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A melange of theory and case studies useful for the study of AP and IB decolonization within the context of globalization.
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Decolonization Overview
Theories of World Analysis: Decolonization Imperialism and Decolonization Overview:
Theories of World AnalysisFocus: Decolonization
How did the world get to be the way it is today? (And is it fair?)
Colonized Voices
Can the subaltern speak?
As we listen to the following voices…
Choose a voice that most speaks to you if you can. Choose several if several speak to you equally.
Make a list of these leaders’ and writers’ frustrations, analyses and desires.
Compare their frustrations, analyses and desires to your own, especially those evoked during our simulation.
Which do you most associate with your own feelings on imperialism/colonization?
What connections to other historical events and theories can you make?
Vaclav Havel-Czechoslovakia Life cannot be destroyed for good, neither ... can
history be brought entirely to a halt. A secret streamlet trickles on beneath the heavy lid of inertia and pseudo-events, slowly and inconspicuously undercutting it. It may be a long process, but one day it must happen: the lid will no longer hold and will start to crack. This is the moment when something once more begins visibly to happen, something truly new and unique ... something truly historical, in the sense that history again demands to be heard. Open letter to Dr. Gustáv Husák, Communist President
(8 April 1975)
World Studies & World Analysis Frameworks for how the world has evolved Often economic as much as historical
World-systems theory Globalization Human Web Clash of Civilizations Imperial hegemons/vacuums
Decolonization~Neo-Colonialism Kant-Fukuyama “End of History”
World-System Theory Immanuel Wallerstein (70s and 80s) Favored by Marxists and Asianists “Re-Orients” world history to an Asia-centric
perspective International division of labor:
Core states (Britain)
Semi-Periphery (Spain/Ottoman Empire)
Periphery (India) (19th Century Example)
Imperial/post-colonial history
Global Patron
National/Regional Client(Patron to local authorities)
Local Client(Patron to producing classes)
The Dependency Hierarchy
Producing Classes(Patronized by the hierarchy)
Collaborative Elites
UN HDI (Human Development Index)
Comparative Colonialisms Which of the following qualify as
decolonization issues? According to you… According to Springhall… According to the IB…
What accounts for the difference? What is the role of the historian in defining struggles for independence?
Colonized Voices
Can the subaltern speak?
Reactions and Reflections Which did you react to the most strongly? Which do you most associate with your own
feelings on imperialism/colonization? What connections to other historical event
and theories can you make?
Vaclav Havel Life cannot be destroyed for good, neither ... can
history be brought entirely to a halt. A secret streamlet trickles on beneath the heavy lid of inertia and pseudo-events, slowly and inconspicuously undercutting it. It may be a long process, but one day it must happen: the lid will no longer hold and will start to crack. This is the moment when something once more begins visibly to happen, something truly new and unique ... something truly historical, in the sense that history again demands to be heard. Open letter to Dr. Gustáv Husák, Communist President
(8 April 1975)
Comparative Colonialisms Which of the previous qualify as
decolonization issues? According to you… According to Springhall… According to the IB What accounts for the difference?
“Limitations and Values” Debates
Before European Hegemony? 500 years or 5000? Over-simplification? Complicated by the growth of multi-nationals
Uses Framework of power
Structuralism “Haves and have nots” Reinforces “soft” history with economic analysis
Clash of Civilizations?
“Up and Comers”?
Post-World System? New WS?
World Systems Theory Video 1 Hugo Chavez 2 Che FHC
Essential Questions
What are some of the theoretical frameworks economists have suggested for understanding Latin American development?
Structurally, what has been the role of the United States in the development of Latin America?
Which framework do you think is best for Latin America? You may suggest a possibility not addressed here.
Please write a critical summary of the lecture in which you make a sincere attempt to answer the questions above. Endeavor to incorporate Research readings and Fieldwork materials in your analysis.
“Inner National System”
“Inner National System”
Inner National System
“Inner National System” Interpretation of world-system USA, China, Brazil, etc. Core, Semi-Periphery, Periphery in one nation-
state Usually urban cores of economic/political power Semi-peripheral areas: satellite cities, suburbs
consumers Rural zones providing labor/raw materials
Draws on theories mentioned here & other theorists (Zinn’s “inner buffer state”)
--WJT.
World Systems and Latin America
1492: Latin American integration into the world system Columbian Exchange Triangular Trade Devastating impact
16th -19th Centuries: Periphery to Spain/Portugal 19th-20th Centuries: Periphery to Britain/USA 20th Century: Periphery to USA 21st Century: ??? BRIC? Semi-periphery? New
World system?
20th Century Theorists UN Economic Commission
for Latin America (ECLA/CEPAL) Headed by Argentine
economist RaúlPrebisch(60s-70s) Interpretation: “Dependency
theory” CelsoFurtado (also in ECLA)
applied these theories to Brazil
Debate ongoing: Capitalism or Socialism?
20th Century Theorists, Cont. Recognize him? Fernando Henrique Cardoso
(FHC) Sociologist/Economist/President Variant of dependency theory—
not strictly negative Saw in growth during military
client stage potential for Brazil’s development with foreign monopolies present
“Dependent capitalist development” or “Associated dependent development”
End of Brazilian economic miracle cast serious doubt on his theories
Iran, Latin America construct new world system
During the Cold War era, Latin America (with the exception of Cuba) was considered to be under America's 'sphere of influence'. Latin American people suffered from US imperialistic policies for more than two centuries.
During Iran's Islamic Revolution, Latin America witnessed the collapse of the Shah's regime that had given away the wealth of the country to the US and Britain. Latin America saw the unstoppable Iranian people, who took over the streets following the call of Imam Khomeini. Latin America realized that they should pay attention to a country capable of overthrowing such a regime, and one that could end US domination.
The recent popular revolutions that have taken place across Latin America, and which have brought to power true national leaders such as Evo Morales and Hugo Chavez illustrate that Iran and Latin America have much in common.
The West is threatened by the relationships that are emerging between Latin America and Iran, and has condemned them. Thomas Shannon, the senior US official for Latin America, said recently that Iran was making allies in the region to counter Washington's traditional influence and could use such relations to threaten US security. He urged Latin American governments to comply with US sanctions against Iran and called them to be "vigilant".
Immanuel Wallerstein, professor emeritus at Yale and director of the FernandBraudel Center in New York, argues that the Bush administration's endless wars have exposed the limits of American power. US hegemony is coming to an irreversible end, revealing, Wallerstein says, "multiple poles of geopolitical power". He predicts that we are entering "a situation of structural crisis towards the construction of a new world system [with no hegemonic power]."
In this new system, Iran and Latin America can play a decisive role in international politics. They own important energy resources, educated populations and the determination to remain independent. In this sense, cooperation between Latin America and Iran can bring to an end the era of US imperialistic policies and usher in a multi-polar world.
Dependency Theory
Think of it in terms of human relationships: Power is the ability to make others do
things they wouldn’t otherwise want to do.
The basis of power is dependency Person B depends on Person A if B has
goals and needs that A can fulfill. Person A controls Person B’s access to
the “commodity” they need, therefore controlling B’s behavior/resources.
B’s dependency on A is related to both supply and demand. Demand refers to how much B needs
what A controls. (This could be validation, oil, affirmation, salary, “love”, a promotion or even a “connection to God!”)
Supply refers to the availability, quality and cost of alternative means of satisfying those needs that are in demand.
In other words, how easy/difficult it is for B to go elsewhere and gain the “commodity” A controls.
A Hierarchy of Dependency
Specifically for Latin America and United States
But can be applied to other global relationships
Form of Patron-Client relationship
Complexity of Patrons: USA or McDonald’s?
The Scramble for Grades Tomorrow, you will be competing in a Knowledge
Bowl competition to earn the chance to get extra-credit points for your quarter grade. Today, we will compete in a warm-up exercise whose winners will earn a great advantage in tomorrow’s game. Winning today is essential for winning tomorrow, thus earning a higher grade. You are now seated in three groups each with different colored mini-blocks:
Large Group: Green blocks. Place one on your desk and take three more. Keep them handy and do not throw them away.
Medium Group:Blue blocks. Place one on your desk and take three more. Keep them handy and do not throw them away.
Small Group: Red blocks. Place one on your desk and take three more. Keep them handy and do not throw them away.
Introduction to Colonization & Decolonization: Case Studies in Modern Africa and Asia
Colonization in 1945
Terms
colonialism: one country’s domination of another country or people, usually achieved through aggressive actions; involves formal political control of one country over another
colony: the territory acquired, usually through aggressive actions
colonization: the act of colonizing
imperialism: similar to colonialism but used more broadly to refer to political or economic control exercised either formally or informally
new imperialism: period of European imperialism involving extension of formal political control in Africa and Asia, 1870-1914
decolonization: process of granting independence to a colony; refers particularly to the period after WWII when European colonies in Africa and Asia achieved independence
History of Imperialism – Periods:
I. Imperialism before 1450II. Age of European Exploration & Early Modern
European Imperialism (1450-1700)III. European Merchant Empires (1700-1815)IV. Imperialism of Free Trade (1815-1870)V. New Imperialism (1870-1914)VI. Mandates (post-WWI) & Trusts (post-WWII)VII. Decolonization (1945-1970)VIII. Modern Economic Imperialism &
Neocolonialism
I. Imperialism before 1450
one state attempts to dominate all others through unified system of control
new territories usually adjacent or nearly adjacent to imperial center
Alexander the Great’s Empire, 320 B.C.
Roman Empire, 117 C.E.
Mongol Empire, late 1200s
Ottoman Empire, 1300-1699
Aztec Empire, 1400s-1521
II. Age of European Exploration & Early Modern European Imperialism (1450-1700)
emerging European nation-states compete for political and economic power drives exploration of and expansion into new lands
extension of formal political control over territories
new territories typically overseas – in S and SE Asia and New World
Why?
ECONOMIC/POLITICAL POWER desire for products
mercantilism – control trade ofcolonies in order to reap benefits
trade as war
Trading Companies
British East India Company (1600)
Dutch East India Company (1602)
Dutch West India Company (1621)
Why?
GOD (i.e. RELIGION)
Who?
1. Portugal (1415)2. Spain3. Netherlands, England,
France
In 1492 ….
… Columbus sailed the ocean blue …
… and the lucky guy ran into a giant heap of dirt in the way of his targeted destination.
Result: Spain builds a colonial empire in the so-called “New World.”
Going back a bit to 1488 …Bartholomeu Dias reaches the Cape of Good Hope
And in 1498…
Vasco da Gama rounds the southernmost tip of Africa...
… and reaches India via the sea
Portuguese Empire, at maximum extent in the 16th c.
Spanish Empire in 1770
Dutch Colonies, 17th c.
British Colonies in North America, 1763-1775
French Colonial Empire
Keylight blue = first empire of 1600s-1700s; dark blue = second empire, built after 1830
III. European Merchant Empires (1700-1815)
by 18th c. European exploration and expansion resulted in the creation of powerful sea-based empires
world system = area where different cultures are related through commercial and other interactions
3 world systems
North Atlantic
South Atlantic
Indian Ocean
North Atlantic system
regions: Western Europe, Russia, the Baltic, Scandinavia, Newfoundland, Canada and northeastern USA
colonial powers: French, Dutch, English
main products: timber, fish, fur
South Atlantic system
regions: South and Central America, Brazil, Caribbean, West Africa, southeastern USA
colonial powers: Spanish, Portuguese, English
main products: silver, sugar, tobacco, African slaves, cotton
Indian Ocean system
regions: South and Southeast Asia, East Africa
colonial power: Britain main products: spices, silk, other
luxury goods
IV. Imperialism of Free Trade (1815-1870)
extension of informal influence (namely economic) rather than asserting formal political control
driven by capitalism product of Industrial Revolution
(begins in Britain ca. 1780) Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776)
“The sun never sets on the British Empire.”
V. New Imperialism (1870-1914)
states resume extending formal political control, not just economic or diplomatic influence
territories acquired in Africa and Asia
still driven by capitalism
Imperialism in Africa, 1914
Imperialism in Asia, 1914
VI. Mandates (post-WWI) & Trusts (post-WWII)
League of Nations mandates – transferred control of German and Ottoman colonies to WWI victors
United Nations Trust Territories – successors to mandates when UN replaced League of Nations in 1946 colonial power required to set target
date for trust’s independence
League of Nations mandates in Africa, the Middle East, and the Pacific
VII. Decolonization (1945-1970)
VIII. Modern Economic Imperialism & Neocolonialism
economic domination: the domination by a powerful, usually Western nation of another nation that is politically independent but has a weak economy greatly dependent on trade with the powerful nation
105
Process of Decolonization Process of Decolonization and Nation- Buildingand Nation- Building
Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945. Leaders used lessons in mass politicization and mass mobilization of 1920s and 1930s.
Process continues between 1920-1980; incomplete colonialisms continue to exist according to some arguments
106
Definitions I Definitions I
Colonialism colonialism: one country’s domination of another
country or people, usually achieved through aggressive actions; involves formal political control of one country over another
Imperialism imperialism: similar to colonialism but used more broadly to
refer to political or economic control exercised either formally or informally
new imperialism: period of European imperialism involving extension of formal political control in Africa and Asia, 1870-1914
Decolonization decolonization: process of granting independence to
a colony; refers particularly to the period after WWII when European colonies in Africa and Asia achieved independence
Definitions IIDefinitions II
Hegemony An indirect form of imperial dominance in
which the hegemon (leader state) rules sub-ordinate states by the implied means of power rather than direct military force.
Definitions IIIDefinitions III
Dependence (-y theory) The premises of dependency theory are that:
Poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labor, a destination for obsolete technology, and markets for developed nations, without which the latter could not have the standard of living they enjoy.
Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. This influence may be multifaceted, involving economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education, culture, sport, and all aspects of human resource development (including recruitment and training of workers).
Wealthy nations actively counter attempts by dependent nations to resist their influences by means of economic sanctions and/or the use of military force.
Definitions III.1Definitions III.1
According to former Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso there is a financial and technological penetration by
the developed capitalist centers of the countries of the periphery and semi-periphery;
this produces an unbalanced economic structure both within the peripheral societies and between them and the centers;
this leads to limitations on self-sustained growth in the periphery;
this favors the appearance of specific patterns of class relations;
these require modifications in the role of the state to guarantee both the functioning of the economy and the political articulation of a society, which contains, within itself, foci of inarticulateness and structural imbalance
Definitions IVDefinitions IV
World System (Theory) World-systems theory stresses that the world-system
(and not nation states) should be the basic unit of social analysis. World-system refers to the international division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries and the periphery countries. Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. This constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries. Nonetheless, the system is dynamic, and individual states can gain or lose the core (semi-periphery, periphery) status over time. For a time, some countries become the world hegemon; throughout last few centuries, this status has passed from the Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and most recently, the United States.
Definitions IV.1Definitions IV.1
World-system theory asks several key questions: how is the world-system affected by the changes in its
components (nations, ethnic groups, social classes, etc.)?
how does the world-system affects its components? to what degree, if any, does the core need the
periphery to be underdeveloped? what causes the world-systems to change? what system may replace capitalism?
Some questions are more specific to certain subfields; for example, Marxists would concern themselves whether the world-system theory is a useful or unhelpful development of Marxist theories
Definitions VDefinitions V
Neo-Colonialism the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and
cultural forces to control a country (usually former European colonies in Africa or Asia) in lieu of direct military or political control. Such control can be economic, cultural, or linguistic; by promoting one's own culture, language or media in the colony, corporations embedded in that culture can then make greater headway in opening the markets in those countries. Thus, neocolonialism would be the end result of business interests leading to deleterious cultural effects
Definitions V.1Definitions V.1
As long as imperialism exists it will, by definition, exert its domination over other countries. Today that domination is called neocolonialism."
Che Guevara
In place of colonialism as the main instrument of imperialism we have today neo-colonialism. [...] Neo-colonialism, like colonialism, is an attempt to export the social conflicts of the capitalist countries. The result of neo-colonialism is that foreign capital is used for the exploitation rather than for the development of the less developed parts of the world. Investment under neo-colonialism increases rather than decreases the gap between the rich and the poor countries of the world. The struggle against neo-colonialism is not aimed at excluding the capital of the developed world from operating in less developed countries. It is aimed at preventing the financial power of the developed countries being used in such a way as to impoverish the less developed
Kwame Nkrumah, Neocolonialism, the Last Stage of Capitalism
Colonial Empires in Colonial Empires in 18981898
Colonial Empires in Colonial Empires in 19451945
UN Human Development Report UN Human Development Report 20102010
World System Theory Depiction World System Theory Depiction of the Modern Worldof the Modern World
Patterns IPatterns I
Three general overarching patterns:
1. Civil war (China)2. Negotiated independence (India
and much of Africa)3. Incomplete and/or violent de-
colonization (Palestine, Algeria and Southern Africa, Vietnam)
Patterns IIPatterns II
Violent vs. non-Violent Resistance Algeria & Vietnam vs. India
Active Resistors v. Passive Victims Bystanding issues
Failed Traditional Rebellion
(Late 19th and early 20th Centuries [Philippines, South Africa, Sudan, India China, etc.])
Western Inspired
Nationalist Movement
(Leaders & Goals)
WWI, WWII, Cold War
Independence Violent or
Non-violent(Events/Methods)
Resurgence of Indigenous Challenges
(Major Problems)
Building a Nation-State
(Structure of new Gov’t)
Modern, but not Western
Society
DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM1914-Present
ExplanationsExplanations
Internationalist explanations The influence of the United Nations, the Cold War,
the Non-Aligned Movement and other international influences and support networks
Nationalist explanations The influence of nationalism and national
movements
Metropolitan explanations Reasons stemming from the political, economic and
ideological developments of the colonial metropoles
Collaborative elites The role of collaborative elites both in maintaining
and ending empire; and in neo-colonial power structures
Theories Theories
Analysis itself becomes politics; interpretation acquires the undertones of a polemic ... marking our own text with the signs of battle.
PARTHA CHATTERJEE, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World
Theories—General Theories—General Perspective Concepts Examples
Orthodox
European Agency
Metropolitan explanations based on European source material; political and economic reasons—also moral ones: apologists for empire?
• John Darwin: economic and political reasons for Brit empire to leave
• Jacque Marseille: Pins the point of no return on the Great Depression
Revisionist
Colonial Agency
Speaking for those unable to speak, excentricly (Collaborative elites) or radically (deconstruction of literature, thought, perspective; also: Local attempts to reclaim history—emphasize emancipation
• Springhall and Chamberlain (CEs)
• Spivak, Fanon, Said, Gramsci
• Wallerstein, et al.• Maulana Abul Kalam
Muhiyuddin Ahmed Azad
Post-Revisionist
Joint Agency?
Calls for a synthesis of approaches, still not well laid out—no comprehensive school or approach. However…”post-colonial globalization”
• A.G. Hopkins
New ThoughtsNew Thoughts: : A. G. Hopkins
…the study of decolonization needs to be extended beyond Africa and Asia to include the old dominions. The subject needs to become truly global because, to complete the argument, decolonization was a response to changes in the process of globalization after the Second World War. The dialectic of empire had begun by promoting a form of imperial globalization that subordinated outlying regions and integrated them with a dominant metropolitan centre. Structures of dependence put in place in the nineteenth century survived the upheaval of the Second World War and were perpetuated for a decade after 1945. Hierarchical imperial systems were then subverted by a mixture of ideological and material forces that emerged in the mid 1950s, partly as a result of developments arising from imperial rule and partly in reaction to them. The propagation and implementation of principles of human and civil rights undercut systems of domination based on claimed ethnic superiority; profound changes to the world economy reduced the value of colonial forms of integration and created new alignments; principles of civic nationality were adopted to meet the needs of an increasingly cosmopolitan world. The result was a novel synthesis, post-colonial globalization, which washed over and eventually eroded the boundaries that had marked out both Greater Britain and the colonial dependencies.
Theories—Specific Theories—Specific
Subalterns: Spivak
Post-Colonial Studies and Power (literary criticism): Fanon, Said Negritude: Léopold Sédar Senghor
Nationalist Explanations: Springhall, Chamberlain, Anderson Springhall and Chamberlain are not restricted to this one
idea
World Systems Theory Springing from the Annales school (New regional
interpretations)
Structural Analysis IStructural Analysis I
Comparison French v. English decolonization patterns Peaceful v. Violent decolonization patterns Civil War v. Negotiated v. Incomplete patterns
Structural Analysis 2Structural Analysis 2
Categorization/Classification Determining examples of:
Negotiated independence Nationalist/metropolitan/internationalist
explanations Collaborative elites explanations
When does colonialism become neocolonialism?
Structural Analysis 3Structural Analysis 3
Construction (of parameters) When does decolonization begin? When does it end? Has it ended? Where did decolonization take place?
USA? Soviet Union? Korea? Ireland?
Structural Analysis 4Structural Analysis 4
Contextualization How does the process of decolonization fit in the larger
history of the 20th Century? (And further back.) What impact did the Cold War have on decolonization? What impact did the United Nations have on
decolonization? What impact did the non-Aligned movement have o
decolonization? What impact did the post WWI and post WWII economic
and political status quos have on decolonization? What theories and perspectives do these questions speak
to?
Structural Analysis 5Structural Analysis 5
Causality A myriad of possibilities
Which can we think of?
Structural Analysis 6Structural Analysis 6
Complexity Understanding the processes of decolonization
in the context of: The Cold War The End of European Hegemony The varying strands of international communism
and socialism (China, Vietnam, Ghana, Cuba etc.) Globalization Resurgence of Islam and Islamic states Individual idiosyncrasies: Gandhi in South Africa,
etc.
Structural Analysis 7Structural Analysis 7
Change and Continuity over time How do DAPI structures
(Desire Acquisition Power Identity)
Resistance movements
..change and remain the same over time (le longue duree)
…and 19th-20th Century…
Structural Analysis 8Structural Analysis 8
Coincidence Great Depression coincides with rising self-rule
sentiment Leaders educated in metropoles (HCM, Gandhi,
etc.)
Structural Analysis 9Structural Analysis 9
Contingency Also multiple, almost endless possibilities
Which can we think of?
Structural Analysis 10Structural Analysis 10
Conjuncture Conjunctures of
Education/Diffusion Rise of Superpowers End of Empire World Wars
Structural Analysis 11Structural Analysis 11
Convergence (Synthesis) Communism and decolonization Nationalism and decolonization Islam (and other religions) and decolonization Syntheses of all of the above…
All of the theories we have read…
Structural Analysis 12Structural Analysis 12
Creation What new theories, observations and
syntheses can you make based on your reading of the documents, data and theory of decolonization?
BeginningsBeginnings
Pre-WWIIPre-WWII
1931, Britain: Statute of Westminster converted the British Empire into the
British Commonwealth also allowed varying degrees of autonomy
140
End of WWIIEnd of WWII
1941 – Atlantic Charter written by Roosevelt and Churchill – affirming all nations the right self determination
By the end of WWII, colonialism seemed to contradict the spirit of the Allies fight against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy
Over 200,000 Africans had fought in Europe and Asia for the Allies’ freedom and democracy – most noticed the contradiction Most also learned that they could fight, and
win, against white Europeans
141
End of WWIIEnd of WWII
In 1945, the 5th Pan African Congress met and discussed the prospect of independence – attending were a number of leaders who would eventually lead their nations to independence
In the years immediately after the war, several colonies had achieved independence or were on the road to independence in north east Africa, some peacefully, others not
142
End of WWIIEnd of WWII
Started a new pan-African nationalism that would spread throughout continent
In 1960 the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 1514 that supported the end of colonization
143
Global Events influential in Decolonization
Imperialism
Growing Nationalism
World War I
World War II
Cold War
World War I
Promises of self-determination
Use of colonial soldiers in trenches
Locals filled posts left by colonial powers during war
Financial strain on empire
Treaty of Versailles
World War II
Increased nationalist uprisings following WWI and as a result of the global depressionCosts of empireUS support of anti-colonial liberation movements Atlantic Charter (1941) “right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live”Soviets condemned colonialism
Atlantic Charter, 1941
Cold War
Provided inspiration a blend of capitalist and socialist economies and agendas.Provided arms to those who sided with one or the other (proxy wars and arms races).Encouraged violent recourse for some as a result of the power politics of cold war competition.
Process of Decolonization and Nation- Building
Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945. Leaders used lessons in mass politicization and mass mobilization of 1920’s and 1930’s.
Three patterns:1. Civil war (China)
2. Negotiated independence (India and much of Africa)
3. Incomplete de-colonization (Palestine, Algeria and Southern Africa, Vietnam)
China Case study
Japanese invasion interrupted the 1920’s and 1930’s conflict between the Communists (Mao Zedong) and the Nationalists in China (Chiang Kai-shek)
China Case study
During the war,Communists expanded peasant base, using appeals for women (health care, divorce rights, education access, graduated taxes, cooperative farming). Growth of party during the war in part through use of anti-Japanese propaganda. Resumption of civil war after Japanese surrender. 1949 Great People’s Revolution- Mao Nationalist leaders fled to Taiwan.
Negotiated Independence in India and Africa
Independence with little bloodshed in India and much of colonial Africa in decades following World War II.
Why? At what cost?
India Case Study Background
India and other Asian colonies were the first to establish independence movements.
Western-educated minorities organized politically to bring about the end of modification of colonial regimes.
India: History of the Movement
Indian National Congress party founded in 1885. (Elite group not mass movement)Growth of Indian national identity- presented grievances to the British.Congress party attracted mass following which opposed shift from the production of food to commercial crops. Gandhi and Congress leadership tried to prevent mass peasant uprising (as was happening in China) by keeping power centered on middle class leaders.
Militant Nationalists
B.G. Tilak urged a boycott of British manufactured goods and used threats of terrorism.
Attracted a violent conservative Hindu following.
Tilak was exiled and his
movement was repressed by
the British.
Peaceful Protests
Mohandas Gandhi and other western educated lawyers led peaceful alternative.Nation-wide protest against colonialism through boycotts and campaigns of civil resistance.His efforts were not well received by the Muslims who formed a separate organization in 1906, The Muslim League.Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Muslim League) insisted on partitioned state (Hindu and Muslim).
Continued Indian Resistance
Salt March, 1931
Government of India Act 1935
Indian Independence
August 1947 Pakistan and India gained independence.Mass killings of Muslims and Hindus (1 million) followed by mass migrations (12 million). (Gandhi fasted to prevent war-> assassination)Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister,began modernization campaign.
Decolonization in the Middle East- Palestine and Israel
Zionism1917 Balfour DeclarationImmigration of Jews to PalestineEuropean HolocaustIncrease of migration1947- end of British mandate of Palestine and failed UN partition solution1948 establishment of IsraelRegional conflicts->
Egypt
1906 Dinshawai incident aroused nationalist passions.Actions post- Indep (1936) not sufficient.Coup d’etat in 1952 Gamal Abdel NasserNationalization of Suez 1956 protested by Israelis, British and French but diplomacy won over eventually.Nasser= symbol of pan-Arab nationalism.
Africa for Africans
Nationalists composed of ex-servicemen, urban unemployed & under-employed, and the educated. Pan-Africanism and NegritudeSenghor (Senegal) and Dubois (African-American)
De-colonization in Africa
1957, Gold Coast (renamed Ghana) independence, led by western- educated, Kwame Nkrumah. By 1963, all of British ruled Africa, except Southern Rhodesia, was independent.
De-colonization in French-ruled Africa
Initially more resistant than the British.Encouraged closer French ties- assimilation, not autonomy. Not willing to go far enough in granting rights. With exception of Algeria, by 1960 had granted independence.
Leopold Sedar Senghor
Western educated Francophone intellectual from SenegalPoet who became first president of Senegal. Advocated democratic socialism and negritude.
Negritude: validation of African culture and the African past by the Negritude poets. Recognized attributes of French culture but were not willing to be assimilated into Europe.
Violent and Incomplete Decolonizations
Presence of European immigrant groups impeded negotiations, leading to violence. For example, Kenya, Palestine, Algeria, and southern Africa
Vietnam’s de-colonization complicated by France’s colonial ties and cold war politics.
Kenya
Presence of settlers prevented smooth transition of power. Kenya (20,000 Europeans only) led to violent revolt.Mau-Mau Revolt, 1952, led by Kikuyus suppressed by British. 1963 independence granted to black majority, led by Kenyatta.
Algeria
Appeal of Arab nationalismLarge French settler population1954- 1962 war between FLN (nationalist party) and French troops “part of France”300,000 lives
South Africa
4 million white residents
• Afrikaner-dominated (white) National Party won 1948 election
• Apartheid• No protests tolerated
(African National Congress, Mandela, Sharpeville massacre 1960)
• 1990’s black government elected
Vietnam
• French rule since 1880’s –rice, mining, and rubber exports
• Rise of foreign educated intelligentsia (Ho Chi Minh)
• Formation of Viet Minh in 1941
• Guerrilla War with France (1946-1954)
• Divided country in 1954 led to gradual US entry to contain communism.
Women as leaders in the Movement
• Women fought alongside men in whatever capacities were permitted in Algeria, Egypt, China, Vietnam,India and elsewhere.
• China, 1942: “ The fighting record of our women does not
permit us to believe that they will ever again allow themselves to be enslaved whether by a national enemy or by social reaction at home.”
• Women given constitutional rights but social and economic equality rarely achieved in postcolonial developing nations.
Literature and Decolonization
• Expressions of nationalism and rejections of western superiority.
• Gandhi, “ I make bold to say that the Europeans themselves will have to remodel their outlooks if they are not to perish under the weight of the comforts to which they are becoming slaves.”
• Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart • Senghor, “Snow upon Paris”• Aime Cesaire, West Indian poet, founder of
Negritude “Return to my Native Land”
International Organizations and Decolonization
• League of Nations
• United Nations
• Organization of African Unity (1963)
Fall of Empire: Fall out and Legacy
• Colonial footprint
• Problems of Transition
• Problems of Identity
The Impact of GlobalizationThe Impact of GlobalizationThe Impact of GlobalizationThe Impact of Globalization
Who would stop the Who would stop the Japanese Co-Prosperity Japanese Co-Prosperity
Sphere (1939)?Sphere (1939)?
Who would stop the Who would stop the Japanese Co-Prosperity Japanese Co-Prosperity
Sphere (1939)?Sphere (1939)?
How Was Japan Defeated?How Was Japan Defeated?At What Cost??At What Cost??
How Was Japan Defeated?How Was Japan Defeated?At What Cost??At What Cost??
Results of World War Results of World War IIII
Results of World War Results of World War IIII
• Defeat of dictatorships.
• Unparalleled destruction.
• The decline of colonial powers.
• The rise of the superpowers and the Cold War.
• Defeat of dictatorships.
• Unparalleled destruction.
• The decline of colonial powers.
• The rise of the superpowers and the Cold War.
Defeat of DictatorshipsDefeat of DictatorshipsDefeat of DictatorshipsDefeat of Dictatorships
• Germany, Japan, and Italy were occupied and turned into democratic, peaceful nations.
• Germany, Japan, and Italy were occupied and turned into democratic, peaceful nations.
Unparalelled Unparalelled DestructionDestructionUnparalelled Unparalelled DestructionDestruction
• Much of Europe, North Africa and East Asia lay in ruins.
• Total war had destroyed cities, factories, railroads, homes – and lives.
The Decline of the The Decline of the Colonial PowersColonial Powers
The Decline of the The Decline of the Colonial PowersColonial Powers
The Rise of the The Rise of the SuperpowersSuperpowers
The Rise of the The Rise of the SuperpowersSuperpowers
And the Cold WarAnd the Cold WarAnd the Cold WarAnd the Cold War
With Its With Its ““Iron CurtainIron Curtain””With Its With Its ““Iron CurtainIron Curtain””
And Its Arms Race!And Its Arms Race!And Its Arms Race!And Its Arms Race!
Made a United Nations Made a United Nations Essential, But….Essential, But….
Made a United Nations Made a United Nations Essential, But….Essential, But….
Permanent Members Permanent Members Have Veto PowerHave Veto PowerPermanent Members Permanent Members Have Veto PowerHave Veto Power
Associated Press
"I came, I saw, I vetoed" The Economist
• United States.• United
Kingdom.• France.• Russia.• Nationalist
China (Taiwan) until 1972.(US recognition)
The Permanent 5The Permanent 5The Permanent 5The Permanent 5
In the U. N. In the U. N. Security CouncilSecurity Council
In the U. N. In the U. N. Security CouncilSecurity Council
And Remained DividedAnd Remained Dividedby Cold War Issuesby Cold War Issues
And Remained DividedAnd Remained Dividedby Cold War Issuesby Cold War Issues
Decolonization of Asia & Decolonization of Asia & AfricaAfrica
Changed the Makeup of Changed the Makeup of the UNthe UN
Decolonization of Asia & Decolonization of Asia & AfricaAfrica
Changed the Makeup of Changed the Makeup of the UNthe UN
First, Second, & Third First, Second, & Third WorldsWorlds
with a North-South Dividewith a North-South Divide
First, Second, & Third First, Second, & Third WorldsWorlds
with a North-South Dividewith a North-South Divide
AfricaAfrica Produced Many Produced Many Newly-Independent Nations Newly-Independent Nations
in a Very Short Timein a Very Short Time
AfricaAfrica Produced Many Produced Many Newly-Independent Nations Newly-Independent Nations
in a Very Short Timein a Very Short Time
who often found themselves who often found themselves caught in a battle between caught in a battle between
the two superpowersthe two superpowers
British ColoniesBritish Colonies Were Some of Were Some of the First to Seek the First to Seek
Independence becauseIndependence because
British ColoniesBritish Colonies Were Some of Were Some of the First to Seek the First to Seek
Independence becauseIndependence because• Britain felt hypocritical about Britain felt hypocritical about colonialism.colonialism.
• War left her weak and unable to afford War left her weak and unable to afford colonies.colonies.
• A New African educated middle class A New African educated middle class began to emerge in the cities.began to emerge in the cities.
GhanaGhana: First African : First African State to Gain State to Gain IndependenceIndependence
GhanaGhana: First African : First African State to Gain State to Gain IndependenceIndependence
Kwame Nkrumah Led the Kwame Nkrumah Led the Former Gold CoastFormer Gold Coastto Independenceto Independence
Kwame Nkrumah Led the Kwame Nkrumah Led the Former Gold CoastFormer Gold Coastto Independenceto Independence
Educated abroad.
Schoolteacher.
Preached nonviolence.
Used boycotts and strikes.
Ultimately successful 1957.
Ghana still a victim of the Ghana still a victim of the world-system?world-system?Ghana still a victim of the Ghana still a victim of the world-system?world-system?
• Market inMarket in Kumasi.Kumasi.
• Sells shoes crafted from old automobile Sells shoes crafted from old automobile tires. tires.
• Sprawls across 25 dusty acres in ancientSprawls across 25 dusty acres in ancient Ashanti capital.Ashanti capital.
• One of the largest marketplaces in West One of the largest marketplaces in West Africa. Africa.
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya
Kenyan Independence: Kenyan Independence: 19631963
Kenyan Independence: Kenyan Independence: 19631963
• London educated London educated Jomo KenyattaJomo Kenyatta provided strong nationalist provided strong nationalist leadership.leadership.
• Mau Mau RebellionsMau Mau Rebellions made up of made up of KikuyuKikuyu farmers weaken British settlers farmers weaken British settlers opposition.opposition.
Senegal: Home of theSenegal: Home of theNegritude MovementNegritude Movement
Senegal: Home of theSenegal: Home of theNegritude MovementNegritude Movement
The Solitary Baobob TreeThe Solitary Baobob TreeThe Solitary Baobob TreeThe Solitary Baobob Tree
The national symbol of Senegal, baobab trees often mark burial sites and inspire the poetry of de-colonization…
I heard a grave voice answer,Rash son, this strong young treeThis splendid treeApart from the white and faded flowersIs Africa, your AfricaPatiently stubbornly growing againAnd its fruits are carefully learningThe sharp sweet taste of liberty. David Diop 1956
The old BelgianThe old Belgian CongoCongo, Formerly , Formerly ZaireZaire,,
Victim of Neo-Colonialism?Victim of Neo-Colonialism?
The old BelgianThe old Belgian CongoCongo, Formerly , Formerly ZaireZaire,,
Victim of Neo-Colonialism?Victim of Neo-Colonialism?
Mobutu Sese SekoMobutu Sese SekoMobutu Sese SekoMobutu Sese Seko• Ruled 1965-1997.Ruled 1965-1997.
• Supported by Supported by U.S.U.S. as as Cold War Cold War ally.ally.
• Changed name toChanged name to Zaire. Zaire.
• Left Left ““a house a house thatthat had been eaten had been eaten by by termites termites”” NYTimes.NYTimes.
• Reign described Reign described in in 2002 2002 documentarydocumentary as an as an ““AfricanAfrican Tragedy. Tragedy.””
Today many parts of Congo areToday many parts of Congo areexperiencing punishing local experiencing punishing local
conflictsconflicts
Today many parts of Congo areToday many parts of Congo areexperiencing punishing local experiencing punishing local
conflictsconflicts
Michael Kamber for Michael Kamber for The New York TimesThe New York Times
About 5,000 people fleeing the ethnic warfare in About 5,000 people fleeing the ethnic warfare in and around Bunia, Congo, sought safety at a and around Bunia, Congo, sought safety at a camp in 2002. camp in 2002.
Death in Congo!Death in Congo!Death in Congo!Death in Congo!
The AllureThe AllureThe AllureThe Allure
Rich Mineral Resources:
Gold
Diamonds
Copper
Have Often Drawn ForeignExploitation.
Child Soldiers & a Child Soldiers & a VictimVictim
Child Soldiers & a Child Soldiers & a VictimVictim
Child RebelsChild RebelsChild RebelsChild Rebels
A child fighter in a rebel group stands A child fighter in a rebel group stands watch with a U.N. armored vehicle in watch with a U.N. armored vehicle in Bunia, Congo, where there have been Bunia, Congo, where there have been reports of rape and cannibalism.reports of rape and cannibalism.
AlgeriaAlgeriaAlgeriaAlgeria
• French settlers fought fiercely to keep Algeria a French colony.
• DeGaulle realized after the war that France could not hold onto Algeria by force.
• Independence came in 1962.
AngolaAngolaAngolaAngola
400 years: 400 years: PortuguesPortuguese are the e are the first the first the arrive and arrive and the last to the last to leave in leave in 1975.1975.
Angola Left Angola Left With Bitter Civil WarWith Bitter Civil War
Angola Left Angola Left With Bitter Civil WarWith Bitter Civil War
Mateus Chitangenda, Fernando Chitala and Mateus Chitangenda, Fernando Chitala and Enoke Chisingi and their families have been Enoke Chisingi and their families have been displaced by war to the town of Kunhinga, in displaced by war to the town of Kunhinga, in central Angola.central Angola.
Going to SchoolGoing to SchoolGoing to SchoolGoing to School
A father walks his daughter to school A father walks his daughter to school in Kuito, Angola. All students in the in Kuito, Angola. All students in the town bring their own small benches to town bring their own small benches to class.class.
Africa: 2000Africa: 2000Africa: 2000Africa: 2000
Nigerians today travel Nigerians today travel the same way as the the same way as the
CongoleseCongolese
Nigerians today travel Nigerians today travel the same way as the the same way as the
CongoleseCongolese
NigeriaNigeria Struggles With Struggles WithEthnic & Religious Ethnic & Religious
RivalriesRivalries
NigeriaNigeria Struggles With Struggles WithEthnic & Religious Ethnic & Religious
RivalriesRivalries
Nigerian Muslims welcome Nigerian Muslims welcome Sharia Sharia lawlaw. .
January 2000January 2000
ShariaSharia LawLaw
ShariaSharia LawLaw
This adulterous woman This adulterous woman was sentenced to was sentenced to death by stoningdeath by stoning
This adulterous woman This adulterous woman was sentenced to was sentenced to death by stoningdeath by stoning
Woldwide attention has Woldwide attention has given her hopegiven her hope
Woldwide attention has Woldwide attention has given her hopegiven her hope
Amnesty Amnesty InternationalInternational is is campaigning campaigning against the against the stoning stoning sentencesentenceJuly 2002.July 2002.
Some find Some find ShariaSharia a a blessingblessing
I Thank God for the AmputationI Thank God for the Amputation
Some find Some find ShariaSharia a a blessingblessing
I Thank God for the AmputationI Thank God for the Amputation
South AfricaSouth AfricaSouth AfricaSouth Africa
Nelson Mandela jailed for 20 Nelson Mandela jailed for 20 years in his fight against years in his fight against
ApartheidApartheid
Lived to vote in the Lived to vote in the first racially democratic first racially democratic
electionelection
Lived to vote in the Lived to vote in the first racially democratic first racially democratic
electionelection
19941994
And Become President of And Become President of South AfricaSouth Africa
South African President Nelson Mandela, center, flanked by his two deputy presidents, Thabo Mbeki, left and F.W. de Klerk, right, celebrate the new constitution, May 8, 1996. (AP/WWP Photo Leon Muller)
Age-Group DifferencesAge-Group DifferencesAge-Group DifferencesAge-Group Differences
Less Developed Less Developed RegionsRegions
Less Developed Less Developed RegionsRegions
Global Water StressGlobal Water StressGlobal Water StressGlobal Water Stress
Share of Share of WorldWorld’’s s
GDPGDP
Share of Share of WorldWorld’’s s
GDPGDP
Health StatisticsHealth StatisticsHealth StatisticsHealth Statistics
Bits Per Capita: An Bits Per Capita: An Information Revolution?Information Revolution?
Bits Per Capita: An Bits Per Capita: An Information Revolution?Information Revolution?
using using ICTsICTs for social and economic for social and economic developmentdevelopment (Information and communication technologies) (Information and communication technologies)
All across AfricaAll across AfricaAll across AfricaAll across Africa
A Cyber Shepherd in A Cyber Shepherd in SenegalSenegal’’s Sahels Sahel
A Cyber Shepherd in A Cyber Shepherd in SenegalSenegal’’s Sahels Sahel
2004-04-152004-04-15PastoralistsPastoralists tracking wandering cattle tracking wandering cattle herds using cell phones and Global herds using cell phones and Global Positioning Systems. Positioning Systems.
South Africa: South Africa: Eco-tourism
South Africa: South Africa: Eco-tourism
Small tourist businesses operating Small tourist businesses operating out of the townships attracting out of the townships attracting customers from around the world customers from around the world by using the Internet.by using the Internet.
Mozambique stops Mozambique stops poaching with radiospoaching with radiosMozambique stops Mozambique stops
poaching with radiospoaching with radios
Healthcare in UgandaHealthcare in UgandaHealthcare in UgandaHealthcare in Uganda
A health care worker conducting a survey using a PDA. (SATELLIFE Photo: Mark Grabowsky)
Decolonization: Algeria vs. Uganda
Uganda:
Britain, 1894
Non-Settler Colony
Uganda: PSE Status Before Colonization
Buganda Kingdom Between 1100 & 1600
Traditional society Clan-based society Communal land
ownership Some Islamic influence
Uganda:
Valued Resources Cotton
Method of Rule British officials
took high posts Imposed taxes Asserted British
law via local Buganda Chiefs
Uganda: Nationalist Leaders & Groups
Rising nationalism after WWI and WWII Weak attempts at
nationalist political parties Uganda National
Congress, 1952 Uganda People’s
Union, 1958 Uganda’s People’s
Congress, 1959
Uganda:
Year of Independence = 1961
Methods of Gaining Independence Requests for
independence dragged-on for years
British had puppet gov’ts in Uganda
Britain granted Independence as part of a larger wave of decolonization around 1960
Ugandans elected local leaders, corrupt elections
UGANDA
Uganda: Summary Since Free Idi Amin took rule in Uganda
from 1971-1979 Amin was born to a Catholic
who converted to Islam. Amin was abandoned by his
father and raised by his mother.
He attended Islamic school and excelled at reciting the Qur’an.
After a few years he left school and joined the British Colonial army.
Amin served in many campaigns for the British and rose to the highest rank possible for a Black African.
Idi Amin
Idi Amin's rule cost an estimated 300,000 Ugandans' lives.
He forcibly removed the entrepreneurial Indian minority from Uganda, decimating the economy.
Thousands were killed for opposing his rule
His reign was ended after the Uganda-Tanzania War in 1979 in which Tanzanian forces aided by Ugandan exiles invaded Uganda.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iV_QgKJFZP0
Overarching Themes
• Colonies had to struggle to gain independence
• Settler colonies had more complicated processes of gaining independence because of the Euro. people who settled there – who also wanted to keep their status and power
• Non-settler colonies also had complicated (sometimes violent) independence fights, but many were able to transition power to local rulers as Euro. Influence moved out.
• Most African nations have been dominated by military rulers since independence..
Algeria: Colonizer & Year
France, 1830 Settler Colony
Algeria: PSE Status Before Colonization
History of Algeria Part of Greek & Roman
Empires Islam arrived in 8th century
(700s) CE = Umayyad 300 years of Ottoman rule French win control over
Algeria in 1830 Social and Economic Status
Islam dominated society Trade center on
Mediterranean Long-time source of piracy Strong agriculture due to
Med. climate Cotton, tobacco, grains,
fruits, vegetables (figs, olive oil, etc.)..
Algeria:
Valued Resources Cash crops = cotton and tobacco Foods = fruits and vegetables
Method of Rule Thousands of French migrated to
Algeria Termed “colons” for “colonizers” or
“settlers” Bought much land as it was cheap in
price for them
French rule was strongest in urban centers French governor held political
power French courts were imposed over
traditional Islamic courts (Sharia Law)
French owned most business and profited greatly from manufacturing, mining, agriculture and trade
Algeria:
Government imposed higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans
Muslims = 90% of population
Muslims earned 20% of Algeria’s income
Muslims paid 70% of Algeria’s direct taxes
French sought assimilation Mission to civilize the
Muslims Established French
schools with entirely French curriculum (no Arabic)
Only a small number of Algerians fought back
Algeria: Nationalist Leaders & Groups
WWI Many Algerians fought in France Many stayed in France after war Noticed unequal standards of
living Inspired by European
Enlightenment WWII
Many Algerians fought for France again
After WWII French fight to re-establish colony
by attacking any protestors In response, a more radical
Algerian independence movements rise
Groups Revolutionary Committee of Unity
and Action (CRUA) = main group Front de Liberation National (FLN)
Leaders: Ahmed Ben Bella, Frantz Fanon
Algeria:
Year of Independence = 1962
Methods of Gaining Independence Guerilla tactics
Hit and run Sniping Bombing of French
police and civilians Café wars
Café Wars
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ca3M2feqJk8&feature=related
Post-Colonialism After the revolution, Ahmed Ben Bella was elected as
premier in a one-sided election and was recognized by the United States.
Algeria was admitted as the 109th member of the United Nations
Ben Bella declared that Algeria would follow a neutral course in world politics
In 1965 Ben Bella's government banned opposition parties, providing that the only party allowed to overtly function was the FLN.
Algeria remained stable, though in a one-party state, until violent civil war broke out in the 1990s.
Post-Colonialism: Algeria
“For Algerians of many political factions, the legacy of their War of Independence acted to legitimise the unrestricted use of force in achieving a goal deemed to be justified. Once invoked against foreign colonialists, the same principle could be turned with relative ease also against fellow Algerians. The determination of the FLN to overthrow the colonial rule, and the ruthlessness exhibited by both sides in that struggle, were to be mirrored thirty years later by the determination of the FLN government to hold on to power and of the Islamist opposition to overthrow that rule, and the brutal struggle which ensued.”
To learn more: Rent“The Battle of Algiers”
To learn more: Rent“The Last King of Scotland”
Process of Decolonization and Nation- Building
• Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945. Leaders used lessons in mass politicization and mass mobilization of 1920’s and 1930’s.
• Three patterns:1. Violent Revolutions and Civil War (China,
Algeria, Vietnam, Palestine)2. Non-Violent, negotiated independence
(India, Ghana Turkey)3. Both violent and non-violent methods
(Kenya, Egypt, South Africa)
Decolonization in the Middle East- Palestine and Israel
• Zionism• 1917 Balfour Declaration• Immigration of Jews to Palestine• European Holocaust• Increase of migration• 1947- end of British mandate of Palestine
and failed UN partition solution• 1948 establishment of Israel• Regional conflicts->
Violent Movements
UN Partition PlanBritain, which had ruled Palestine since 1920, handed over responsibility for solving the Zionist-Arab problem to the UN in 1947.
The UN recommended splitting the territory into
separate Jewish and Palestinian states.
The partition plan gave:
• 56.47% of Palestine to the Jewish state
• 43.53% to the Arab state• An international enclave
around Jerusalem.
• On 29 November 1947, 33 countries of the UN General
Assembly voted for partition, 13 voted against and 10
abstained.
Which Countries are most likely to vote against the U.N. Partition Plan?
Palestinian Intifada
•Protest took the form of civil disobedience, general strikes, boycotts on Israeli products, graffiti, and barricades, but it was the stone-throwing demonstrations against the heavily-armed occupation troops that captured international attention.
•The Israeli Defense Forces responded and there was heavy loss of life among Palestinian civilians.
•More than 1,000 died in clashes which lasted until 1993.
A mass uprising - or intifada against the Israeli occupation
began in Gaza and quickly spread to the West Bank.
Algeria
1954- 1962 war between FLN (nationalist party) and French troops
• Appeal of Arab nationalism• Large French settler population “Part of France”• Algerians used guerilla and terrorist tactics• French used counter terrorism and torture• 300,000 lives lost1962 - Ahmed Ben Bella became the first President• Primarily a one-party state• Current challenges by Islamic Fundamentalists
Violent Movements
India: History of the Movement
• Indian National Congress - 1885. (Elite group not mass movement)
• Growth of Indian national identity- presented grievances to the British.
• Congress party attracted mass following.• Gandhi and Congress leadership tried to
prevent mass peasant uprising (as was happening in China) by keeping power centered on middle class leaders.
Non-Violent Movements
Militant Nationalists
• B.G. Tilak urged a boycott of British manufactured goods and used threats of terrorism.
• Attracted a violent conservative Hindu following.
• Tilak was exiled and his movement was repressed by the British.
Peaceful Protests
• Mohandas Gandhi and other western educated lawyers led peaceful alternative.
• Nation-wide protest against colonialism through boycotts and campaigns of civil resistance. (Salt March, Homespun Movement)
• His efforts were not well received by the Muslims who formed a separate organization in 1906, The Muslim League.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Muslim League) insisted on partitioned state (Hindu and Muslim).
Indian Independence
• August 1947 Pakistan and India gained independence.
• Mass killings of Muslims and Hindus (1 million) followed by mass migrations (12 million). (Gandhi fasted to prevent war-> assassination)
• Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister,began modernization campaign.
De-colonization in Africa
• -1957, Gold Coast (renamed Ghana) independence, led by western- educated, Kwame Nkrumah.
• Used Non-violent methods influenced by Gandhi
• Developed a parliamentary democracy
• - By 1963, all of British ruled Africa, except Southern Rhodesia, was independent.
Non-Violent Movements
Africa for Africans
• Nationalists composed of ex-servicemen, urban unemployed and western educated elite.
• Pan-Africanism and Negritude
• Senghor (Senegal)
Decolonization of Africa
Kenya
• Presence of settlers prevented smooth transition of power.
• Jono Kenyatta used non-violent protests
• Kenya (20,000 Europeans only) led to violent revolt.
• Mau-Mau Revolt, 1952, led by Kikuyus suppressed by British.
• 1963 independence granted to black majority, led by Kenyatta.
Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements
Egypt
• 1906 Dinshawai incident aroused nationalist passions.
• Actions post- Indep (1936) not sufficient.
• Coup d’etat in 1952 Gamal Abdel Nasser
• Nationalization of Suez 1956 protested by Israelis, British and French but diplomacy won over eventually.
• Nasser= symbol of pan-Arab nationalism.
Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements
South Africa
• 4 million white residents• Afrikaner-dominated (white)
National Party won 1948 election• Apartheid – separation of races• No protests tolerated (African
National Congress, Mandela, Biko, Sharpeville massacre 1960, Spear of the Nation)
• World boycotts led by Desmond Tutu• 1990- DeKlerk legalized ANC and
ended Apartheid• 1994 –first open election• Mandela- first Black President
Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements
Failed Traditional Rebellion
Western Inspired
Nationalist Movement
(Leaders & Goals)
WWI, WWII, Cold War
Independence Violent or
Non-violent(Events/Methods)
Resurgence of Indigenous Challenges
(Major Problems)
Building a Nation-State
(Structure of new Gov’t)
Modern, but not Western
Society
DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONALISM1914-Present
Nasser in Egypt
Ataturk in TurkeyNkrumah in Ghana
Nehru in India
Kenyatta in Kenya
Mao Zedong in China
Challenges of Independence
• Ethnic disputes• Dependent economies• Growing debt• Cultural dependence
on west-> religious revivalism as backlash
• Widespread social unrest
• Military responses to restore order
• Population growth• Resource depletion• Lack of middle class
in some locales• Education deficit and
later, brain drain.• Neo-colonialism
through economic debt.
Conclusions
• Decolonization was sometimes a violent process- dependent in large part on how many settlers had come to the colony.
• In many parts of world, decolonization was not revolutionary. Power passed from one class of elites to another. Little economic and social reform occurred.
• Significant challenges faced independent nations.
• Western economic dominance of the global trade system continued unabated. WHY?
