerals
Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo promised to protect the rights of residents of the Mexican Cession U.S. government often made Mexican American
landowners go to court to prove they had title to land
Often bankrupted landowners
Conflicts over Land (continued) New settlers usually ignored Mexican legal ideas such as
community property or community water rights Conflicts over ownership of cattle and sheep – common Rich Tejanos tried to protect property by marrying into powerful Anglo
families Steady arrival of new settlers and policies of the U.S.
government greatly affected American Indians in the Southwest Tried to take control of valuable water resources and grazing lands Settlers rarely respected Indian holy places such as mountain lakes
and burial grounds Indian raiding parties took settlers’ cattle and attacked
settlements Angry westerners fought raiding parties; attacked Indian peoples or
villages not involved in fighting, causing new conflict
Cultural Encounters Despite conflicts, American Indian, Mexican and
Anglo cultures influenced one another in the Southwest
Laws often printed in both English and Spanish in settlements with large Mexican American population
Spanish language was important in trade and daily life, especially in California, New Mexico and Texas
Place names show Mexican and American Indian heritage – San Antonio, San Diego, Taos, etc.
Mexican and American Indian knowledge and traditions shaped the local economies Mexican Americans taught Anglo settlers about mining
the mountains Introduced new types of saddles, clothing and other
equipment to American ranchers
Cultural Encounters (continued)
Adobe, a building material developed by the Anasazi, was adopted by the Spanish from the Pueblo
Trade changed the Southwest and the people living there
Americans brought manufactured goods and money to the Southwest New firearms and other trade goods
Navajo made and sold more silver objects and hand-woven woolen blankets
The Mormons Joseph Smith founded the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints in western New York (1830) Became known as Mormons Smith told his followers that he had found and translated a set
of golden tablets containing religious revelations – writings became the Book of Mormon
Mormons stressed hard work and community; church membership grew rapidly
Some beliefs made them target of persecution – some Mormon men practiced polygamy (one man married to more than one woman at the same time)
Early 1830s, Smith and followers left New York; settled in Ohio first, then Missouri Left Ohio when their bank collapsed during the Panic of 1837 Left Missouri when they were chased out
From Missouri, they moved to Illinois where an anti-Mormon mob murdered Smith in jail
The Mormons (continued) Brigham Young became the head of the Mormon
Church Mormons decided to move west to build a new
community Young chose what is now Utah – an area overlooking the
Great Salt Lake By 1860, about 40,000 Mormons lived in Utah
Tens of thousands of Mormons took to the Mormon Trail – fleeing persecution in the East and the Midwest (Americans and Mormon converts from Great Britain and Scandinavia)
Main Mormon settlement at Salt Lake City became a thriving community with broad roads and surrounding farms
Young chose the site for the Mormon’s Great Temple
Chapter 17 Manifest Destiny and War
(1840-1860)
Section 4
The Gold Rush
The Forty-Niners James Marshall discovered gold near Sutter’s Mill
(California) on January 24, 1848 John Sutter learned that gold was discovered on his property,
he and James Marshall agreed to keep it a secret Sutter and Marshall went to examine the work site, found a
Spanish-speaking Indian work holding a piece of gold shouting “Oro! Oro!”
Sutter’s workers quit to search for gold Stories began spreading across the country
President Polk confirmed the California gold strike in his farewell message to Congress in December 1848
California Gold Rush (1849) caused a huge rise in California’s population Approximately 80,000 gold-seekers went to California
hoping to strike it rich; 80% = American, 20% = foreign Migrants were known as forty-niners
The Forty-Niners (continued) Many easterners and Europeans took one of two major
sea routes Down Atlantic coast and up Pacific coast of South America
took 6-9 months but fairly safe Combined ship and land travel across Nicaragua or Isthmus
of Panama Shorter, but had to cross jungle; risked catching diseases like malaria or
yellow fever Midwestern gold seekers usually traveled in wagon
trains along overland routes (South Pass of Rocky Mountains or Santa Fe Trail)
Regardless of method of travel, most arrived in San Francisco Port town with natural harbor Located close to newly discovered gold strikes Grew more rapidly than any city in the world at the time
March 1848 = 500 to 25,000 by 1850
Gold Fever
Few forty-niners had mining experience – most did not become rich
Would prospect (or search) for gold along banks of streams or in shallow surface mines
Worked an area that ran for 70 miles in northern California Later began searching the Sierra Nevada Mountains
Miners banded together First to arrive would “stake a claim” Miners agreed that each would keep a share of
whatever gold was discovered
Gold Fever (continued)
When one group abandoned a claim, more recent arrivals took it over, hoping for success
Sometimes two or more groups staked rival claims in same areaLed to conflicts sometimes violent
1853 California’s gold production peaked at more than $60 million
Mining Camps and Towns
Camps sprang up wherever enough people gathered to look for gold Often disappeared as quickly as they were built
Miners made money one day and were broke the next Theft and miscommunication = common Rarely any local authorities to provide law and order
Some tried to prevent violence and stealing, others lived wild and dangerous lives
Miners came from many different cultural backgrounds Most were young, unmarried men
Some settlers took advantage of free enterprise conditions Slaves brought in benefited from California’s position on
slavery (most opposed)
Immigrants to California Lure of gold attracted miners from around the world to
California Famine and economic hardships in southeastern China
encouraged many Chinese men to come to America – “travelers to Gold Mountain” 24,000 between 1849 and 1853
Chinese immigrants were not welcomed by Americans High monthly tax placed on all foreign miners Targets of violent attacks
Chinese immigrants continued working in mines despite poor treatment Some looked for different jobs, opened own businesses
Other immigrants came from Europe, Mexico and S. America
Most new arrivals intended to return home after they had made their fortunes When they did not become rich, they decided to stay
Levi Strauss – German immigrant made fortune selling tough denim work pants to miners
Growth in the West
Business growth, gold mining, and trade transformed California’s economy
As the gold rush faded, frontier society became more stable
California’s population explosion made it eligible for statehood only two years after being acquired by the United States (31st in 1850)