Aquatic Toxicology, 11 (1988) 163-190 163

Elsevier

A Q T 00318

Aquatic pollution problems, North Atlantic coast, including Chesapeake Bay

Joseph M. O 'Connor 1 and Robert J. Huggett 2

JNew York University Medical Center, A.J. Lanza Research Laboratories, Tuxedo Park, New York, U.S.A. and 2 Virginia Institute o f Marine Sciences, School o f Marine Science, College o f William

and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia, U.S.A.

(Received 16 September 1986; accepted 17 July 1987)

Pollutant effects on fishes and fisheries of the North Atlantic may be estimated from biological and

biochemical responses to pollutant exposure and the incidence of pollution-related disease in aquatic organisms. Indirect and potential effects on ecosystems may be estimated from the accumulat ion of con-

taminants in biota. Based upon increases in pollutant-related disease and bioaccumulation of con- taminants , marine biota in the North Atlantic region show evidence of deleterious, pollution-related effects. However, the plethora of contaminants discharged to the marine environment makes it impossi-

ble to determine which agents, or combinations of agents, have the greatest effect. Marine and estuarine sediments show a history of contaminant input. More than 300 aromatic

hydrocarbons have been detected in the Chesapeake Bay, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) occur in sediments in parts of New Bedford Harbor at levels measured in percent. Major sites of marine con- taminat ion are Boston, New Bedford, Providence, New York, Baltimore Harbor, and the Elizabeth River, Virginia. Biota in these and other areas show increased burdens of many contaminants , including

PCBs, pesticides, phthalates, metals and aromatic hydrocarbons. In general, the gradient o f contaminant levels decreases offshore. Contaminant burdens result from discharges to rivers and ocean, marine dumping and atmospheric fallout. Health advisories have been posted in some regions regarding the con-

sumpt ion of striped bass, bluefish and lobster, and the effects of chlordecone (kepone) spills on fisheries in the James River are felt after more than 10 years. What the long-term biological effects of these con- taminants will be is not fully known.

Biological effects o f pollutants include alterations in biochemical, respiratory, and immune functions, as well as changes in population structure and developmental or structural abnormalities. Fishes and in-

vertebrates exposed to organic contaminants may be induced to produce higher levels of enzymes capable o f t ransforming many contaminants to more polar, but occasionally more toxic, metabolites. The induc- tion of biotransformation enzymes has been suggested as a link in the etiology of disease among marine and estuarine fishes in highly contaminated areas.

Presented at the Symposium 'Toxic Chemicals and Aquatic Life: Research and Management ' , September 16-18, 1986, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.

Correspondence to: J.M. O 'Connor , N.Y. University Medical Center, A.J . Lanza Research Laboratories, Tuxedo Park, NY 10987, U.S.A.

0166-445X/88/$ 03.50 © 1988 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (Biomedical Division)

164

Surveys show high incidences of disease in fishes from New England, Long Island Sound, the Hudson River es tuary/New York Bight and the Elizabeth River, Virginia. The most common diseases generally

affect the liver, a l though cataracts and pollution-related disorders of the skin and gills occur. Neoplasia,

including benign and malignant growths, has been documented for flatfish as well as for tomcod in the Hudson River estuary. Epidemiological studies and statistical analyses support the concept of an en-

vironmental etiology for disease in fishes from contaminated areas.

Key words: Marine pollution; North Atlantic; Fisheries; Organic contaminants

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Pollution problems are common on the North Atlantic coast, deriving from discharges of metals, nutrients and organic compounds (Sindermann, 1976; Bieri et al., 1982, 1986; GESAMP, 1982; Segar and Davis, 1984; O'Connor and Kneip, 1986). In many systems the direct and indirect effects of pollutants have led to measurable environmental and economic impacts. Environmental impacts include the accumulation of contaminants in biota, apparent increases in pollution-related anomalies of reproduction and development, and changes in the physical, physiological and biochemical condition of fishes and invertebrates (Sindermann, 1976; Mearns and Sherwood, 1976; Stegeman et al., 1986). Economic impacts in- clude fisheries closures and reductions in recreational and commercial fishing activi- ty; such effects are related to the bioaccumulation of contaminants in the edible flesh of commercially important fish and shellfish and in several species of desirable gamefishes.

Hundreds of pollutant chemicals have been identified and quantified from North Atlantic ecosystems. These include metals and metalloids, synthetic organics, chlorinated organics, petroleum hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocar- bons (O'Connor and Stanford, 1979; MacLeod et al., 1981; Bieri et al., 1982, 1986). Contaminated systems include ocean shelf waters (Risebrough et al., 1968; Harvey and Steinhauer, 1976; Stegeman et al., 1986) and many coastal systems such as Massachusetts Bay (Carr et al., 1986), Narragansett Bay (Hoffman et al., 1983), New Bedford Harbor (Kolek and Cuervels, 1981; Farrington et al., 1983; Grassle and Grassle, 1984; Weaver, 1984), the New York Bight (O'Connor and Stanford, 1979; O'Connor et al., 1982), the Hudson River-New York Harbor complex (Horn et al., 1979; O'Connor, 1984; Belton et al., 1985a, b; Sloan et al., 1986) and tributaries to the mainstem Chesapeake Bay (Morgan and Sommer, 1979; Huggett et al., 1980; Bieri et al., 1982, 1986). Few of the contaminants measured in natural ecosystems have been carefully evaluated to determine their impact on aquatic ecosystems or their potential for transport to humans (Malins et al., 1984; Segar and Davis, 1984; Kneip, 1983; Belton et al., 1985a, 1985b). Few ecosystems have been sampled in a way that allows an overall evaluation of pollutant effects within any more than a small area, or for any more than one or two contaminants (Malins et al., 1984, 1985).

165

The purpose of this report is to review chemical pollution on the North Atlantic coast of North America and to evaluate the effects of pollution on marine and estuarine organisms. The evaluation will proceed in three stages. First, we shall ex- amine environmental survey data to assess the extent of chemical contamination of the North Atlantic coast and in the Chesapeake Bay. Second, we shall examine data on toxicity and other effects of chemical contamination on aquatic biota to deter- mine the real and potential hazards associated with chemical contamination in the region. Third, we shall examine local and regional trends in the data related to the magnitude and severity of the chemical contamination problem in the study area. Unfortunately, the data for some contaminants (e.g. phthalates, dibenzodioxins, dibenzofurans, organotins and many metals) are inadequate or equivocal. Much of the discussion that follows will center on a few contaminants that have been studied over a wide geographic area, or for which data bases of long duration exist. These include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDT, polycyclic aromatic hydrocar- bons (PAHs) in Chesapeake Bay and the Hudson estuary, PCBs in the marine waters of New York and New Jersey and the extensive data base on chemical con- tamination of the coastal zone available through 'mussel watch'.

STUDY A R E A

The study area is the North Atlantic coast, from Maine to Cape Charles, Virginia, including embayments and estuaries (Fig. 1). The area has great ecological diversity, ranging from boreal systems under the influence of the Labrador current in the north to temperate ecosystems in the south. Within the study area are some major fisheries, including cod (Gadus morhua), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) and Northern lobster (Homarus americanus) (Hildebrand and Schroeder, 1928; Bigelow and Schroeder, 1953; McHugh and Ginter, 1978). Included also are fisheries such as striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), species whose population status is uncertain, and which may be threatened by several factors, in- cluding the discharge of chemical contaminants.

Contaminant inputs vary across the study area. In remote regions of the Gulf of Maine, and along the barrier islands of Maryland and Virginia, reduced urban- industrial development results in minimum contamination. Near urban centers pollution is among the worst recorded in the world (Wasserman et al., 1979; Farr- ington et al., 1982, 1983; Segar and Davis, 1984). Specific examples of high-level contamination include CERCLA 'superfund' sites such as New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts (Weaver, 1984) and the Hudson River (Horn et al., 1979; Hazen and Kneip, 1981; O 'Connor et al., 1982; Belton et al., 1985a, 1985b).

166

MAINE

NEW YORK

MASS.

Gulo l ~

PENN.

~ Lmb Egg bbl >

oetauk Vtneyard Point

Geoq lu Benk

o ,~ ,5o ,,oo s,.,.,. . , . .

0 25 ~,0 ~00 ( O o m t m

0 25 ~O i ~00 N~t ,col roles , i

¢-,i~ ¢ - , h~

Fig. 1. Map of the study area included in this report covering the Northeastern Atlantic coast and

Chesapeake Bay.

G E O G R A P H I C EXTENT OF P O L L U T I O N

Contaminants in the marine environment on the Atlantic Coast arise almost ex- clusively f rom human activities; there is no evidence f rom the study area suggesting natural sources of significant pollution f rom oil seeps, high concentrations of metals in specific drainage systems or natural deposits of nutrients.

Pollution sources in the study area are mostly shoreline-based. As a result, a gra- dient in contaminant concentration generally exists (1) f rom urban-industrial pollu- tion sources in coastal waters to offshore locations, or (2) f rom regions adjacent to urban-industrial activity to more remote regions (Sindermann, 1976). Contaminant gradients have been demonstrated through the analysis of biological specimens as well as sediment samples and water samples adjacent to areas of contaminant input

167

3 A 9__. [ _ 6

30 ~ O • 4

- ~ • 30 . 1300 1500

T 12o

. :

T - T

0 1 2 3 4 5 / , I i T i r / A2__ 7 • 150 A • 20

kin ! T

2~A

! • I

TA

k-4,

Fig. 2. Concentrat ions of PCBs (upper value) and DDT (lower value) in surficial sediments sampled from

the apex of the New York Bight and the Hudson-Rar i tan estuary. Data are presented as /~g/g PCB or DDT dry weight, and were derived from West et al. (1976), O 'Connor et al. (1982) and ERCO (1983).

(Segar and Cantillo, 1976; LaFlamme and Hites, 1978; Farrington et al., 1983). Sediment PCB and DDT concentrations show a sharp gradient in the New York Bight, from designated disposal areas in the apex to a distance of 20 to 50 km (Fig. 2). Similar steep gradients occur in sedimentary PCB concentrations in New Bed- ford Harbor, Massachusetts (Brown and Wagner, unpublished), PCBs in the Hud- son River estuary (Bopp, 1979; Bopp et al., 1981) and in PAH concentrations in sediments from the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River, Virginia (Bieri et al., 1982, 1986).

Gradients in environmental contaminants are generated by a complex system of interacting physical, chemical, geological and biological events (GESAMP, 1982); hydrographic processes are the major determinants of contaminant distribution away from sources (NACOA, 1981; Segar and Davis, 1984). The most important hydrographic phenomena involve the transport of dissolved and particulate con- taminants in surface water flows, scouring and subsequent transport of surficial sediments and sediment bed-load transport (Goldberg, 1979; Turk and Troutman, 1981; GESAMP, 1982; Means et al., 1983; Boehm, 1983; Segar and Davis, 1984; Young and Hillard, 1984). Energies associated with hydrographic processes are

168

moderate on the Atlantic coast of North America (NACOA, 1981; Freeland and Swift, 1978); hence, contaminants tend to be transported slowly f rom sources to dis- tant sites. However, when gradual t ransport is combined with the very high levels o f waste material generation, the end result is wide dispersion of contaminants over a large area (Farrington et al., 1982).

The effect of transport-driven gradients in pollutant distribution is two-fold. The first effect is that mixing processes cause conservative and persistent pollutants such as PCBs, DDT and metals to decrease in concentration as one moves further f rom a source. The second is that the processes of mixing, dilution and transport increase the geographic area within which aquatic organisms are exposed to contaminants f rom a single source (Bender et al., 1979).

Some of the best examples of transport-driven contaminant dilution, and con- comitant reductions in body burdens, come from the U.S. EPA Mussel Watch Pro- gram, intensive studies of PCBs in the marine waters of New York State and from survey data on PCB distribution in biota from the waters adjacent to New Bedford Harbor , Massachusetts. On a coast-wide basis, the results of the U.S. Mussel Watch Program (Farrington et al., 1982, 1983) show that PCB and P A H concentrations in blue mussel vary with the level of industrialization and urbanization. PCB con- centrations in mussels were much higher, for example, between Boston and New York than in remote regions in Maine and in North Carolina (Table I).

On a regional basis, Sloan et al. (1986) reported the results of a 1985 survey of commercial striped bass (> 62 mm) from five regions in the marine waters of New York State (Fig. 3). PCB burdens in the fish decreased f rom New York Harbor (Region I) to Western Long Island Sound and to the Western portion of New York Bight (Regions II and III , respectively), and Eastern Long Island Sound and the Eastern Bight (Regions IV and V, respectively). Median PCB concentrations in

TABLE I

Concentrat ions of PCBs in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) measured at eight Atlantic coastal stations dur- ing 1976, 1977 and 1978 in conjunction with the U.S. EPA Mussel Watch program. Data f rom Far- r ington et al. (1982).

Station location PCB concentration nanograms PCB/g dry weight

1976 1977 1978

Sears Island, Maine Bailey Island, Maine

Cape Anne, Massachuset ts P lymouth , Massachusetts Block Island, Rhode Island New Haven, Connecticut Rockaways, New York Beaufort , North Carolina

79 105 69 59 109 41 96 112 93

226 366 328 102 119 72 129 299 386 575 476 303

38 30 < 15

169

/~ .~ .~ . , ,~ ~ . , o ~ ~,l NEw IV

i N Y C Hl~bo~r Ar4s

II Wee te rn Long leksnd - N o r m 8 h o l e

IN We l l ta rn L o n g le land - 8 o u l h 8 h o r O

IV Icl l l l l lern Long I l l h lnd - N o r t h 8 b o r e

V E n t e m LCmll In lend - 8outh Shore

Fig. 3. Sampling regions used in the New York State evaluation of PCB contaminat ion in striped bass f rom marine waters. From Sloan et al., 1986.

striped bass taken from New York Harbor during the summer were above 3.0/~g/g (wet weight; Table II). Close to the Harbor, in Regions II and III, PCB concentra- tions were lower, 2.6 and 2.9 ~g/g, respectively. Sloan et al. (1986) estimated a 78 to 79% probability that a striped bass taken from the western portion of the study zone would have PCB concentrations above 2.0 ~g/g. PCB concentrations in striped bass ranged from 1.5 to 2.7 ~g/g in samples from Regions IV and V (eastern end of the study area) (Table II). Over all seasons, bass from the eastern end of the study area were below 2.0/~g/g, with a probability of between 47 and 56% of exceeding 2.0 #g/g.

A similar, local gradient in PCB concentrations was observed among biota sam- pled in the vicinity of New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts. Kolek and Cuervels (1981) reported the data from four years' sampling of fishes and shellfishes in three areas in New Bedford Harbor and the Acushnet River estuary. The areas were the Inner Harbor (Area 2), Outer Harbor (Area 3) and waters of Buzzards Bay adjacent to New Bedford Harbor (Area 4). Northern lobster showed a sharp gradient in PCB

170

TABLE I1

Median PCB concentrations in striped bass from the marine district of New York. Areas designated by

Roman numerals are identified in Fig. 3. Data are the median total PCB concentrations expressed as

parts per million (/zg/g) wet weight of a 'standard fillet'. N - number of fish in each sample; P = the

probability that a given fish in a sample will exceed 2.0/~g/g total PCB. Data from Sloan et al. (1986).

Area Spring Summer Fall All Seastons

N Median P N Median P N Median P N Median P

1 30 2.88 73 30 3.38 83 30 2.62 63 90 2.90 73

ll 30 2.20 63 30 2.62 73 30 1.80 40 90 2.17 59

Ill 31 3.51 81 28 2.88 79 30 1.62 37 89 2.70 65

IV 30 1.83 33 30 1.46 33 30 1.94 50 90 1.72 39

V 30 2.72 80 25 1.63 40 30 1.90 47 85 2.12 56

concentration among areas (Table III). For 1979, the year for which the most com- plete data were available, concentrations of PCBs in lobster from inshore areas (Area 2) decreased from 21.7 #g/g (wet weight) to 3.8 ~g/g in Area 4. Similar trends may be seen for PCB concentrations in winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) from the same areas (Kolek and Cuervels, 1981).

PCB contamination in Chesapeake Bay and tributaries is less severe than in the Hudson River and New Bedford region. Morgan and Sommer (1979) and Bieri et al. (1981, 1982, 1986) measured PCB concentrations in either sediments or biota f rom the more contaminated regions of the Chesapeake. The data showed that neither the mainstem Chesapeake nor the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River, Baltimore Harbor or Patapsco River contained high concentrations of PCBs. The Chesapeake Bay region has uniquely high concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, however, as well as high levels of chlordecone contamination in the James River.

Huggett et al. (in press) determined that PAH contamination of sediments in the industrialized Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River (Fig. 4) came from many sources, including creosote plants, petroleum tank farms and the presence of wet- and dry-docks (Bieri et al., 1986). PAHs in sediments of the Elizabeth River showed

TABLE Ili

Average PCB concentrations in Northern lobsters collected in Areas 2, 3 and 4 from the vicinity of New

Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts, between 1977 and 1980. Concentrations are given as parts per million

(#g/g) wet weight; values in parentheses are the numbers of individuals analyzed. Data from Kolek and

Cuervels (1981)

Year Area 2 (Inner Harbor) Area 3 (Outer Harbor) Area 4 (Buzzard's Bay)

1977 5.6 (9) 3.9 (2)

1978 2.9 (16)

1979 21.7 (17) 8.8 (20) 3.8 (10) 1980 4.3 (27) 3.9 (10)

gc_s O o%7,g

JAMES ~'~'~

171

Fig. 4. Map showing sampling sites occupied for the evaluation of PAH contamination of Eastern, Western and Southern Branches of the Elizabeth River, Verginia. From Bieri et al., 1986.

increases along a north-south gradient. Benzo(a)pyrene increased from 90 ng/g (dry

weight) to 6000 ng/g (Table IV); phenanthrene concentrations changed from 86 ng/g to 25 000 ng/g. Similar gradients occurred among other PAH compounds in

172

1.0- 0 8 -

0.6-

OR-

O,Z-

w z o OA-

.08 -

. 0 6 -

. 0 4 -

, 0 2 -

.Oi

~ C R O A K F R

S P O T " ~

~ ER

' ;o . . . . . ; ' go ; ' dANES 40 60 60 I00 JAMES 0 40 0 I 0 0

KILOMETERS FROM JAMES

Fig. 5. Concentrations of chlordecone (kepone) in five species of estuarine and marine fishes sampled

in the James River and at specified distances from the James. Concentrations are given as /zg/g wet

weight. Data from Huggett et al., 1980.

TABLE IV

Concentrations of selected PAH compounds in surficial sediments from the Southern Branch of the

Elizabeth River, Virginia. Data are represented as parts per billion (ng/g dry weight) in sediment.

Adapted from Bieri et al. (1986).

Sample code PHE FLU PYR BAA BeP BaP IPY Bghi

06 86 290 250 93 90 4 21 28

07 110 300 260 79 57 53 ND ND

08 180 460 410 190 280 260 100 76

09 200 840 880 320 420 480 360 350

10 130 320 440 150 380 380 260 230

11 410 860 800 350 480 520 200 110

12 580 1500 1400 560 740 740 280 170

13 670 1900 1800 880 1200 1200 550 500

14 750 2200 2000 840 1200 1200 660 560

15 760 2200 2800 1000 1300 1700 840 620 16 2300 5500 4800 1900 2000 2100 730 340

17 950 3800 3600 1500 2800 2600 1400 750

18 710 2600 2000 840 970 1000 200 84

19 25000 42000 28000 11000 6300 8700 2100 1600

Sample code: Numbers correspond to kilometers upstream from the mouth of the estuary; see Fig. 4.

PHE = phenanthrene; FLU = fluoranthene; PYR = pyrene; BAA = benz(a)anthracene; BeP = ben-

zo(e)pyrene; BaP = benzo(a)pyrene; IPY = Indenopyrene; Bghi = benzo(g,h,i)perylene.

173

the Elizabeth River, and in sediment samples from Baltimore Harbor. As with the PCBs in northern estuaries and PAHs in tributaries to Chesapeake

Bay, chlordecone contamination of the James River, Virginia shows a rapid decrease away from the mouth of the estuary (Huggett et al., 1980; Fig. 5). While concentrations of chlordecone in resident James River biota (e.g. white perch, Morone americana) were well above 2.0 /~g/g (wet weight), concentrations in migrant species such as croaker, Micropogon undulatus, and spot, Leiostomus xan- thurus, declined rapidly with distance from the estuary. At a distance of 100 kin, chlordecone concentrations in spot were between 0.02 and 0.04 t~g/g, and concentra- tions in bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) were in the range of 0.2 #g/g.

As a final example of pollution gradients we present some recent data from the State of New Jersey describing the problem of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) contamination in the marine waters of the New York-New Jersey metropolitan area (Belton et al., 1985a). TCDD is a relatively new problem in marine pollution. First reports of TCDD contamination in New Jersey waters ap- peared in 1983; follow-up monitoring studies (Belton et al., 1985b) have documented TCDD contamination in a variety of marine and estuarine finfish and shellfish. High concentrations of TCDD were found in blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) taken from the estuarine waters of Newark Bay, the Passaic River and the Hackensack River. Striped bass were also found to contain measurable concentra- tions of TCDD, but at much lower levels (Fig. 6). Interestingly, the highest concen- trations of TCDD in blue crabs were found not in the Passaic River, which is the primary site of TCDD contamination, but in the Hackensack River and downstream, in Newark Bay. Farther downstream, in Raritan Bay and in the New York Bight, TCDD was present at measurable concentrations in some samples, but generally below 100 picograms per gram (wet weight; pg/g; parts per trillion). Most samples of striped bass, bluefish and other organisms tested negatively for TCDD (Belton et al., 1985b). Nonetheless, these are disturbing data. TCDD is a highly tox- ic contaminant, and its presence in marine biota may have implications not only for potential TCDD-induced morbidity and mortality in aquatic biota, but also for its potential to affect humans consuming TCDD-contaminated fisheries products.

Sindermann, in his 1976 review of pollutant effects on North Atlantic fishes and fisheries, noted that impacts were primarily restricted to inshore waters in the vicini- ty of sources and discharges. The data collected since Sindermann's studies show that both contamination and contaminant effects now extend over a much greater area. Two studies have examined the distribution of pollutants in offshore popula- tions of marine fishes and shellfishes on the Atlantic Coast. These were the Gulf and Atlantic Survey, GAS I (Boehm and Hirtzer, 1982) and a recently completed NOAA survey for PCBs in bluefish (NOAA, 1986).

GAS I (Boehm and Hirtzer, 1982) provided data on PCBs, DDT and petroleum hydrocarbons in marine species from Cape Hatteras to the Gulf of Maine. Nearly all the samples screened for PCBs contained detectable concentrations (Table V).

174

Pk~SA I

l ; l u ¢ Crab* Blue Crab* * Carp Ca r 1) lirown liu | I h¢;id

R I VI.:R

J S l l ~ . , 54

ZIO

l l O ~ • i

Hew JerNy

RARrI'AN RIVER

R l . ~ C r ; l b l l 48 B lue Crab* * 2S

r~

l l l~l , I I • l J k ~ I .

R I ~ l!II

BIu~' C r . b CII It)63 Bh ,v Crab IZII 3!111

BIilI: Cr. lh CIl S2il B lu r Crab tZll 270

RIVI!I(

Blue Crab CIl I0

NEWARK BAY

Blue Crab CH O211 Blue Crab 0 t 570 Blue Crab Eli 5(}0 Blue Cr;lb CII 320 Str iped Ba~.~ 50 St r iped Ba~s 17 St I ' ip t 'd l l ass .L ~ St ripud Bass 23

Fig. 6. Sampling sites and concentrations of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in organisms from the Passaic, Hackensack and Raritan Rivers, N.J. Concentrations are given as parts per trillion

(picograms per gram) wet weight. Data from Belton et al., 1985b.

However, with the exception of silver hake (Merluccius bilinearis; total PCB = 0.46 /~g/g (wet weight), most marine species had PCB concentrations less than 0.05 t~g/g. Winter flounder data illustrated a general trend in PCB concentrations among fishes sampled and analyzed in GAS I. Flounder sampled between the Gulf of Maine and the south side of Cape Cod contained PCBs from below detection limits (0.001 ~g/g) to 0.01 t~g/g. In the vicinity of the New York Bight, however, PCB concentra- tions in winter flounder were higher, from 0.01 to 0.1 ~g/g. Presumably these higher body burdens were due to the elevated PCB levels in the Hudson plume, and to the substantial mass of PCBs dumped each year in the New York Bight (O'Connor et al., 1982; Segar and Davis, 1984; Young and Hillard, 1984).

Contamination of fishes and fisheries in open ocean systems from coastal pollu- tion sources is not restricted to the immediate vicinity of the discharge. The data from GAS I demonstrated that contaminants introduced to the marine environment at the shoreline and in coastal waters have the potential to be transported to off-

175

TABLE V

Incidence of the presence and concentration of total PCB compounds, and the ratio of PCBs to DDT compounds in marine fishes and shellfishes of the Atlantic Coast from GAS I (Boehm and Hirtzer, 1982). PCB data are parts per million (#g/g PCB) dry weight, given as the range of values observed in the samples analysed.

Species N °7o occurrence Concentration Mean ratio (~g/g dry weight) PCB/total DDT

Silver Hake 14 100 0.025-0.457 5.1 Red Hake 14 93 0.002-0.042 3.3 Yellowtail Flounder 16 94 0.002-0.052 4.8 Winter Flounder 13 85 0.002-0.031 5.6 Windowpane Flounder 8 100 0.004-0.086 5.0 Fourspot Flounder 4 100 0.004-0.008 4.5 Summer Flounder 1 100 0.014 4.7 American Dab 4 100 0.001-0.024 5.5 Haddock 7 100 0.001-0.026 Cod 5 80 0.002-0.018 2.8 Skate 2 100 0.002-0.012 6.0 Scallop 1 100 0.001 Rock Crab 1 100 0.043 1.7 Lobster 2 100 0.100-0.150 3.5

shore sites and deep ocean waters. Transpor t may occur as the result of organisms

migra t ing within the system (e.g. winter f lounder) , or via processes that t ranspor t

c o n t a m i n a n t s to open ocean and deep ocean waters where they become available to

species that do not inhabi t coastal or surface waters at any t ime dur ing their life cy-

cle (Elder and Fowler, 1977; Stegeman et al., 1986).

Po l lu tan t s are t ranspor ted widely to open ocean waters, as i l lustrated by recent

da ta on PCBs in bluefish f rom the Nor th At lant ic coast (NOAA, 1986; Parr ish and

Duke, 1986; O ' C o n n o r , 1986). Parr ish and Duke compiled data on PCBs in bluefish

f rom Massachusetts , New York, New Jersey, Mary land and Nor th Carol ina . PCB

concen t ra t ions were higher in bluefish than in other mar ine species, as reported by

Boehm and Hirtzer (1982). Concen t ra t ions of PCBs in bluefish taken f rom

Massachuset ts waters averaged 1.33/zg/g (wet weight); samples f rom the New Bed-

ford area averaged 2.1/zg/g PCBs (Weaver, 1984). Bluefish samples f rom New York

and New Jersey conta ined f rom 0.2 to 9.6/~g/g PCBs (Table VI), whereas bluefish

f rom Mary land waters had an average PCB content of abou t 0 .3 /zg/g over a five-

year period (Parr ish and Duke, 1986). Bluefish were also sampled f rom Nor th

Caro l ina waters in 1976; four samples conta ined PCBs ranging f rom below detec-

t ion limits to abou t 0.I /zg/g (Parrish and Duke, 1986).

The sampling and analysis p rogram conducted by N O A A , F D A and E P A

( N O A A , 1986) provided new data on PCB concent ra t ions in bluefish on the Nor th

At lan t ic coast. Bluefish were sampled f rom 1984 and 1985 f rom Nor th Caro l ina to

176

TABLE VI

Mean PCB concentrations in bluefish taken from the waters of New York, New Jersey and Massachusetts from 1979 through 1983. PCB data are presented as parts per million (tzg PCB/g wet weight) in samples of edible flesh. Data from various sources noted at the bottom of the table.

Sample site Date N Total PCB (t*g/g wet weight)

Peekskill, NY a 1979 16 3.15 New York Harbor a 1978 14 2.33 Fire Island NY a 1978 15 1.03 Cold Spring Hbr, NY a 1978 15 0.94 Eastern, L.1. Sound a 1978 2 0.48

11 1.15 Herod Point, NY ~ 1978 2 0.49 Orient Point, NY a 1978 15 1.45

1978 15 3.63 Great South Bay a 1979 16 0.68 Hudson River, N J b 1975-76 4 3.44 Hudson River, N J b 1981 2 1.78 Newark Bay, NJ b 1976-81 14 1.63 Raritan River, N J b 1976-81 7 0.66 Raritan Bay, NJ b 1976-8! 10 0.98 Coastal Bays of N J b 1976-81 2 1.50 Delaware Bay b 1976-81 3 0.28 Ocean Sites in NJ b 1976-81 21 0.37-0.82 Hudson River, NJ c 1982 5 3.29 Hudson River/NY Bay c 1983 3 4.03-9.61 Newark Bay, NJ c 1983 3 2.97 Arthur Kill, NJ c 1983 1 1.51 New Bedford, MA d 1978-80 11 2.10

a New York State DEC, 1981; b Belton et al., 1983; c Belton et al., 1985; d Weaver, 1984.

N e w E n g l a n d . S a m p l e s r e p r e s e n t e d e i the r i n d i v i d u a l f ish o r c o m p o s i t e s o f 5 f ish.

S a m p l e s were s t r a t i f i ed by size, c o m p r i s i n g smal l ( _ 300 m m ) , m e d i u m (301 to 500

m m ) a n d la rge s p e c i m e n s ( > 5 0 0 m m ) . N o n e o f the samples o f sma l l o r m e d i u m

b l u e f i s h e x c e e d e d the U . S . F o o d and D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c t i o n l imi t fo r P C B s

(2.0 # g / g wet we igh t , ed ib le f lesh) . B e t w e e n 5 a n d 45°7o o f the s amples o f l a rger

b l u e f i s h exceeded the 2 . 0 / ~ g / g l imi t . T h e g rea tes t p r o p o r t i o n o f la rge b lue f i sh ex-

c eed ing the l imi t o c c u r r e d in s amples f r o m N o r t h C a r o l i n a in A p r i l (23o70), f r o m

N e w E n g l a n d in A u g u s t (28°7o) a n d f r o m the N e w Y o r k B igh t in O c t o b e r (45°7o;

T a b l e VII ) .

A n u m b e r o f in t e re s t ing i n f e r ences r e g a r d i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f P C B s a m o n g

l a rge r b lue f i sh m a y be d r a w n f r o m the da ta . F i r s t , f o r samples f r o m N o r t h

C a r o l i n a , the m e d i a n P C B c o n c e n t r a t i o n , the P C B v a l u e fo r t he 90th pe rcen t i l e o f

the p o p u l a t i o n a n d the p e r c e n t o f s amples a b o v e 2.0 /~g/g i n c r e a s e d s lowly , bu t

p r o b a b l y n o t s ign i f i can t ly , f r o m J a n u a r y t h r o u g h Apr i l . Th is suggests a u n i f o r m ac-

TA

BL

E V

II

Su

mm

ary

of

PC

B c

on

cen

trat

ion

dat

a in

fiv

e-fi

sh c

om

po

site

sam

ple

s o

f bl

uefi

sh t

aken

at

var

iou

s st

atio

ns

alon

g th

e N

ort

h A

tlan

tic

coas

t d

uri

ng

198

5. D

ata

pres

ente

d ar

e th

e m

edia

n a

nd

90t

h pe

rcen

tile

tot

al P

CB

co

nce

ntr

atio

ns

as p

arts

per

mil

lion

(/z

g P

CB

/g)

dry

wei

ght

and

the

calc

ulat

ed p

rop

ort

ion

of

sam

ple

s gr

eate

r th

an 2

.0 p

.g/g

in

each

siz

e st

ratu

m.

Dat

a fr

om

NO

AA

(19

86).

Sit

e N

um

ber

of

5-fi

sh

Tot

al P

CB

Co

nce

ntr

atio

n

Per

cent

of

Sam

ples

(Mo

nth

s)

com

po

site

sam

ples

M

edia

n 90

th P

erce

ntil

e >

2.0

pp

m

Sm

all

Med

ium

L

arge

S

mal

l M

ediu

m

Lar

ge

Sm

all

Med

ium

L

arge

S

mal

l M

ediu

m

Lar

ge

No

rth

Car

oli

na

6 6

65

T a

0.78

1.

35

0.34

1.

11

2.16

0.

0 0.

0 10

.8

(Jan

/Feb

)

No

rth

Car

oli

na

0 6

65

b T

1.

53

- T

2.

22

- 0.

0 16

.9

(Mar

ch)

No

rth

Car

oli

na

6 6

65

T

T

1.70

0.

33

T

2.45

0.

0 0.

0 23

.1

(Apr

il)

MD

/VA

7

10

0 T

T

0

T

T

- 0.

0 0.

0 (J

un

e/Ju

ly)

New

Yor

k B

ight

6

6 65

T

T

0.

98

0.32

0.

58

1.87

0.

0 0.

0 4.

6 (M

ay/J

un

e)

New

En

gla

nd

1

6 65

T

T

1.

19

T

0.34

1.

85

0.0

0.0

4.6

(Ju

ne/

July

)

New

Yor

k B

ight

0

6 65

T

0.

77

0.32

1.

51

0.0

4.6

(Au

gu

st)

New

En

gla

nd

0

6 65

T

1.

37

0.58

14

.16

0.0

27.7

(A

ug

ust

)

MD

/VA

6

6 65

T

T

-

T

T

- 0.

0 0.

0 -

(Sep

t/O

ct)

New

En

gla

nd

0

4 65

-

0.89

1.

02

- 1.

23

1.63

-

0.0

3.1

(Oct

ob

er)

New

Yor

k B

ight

6

6 65

T

T

1.

86

T

T

3.40

0.

0 0.

0 45

.3

(Oct

/No

v)

a T

den

otes

tra

ce q

uant

itie

s de

tect

ed i

n th

e sa

mpl

e, b

ut

insu

ffic

ient

for

acc

urat

e q

uan

tita

tio

n.

b D

ash

ed l

ine

(-)

indi

cate

s no

dat

a du

e ei

ther

to

no

sam

ple,

los

t sa

mpl

e, o

r an

inc

alcu

labl

e q

uan

tity

.

178

cumulation of PCBs in bluefish during the late winter-early spring. Second, median PCB values and 90th percentile data for bluefish from New England waters during June/July, and New York Bight waters during May/June and August were similar to and lower than samples taken from January through April in North Carolina. Although the median PCB concentrations for large bluefish taken from New England during August were equivalent to the values for North Carolina samples taken from January through April, the 90th percentile concentration was greater than all other samples by a factor of from 6.5 to 10, and the proportion of samples greater than 2.0 ~g/g was significantly greater than for other samples from the New England-New York Bight region during the summer months (Table VII). It is ob- vious that these data from New England were affected by a few, highly con- taminated samples, perhaps consisting of fish that had migrated to, and fed heavily in, some of the New England waters known to be highly contaminated with PCBs.

Bluefish sampled from New York Bight waters in October/November showed evidence of either more consistent sampling or more uniform contamination with PCBs (Table VII). Unlike the August data from New England, New York Bight samples of large bluefish showed a median PCB concentration (1.86 ~g/g), quite close to the 90th percentile value (3.4 ~g/g). Nearly one-half the population of 5-fish composite samples exceeded the 2.0 #g/g FDA action limit. Based upon relatively low PCB concentrations in New York Bight bluefish during the spring and summer, we might speculate that some substantial portion of the New York Bight bluefish sampled during October/November were fish that had moved south from New England waters during the late summer and early fall. If this is the case it would be unwise and premature to conclude that PCB sources in the New York Bight region lead to higher levels of PCB contamination in bluefish populations. Whatever the explanation for the distribution of PCBs in bluefish on the Atlantic coast, additional research that includes efforts to develop PCB 'fingerprints' useful for identifying PCB sources (e.g. congener-specific PCB analysis) would be of substantial value.

BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS

The literature is replete with data describing responses of fishes and shellfishes to pollutant insult under laboratory conditions. Field data that verify the existence of effects predicted from laboratory studies are not so abundant. Conclusions drawn from the few field data available are often equivocal. Fishes in the wild are rarely, if ever, exposed to a single pollutant; fishes in laboratory studies are most often ex- posed to single pollutants.

Biological and biochemical effects of pollutants observed under field conditions generally fall into five categories: (1) community structure modification; (2) habitat alteration; (3) developmental and structural anomalies; (4) altered enzyme function;

179

and (5) altered immunological function. Few such data are available from popula- tions of fish and shellfish from the North Atlantic coast.

Community structure alteration

Several authors have implied that exposure to pollutants results in changes in aquatic community structure. Such changes may be based upon selective mortality among populations exposed to pollutants or on differential resistance of popula- tions to pollutants. Either reponse results in an imbalance in population structure, with one population gaining a selective advantage over another. Based upon the results of in situ microcosm studies, O'Connors et al. (1978, 1982) suggested that PCBs caused changes in trophic pathways in coastal waters because the effect of PCB exposure on phytoplankton populations favored the development of nanoplankton over larger algae. The predicted effect was the diversion of energy flow away from herbivorous zooplankton toward gelatinous predators such as ctenophores. Although such alterations in marine phytoplankton populations were predicted to occur at PCB concentrations similar to those observed in the New York Bight and Long Island Sound, their existence has not been verified in natural systems.

A second type of community alteration may be altered population structure of ecologically important species, such as among Atlantic tomcod (Microgadus tom- cod) in the Hudson River and New York Harbor ecosystem. Tomcod in the Hudson system are susceptible to hepatocellular carcinoma; tumor incidence among older fish may exceed 85°70 (Smith et al., 1979; Klauda et al., 1981; Dey et al., 1986). Perhaps as a result of such high tumor incidence, the age-distribution of tomcod has changed over the years from one which once contained 4 age-classes supporting an active recreational and commercial fishery (frostfish, Bigelow and Schroeder, 1953) to one which is comprised almost exclusively of 0 + , 1 + and 2 + fish. Whether the effect observed among tomcod in the Hudson system is related to contamination cannot be ascertained at the present time; however, it has been determined that populations of tomcod from other, non-polluted estuaries on the North Atlantic coast show no neoplasia (Cormier, 1986), and maintain an age-distribution that in- cludes an abundance of older (2 + and 3 +) fish.

Habitat alteration

Pollutant-related modification of habitats along the North Atlantic coast has probably occurred at every site where discharged solids contain a different particle- size distribution and contaminant load than in situ sediments. The most thoroughly documented example of such habitat alteration is in the New York Bight, where Boesch (1982) reported changes in benthic community structure related to the disposal of waste materials. The effect of the dumping was related primarily to

180

organic enrichment of the sediments, rather than to the presence of pollutants, and favored the development of benthic populations which, in Boesch's opinion (1982), were of reduced value as forage for desirable fish species.

Developmental and structural anomalies

Longwell (1976) suggested that one of the effects of ocean dumping of waste materials in the New York Bight may be to induce chromosomal damage in free- floating eggs and larvae of marine fishes. Longwell and Hughes (1980) suggested that early developmental stages of Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in the New York Bight are affected by pollutants in the water column as well as con- taminants passed on to eggs and larvae through the ovary. In concept, contaminants in waste materials dumped in ocean waters would be present in the water column, and would be available to organisms throughout the water column. The con- taminants could be accumulated and cause damage at the molecular level, possibly leading to developmental abnormalities and increased mortality among populations of eggs and larvae. Similar effects have been proposed as one of the possible mechanisms involved in the reduced success of striped bass populations in the Chesapeake Bay.

Structural anomalies in feral populations of fishes are almost certainly associated with effects on developmental processes. Mehrle et al. (1982) studied structural defi- ciencies in striped bass in relation to pollutant loads in various spawning streams. They found that bass f rom the Hudson River had weaker vertebral columns (as measured by a variety of physical and chemical parameters) when compared to bass f rom other estuaries, including several in the Chesapeake system. The implication was that the structural weaknesses seen in the Hudson River fish were related to high levels of PCBs. Mehrle et al. (1982) did not discuss the biological or ecological con- sequences of reduced strength of the vertebral column; however, we should point out that the Hudson River striped bass population is perhaps the only successful populat ion on the Atlantic coast at this time. We would conclude that the strength of the vertebral column as affected by exposure to PCBs is apparently not a key fac- tor in success of striped bass populations.

Altered enzyme function

Contaminants introduced to the environment may lead to alterations in the con- centration or function of a number of different enzyme systems, including those necessary for oxidative phosphorylation, mobilization of glycogen reserves and the metabolism of xenobiotics of natural origin (Lech and Bend, 1980; Gallo et al., 1987; Nelson et al., 1987). Of particular interest with regard to pollutant effects on marine organisms are the mixed-function oxidases (MFOs), which in marine fishes and shellfishes catalyze reactions that t ransform xenobiotics to more polar com-

181

pounds which are then conjugated and excreted (Malins, 1977; Solbakken et al., 1980; Varanasi et al., 1979; Stegeman, 1983). For some chemical classes such as the PAHs, however, MFO function may result in the formation of reactive in- termediates that have the potential to act as carcinogenic or co-carcinogenic com- pounds (Lech and Bend, 1980; Malins et al., 1985; Goksoyr et al., 1985). Most studies of activation and induction of MFO systems and xenobiotic transformation have been carried out in a laboratory setting; the relationship to field exposure of marine biota has been investigated (Payne, 1984; Bend and Foureman, 1984), but remains in the realm of hypothesis.

Field assessment of the biotransformation of xenobiotics has been carried out for a number of species and in a number of locations, including the North Atlantic. Davies and Bell (1984) compared in situ levels of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) in several species from the North Sea and concluded that the use of A H H levels would not be appropriate as a measure of exposure to xenobiotics for all species. Stegeman and co-workers have studied MFOs in a number of species on the North Atlantic coast, including the scup (Stenotomus chrysops) and the deep sea fish Coryphaenoides armatus (Stegeman, 1983; Stegeman et al., 1985, 1986). They found that multiple forms of the cytochromes P-450 exist in fishes, and that certain of the cytochromes are induced by xenobiotics in the environment. Their most re- cent report (Stegeman et al., 1986) showed that pollutant chemicals such as PCBs have penetrated the deep-sea environment at concentrations sufficient to induce cytochrome P-450 systems. The biochemical and toxicological significance of such induction is unclear at the moment; however, the findings suggest that contamina- tion of coastal waters and estuaries with persistent pollutants leads to eventual con- tamination of the entire ocean. Attempts to estimate the 'carrying capacity' of oceans for pollutants (Goldberg, 1979) must take into consideration this potential for observable biological effects on a large scale in remote areas of the marine en- vironment.

Altered immunological function

Early studies of disease incidence in fishes (Mahoney et al., 1973; Murchelano and Ziskowski, 1976) suggested that contaminants may cause disease of uncertain etiology by exerting excessive stress on the immune system, leading to a weakened condition and increased susceptibility to pathogens. Fish immunology has developed rapidly since that time (Manning and Tatner, 1985). Studies are underway currently in a number of laboratories to determine the interactions between pollutants and the immune system(s) of fishes; however, field studies are rare. Weeks and Warinner (1984), and Weeks et al. (in press) carried out immunological studies with fishes exposed to the highly polluted Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River, Virginia. They showed that macrophages from spot and hogchokers (Trinectes maculatus) taken from the Elizabeth River had reduced chemotactic and

182

phagocytic activity compared to fish taken from control sites in the York River, Virginia. When fish from the Elizabeth River were held in clean water macrophage activity returned to values comparable to control fish. The implication of these studies, and of laboratory studies of immune function of marine organisms from other locations in the North Atlantic (Cheng and Sullivan, 1984) is that organisms challenged by high concentrations of contaminants may suffer reduced efficiency of immune defense systems. Although the data from Weeks et al. (in press) show that the effect is reversible for the species studied, it should be remembered that organisms often remain in contaminated environments for long periods of time, if not for their entire life. Under such conditions, where virulent disease organisms may be present, depression of immune systems could lead to an increased incidence of disease in feral fish populations (Loose et al., 1978).

POLLUTION-RELATED DISEASE

Mahoney et al. (1973) described fin-rot disease in winter flounder from the New York Bight and concluded that the condition was related to pollution. Since that time numerous studies on the North Atlantic coast have related, in at least a cir- cumstantial way, pollution, ill health and reduced physiological condition among fishes.

Murchelano (1982) reviewed pollution-associated diseases in marine organisms, listing diseases of known etiology as well as diseases of uncertain origin. Pollution- related diseases of known etiology on the Atlantic coast included a variety of microbial diseases (Lymphocystis, herpes-like viruses, Baculovirus, Vibriosis, Gaf- fyka). Diseases of unknown etiology included 'fin-rot ' disease (Mahoney et al., 1973). Also known at that time, but not included in Murchelano's 1982 review was the occurrence of liver neoplasia and hepatocellular carcinoma among Atlantic tom- cod in the Hudson River estuary (Smith et al., 1979; Klauda et al., 1981).

Fin-rot disease is prevalent on the North Atlantic coast in urban industrial areas. High incidence of fin-rot disease has been reported in Massachusetts Bay (Carr et al., 1986), the New York Bight (Mahoney et al., 1973; Murchelano and Ziskowski, 1976; Murchelano, 1982) and in the Southern Branch of the Elizabeth River, Virginia (Huggett et al., in press). Fin-rot disease has been reported as affecting a large number of species, including winter flounder, summer flounder (Paralychthys dentatus), hogchoker, (Trinectes maculatus), toadfish (Opsanus tau), weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) and bluefish. The etiology of fin-rot disease may include depres- sion of immune response function due to contamination and increased susceptibility to pathogens in the environment (Mearns and Sherwood, 1976).

Laboratory studies and caged exposures of fish under field conditions show that fin-rot disease is probably due to exposure to contaminated sediments (Murchelano and Ziskowski, 1976; Huggett et al., in press). However, the data do not show which chemical pollutant, or combination of pollutants, may be responsible for the ap-

183

TABLE VIII

Age, length, liver appearance category and total PCB concentration in tissues of 12 Atlantic tomcod col- lected in the Hudson River estuary during January and February, 1978. Data from Klauda et al., 1981.

Liver Appearance a Age Length Total PCB (~g/g wet wt.) (Gross examination) (yrs) Sex (mm T.L.) Body b T e s t i s Ovary Liver

Normal 1 M 163 0.10 1.64 - 29.43 Normal 1 M 179 0.02 0.86 - 20.32 Normal 1 M 150 0.08 0.64 - 49.18

Hemorrhagic 1 F 165 0.04 - 0.10 15.09 Hemorrhagic 1 M 150 0.10 0.19 31.50 Hemorrhagic 1 M 152 0.09 0.83 59.07

Small Pustules 1 F 187 0.08 0.08 10.94 Small Pustules 1 M 142 0.67 7.35 98.22 Small Pustules 1 M 168 0.04 0.89 56.35

Tumor(s) 1 F 146 0.05 0.83 36.96 Tumor(s) 1 F 190 0.66 0.12 16.02 Tumor(s) 2 M 213 0.11 0.46 27.12

a After categories described in Smith et al. (1979). b Homogenate of entire fish after removal of liver and gonads.

pearance of the condi t ion . Sampling of Nor th At lant ic coastal locat ions with high

incidences of f in-rot disease should be aimed at collect ion of ' ep idemiological ' data

sui table for statistical analyses like those conducted for Puget Sound (Malins et al.,

1985).

Hugget t et al. (in press) determined that fishes in the Southern Branch of the

El izabeth River may suffer a high incidence of cataracts due to the presence of con-

t aminan t s in the sediments and the water. Cataract incidence in spot, gray t rout

(Cynoscion nebulosus) and croaker (Micropogon undulatus) f rom the Elizabeth

River was correlated with po l lu t ion load (as est imated by P A H in sediments).

Smith et al. (1979) reported that tomcod in the H u d s o n River estuary had a high

incidence of neoplasia, subsequent ly identif ied as hepatocel lular carc inoma (Cor-

mier, 1986). Cancer incidence in H u d s o n River tomcod was low in young-of-year

fish and yearlings, bu t increased to 85% or more in fish of age-classes 2 + and 3 + .

Since hepatocel lular carc inomas are present in tomcod f rom the Hudson , and not

present in tomcod f rom other, nearby estuaries, the conclus ion has been drawn that

lesions in H u d s o n River tomcod are due in part to the presence of a high concentra-

t ion of con taminan t s in the Lower H u d s o n estuary, New York H a r b o r and lower

New York Bay. At tempts to establish correlat ions between the incidence of

neoplas ia in tomcod and body burdens of specific con taminan t s have been in-

conclusive. Klauda et al. (1981) reported body burdens of PCBs in tomcod, bu t were

unab le to establish any relat ionship between concent ra t ions and disease incidence

184

(Table VIII). In an unpublished symposium presentation, Klauda and co-workers presented data on concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene and other PAHs in tomcod; most PAHs were below detection limits and no correlation of disease incidence and contaminants was demonstrable. This result was not surprising in light of the data showing that PAHs are metabolized rapidly by fishes (Varanasi and Gmur, 1981; Stein et al., 1984; Schnitz et al., 1987), especially under conditions in which ex- posure to PAHs may be concurrent with exposure to PCBs (Stein et al., 1984, 1987).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Pollution of the North Atlantic coast and the Chesapeake Bay is most severe near urban-industrial areas. With few exceptions gradients of pollutant concentration ex- ist in sediments, the water column and the biota, decreasing away from sites of con- tamination, and f rom onshore sites to open ocean environments. Unlike conditions described a decade ago (Sindermann, 1976), it is apparent that contaminants are present throughout the estuarine, coastal and open ocean portions of the North Atlantic; organisms f rom estuaries and the abyss are exposed to similar con- taminants, although exposure is higher near the coast.

Problems associated with pollution of the marine environment have apparently increased. This may be due as much to improved techniques for analysis and diagnosis of problems as it is to increased levels of contaminat ion of the marine en- vironment. Nonetheless, accumulating data show that random samples of fish or shellfish f rom the North Atlantic or the Chesapeake Bay are likely to contain measurable amounts of common, persistent pollutants, such as the PCBs. In addi- tion, 'new' pollution problems continue to arise, many of which are not new, but newly discovered. Steps should be taken to develop effective mechanisms to screen for such new contaminants, based upon our knowledge of industrial activity in our

coastal zones, and our knowledge of contaminant t ransport processes in estuarine and coastal waters.

New developments in aquatic toxicological research make it apparent that xenobiotic compounds are not 'benign ' , accumulating harmlessly in depot fat or bound to proteins, affecting individual organisms and populations not at all. Con- taminants may cause subtle genetic or biochemical effects in marine biota that lead ultimately to activation of oncogenes, alterations in developmental processes or depression of immune defense systems. Such effects may be responsible, with some time-lag, for the increased incidence of disease observed in coastal and marine fish populations. Our ability to measure these effects is limited, but growing; increased efforts to develop and perfect measurement and disease monitoring techniques could lead to an increased ability to observe the signs of pollution problems before they occur. Given adequate foreknowledge, steps could be taken to combat the pro- blem before irreversible effects occur.

We are entering an era of marine toxicological research best described as the

185

'biochemical' or 'molecular' era. Care should be taken, however, to maintain molecular and biochemical tools in proper perspective, and to recognize that the value of such tools is greatest when they are applied in ecosystems research rather than as an end in themselves. Broad sampling programs, environmental surveys and monitoring coupled with properly applied, sophisticated analyses of wild popula- tions for evidence of pollutant effects at the physiological, biochemical and molecular level will provide a data base on contamination-related problems. When such data bases are subjected to appropriate mathematical analyses aimed at establishing the relationships between disease and contaminant loading, we shall be in a position to choose which pollutant compounds and sources need our greatest attention for control, management and elimination.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Preparation of this review was made possible by funds from the National In- stitutes of Environmental Health Sciences (Grant ES0026), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the General Electric Co. Technical Contribution No. 27 in Aquatic Toxicology from the New York University Medical Center and Technical Contribution No. 1403 from the Virginia Institute of Marine Science.

REFERENCES

Belton, T., B. Ruppel, K. Lockwood and M, Boriek, 1983. PCB in selected finfish caught within New Jersey waters 1981-1982. N.J. Dept. of Env. Protection, Trenton, N.J., 43 pp.

Belton, T., B. Ruppel, K. Lockwood, S. Shiboski, G. Bukowski, R. Roundy, N. Weinstein, D. Wilson, and H. Whelan, 1985a. A study of toxic hazards to urban fishermen and crabbers. N.J. Dept. of Env. Protection, Trenton, N.J., 68 pp.

Belton, T., R. Hazen, B. Ruppel, K. Lockwood, R. Mueller, E. Stevenson and J. Post, 1985b. A study of dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) contamination in select finfish, crustaceans and sediments of New Jersey waterways. N.J. Dept. of Environmental Protection, Trenton, N.J., 102 pp.

Bend, J.R. and G.L. Foureman, 1984. Activities of only a few species are induced by environmental ex- posure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-type compounds. Marine Environ. Res. 14, 405 -406.

Bender, M., T. Church, C. Curtis, D. Edgington, M. Gross, B. Haidvogel, J. McCarthy, G. Needler, E. Schneider and J. Steele, 1979. Coastal and open ocean science. In: Assimilative capacity of U.S. coastal waters for pollutants, edited by E. Goldberg, NOAA Env. Res. Labs., Boulder, CO, pp. 98-122.

Bieri, R., P. DeFur, R. Huggett, W. Maclntyre, P. Shou, C. Smith and C. Su, 1981. Organic compounds in surface sediments and oyster tissues from the Chesapeake Bay. VIMS, Gloucester Pt, VA, 179 pp.

Bieri, R., C. Hein, R. Huggett, P. Shou, H. Slone, C. Smith and C. Su, 1982. Toxic organic compounds in surface sediments from the Elizabeth and Patapsco Rivers and estuaries. Va. Inst. Mar. Sci., Goucester Pt., VA, 135 pp.

Bieri, R., C. Hein, R. Huggett, P. Shou, H. Slone, C. Smith and C. Su, 1986. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the Elizabeth River subestuary. Intern J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 26, 97-113.

186

Bigelow, H. and W. Schroeder, 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. Fish. Bull. 74, 1-577. Boehm, P.D., 1983. Coupling of particulate organic pollutants between the estuary and continental shelf

and the sediments and water column in the New York Bight region. Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. 40 (Suppl. 2), 262-276.

Boehm, P. and P. Hirtzer, 1982. Gulf and Atlantic survey for selected organic contaminants in finfish. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-F/NEC-13, 111 pp.

Boesch, D., 1982. Ecosystem consequences of alteration of benthic community structure and function in the New York Bight region. In: Ecological Stress and the New York Bight, edited by G. Mayer, Estuarine Research Federation, Charleston, S.C., pp. 543-568.

Bopp, R.F., 1979. The geochemistry of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Hudson River. Ph.D. Diss. Columbia University, 191 pp.

Bopp, R.F., H.J. Simpson, C.R. Olsen and N. Kostyk, 1981. Polychlorinated biphenyls in sediments of the tidal Hudson River, New York. Environ. Sci. Technol. 15, 210-216.

Brown, J.F. and R.E. Wagner, unpublished report on Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) movement and transformation in Acushnet estuary sediments. General Electric Res. and Dev. Ctr. Schenectady, New York, 55 pp.

Cart, R.S., R. Hillman and J.M. Neff, 1986. Biochemical and histopathological effects of an ocean sewage outfall on winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus. Abstract, Mechanisms of pollu- tant action in aquatic organisms, Research Triangle Park, May, 1986.

Cheng, T.C. and J. Sullivan, 1984. Effects of heavy metals on phagocytosis by molluscan hemocytes. Marine Environ. Res. 14, 305-316.

Cormier, S., 1986. Pathological manifestations of hepatocytes of the Atlantic tomcod, Microgadus tom- cod. Report from Ecological Analysts to Hudson River Foundation, New York, NY, 36 pp.

Davies, J.M. and J.S. Bell, 1984. A comparison of the levels of hepatic aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase in fish caught close to and distant from North Sea oil fields. Marine Environ. Res. 14, 23-46.

Dey, W., T. Peck, C. Smith, S. Cormier and G.-L. Kreamer, 1986. A study of the occurrence of liver cancer in Atlantic tomcod (Microgadus tomcod) from the Hudson River estuary. Report from Ecological Analysts to Hudson River Foundation, New York, NY, 32 pp.

Elder, D.L. and S.W. Fowler, 1977. Polychlorinated biphenyls: penetration into the deep ocean by zooplankton fecal pellet transport. Science 197, 459-461.

ERCO/Energy Resources Co., Inc., 1983. Organic pollutant levels in the ocean quahog (Arctica islan- dica) in the Northeastern United States. Report to NOAA/Sandy Hook Lab., Feb. 1983, 14 pp.

Farrington, J.W., R. Risebrough, P. Parker, A. Davis, B. de Lappe, J. Winters, D. Boatwright and N. Frew, 1982. Hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and DDE in mussels and oysters from the East Coast, 1976-1978 - The Mussel Watch. Report to U.S. EPA. Pub. No. WHO1-82-42, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 106 pp.

Farrington, J., E. Goldberg, R. Risebrough, J. Martin and V. Bowen, 1983. U.S. 'Mussel Watch' 1976-1978: An overview of the trace metal, DDE, PCB, hydrocarbon and artificial radionuclide data. Environ. Sci. Technol. 17, 490-496.

Freeland, G.L. and D.J.P. Swift, 1978. Surficial Sediments. MESA New York Bight Atlas Monograph 10. New York Sea Grant Inst., Albany, New York, 93 pp.

Gallo, M., M. Gochfeld and B. Goldstein, 1987. Biomedical aspects of environmental toxicology. In: Toxic chemicals, health and the environment, edited by L. Lave and A. Upton, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, pp. 170-204.

GESAMP [Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution], 1982. The Health of the Oceans. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 16, United Nations Environmental Pro- gramme, 108 pp.

Goksoyr, A., J. Klungsoyr and J. Solbakken, 1985. Cytochromes P-450 in cod (Gadus morhua): Effects of inducers on regiospecificity of phenanthrene metabolism and immunochemical properties. Marine Environ. Res. 15, 87-90.

187

Goldberg, E.D., 1979. Assimilative capacity of U.S. coastal waters for pollutants. NOAA Env. Res. Labs. Boulder, CO, 284 pp.

Grassle, J.P. and J.F. Grassle, 1984. The utility of studying the effects of pollutants on single species populations in benthos of mesocosms and coastal ecosystems. In: Concepts in Marine Pollution Measurements, edited by H. White, Maryland Sea Grant Publ., College Park, MD, pp. 621-642.

Harvey, G. and W.G. Steinhauer, 1976. Biogeochemistry of PCB and DDT in the North Atlantic. In: Environmental Biogeochemistry, edited by 3. Nriagu, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 203-221.

Hazen, R. and T. Kneip, 1981. Biogeochemical cycling of cadmium in a marsh ecosystem. In: Cadmium in the Environment. Part 1, edited by J. Nriagu, Wiley-Interscience, New York, pp. 339-424.

Hildebrand, S.F. and W.C. Schroeder, 1928. Fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 43,366 pp. Hoffman, E., G. Mills, J. Latimer and J. Quinn, 1983. Annual input of petroleum hydrocarbons to the

coastal environment via urban runoff. Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. 40 (Suppl. 2), 41-53. Horn, E.J., L. Hetling and T.J. Tofflemire, 1979. The problem of PCBs in the Hudson River system.

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 320, 591-609. Huggett, R., M. Nichols and M. Bender, 1980. Kepone contamination of the James River estuary. In:

Contaminants and Sediments. Vol. 1, edited by R. Baker, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 33-52.

Huggett, R., M. Bender and M. Unger, 1987. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the Elizabeth River, Virginia. In: Fate and Effects of Sediment Bound Chemicals in Aquatic Systems. Proceedings of the Sixth Pellston Workshop, August 12-17, 1984, Florissant, Colorado, edited by K.L. Dickson, A.W. Maki and W. Brungs, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.

Klauda, R., T. Peck and G. Rice, 1981. Accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Atlantic tom- cod (Microgadus tomcod) collected from the Hudson River estuary in New York. Bull. Environ. Con- tam. Toxicol. 27, 829-835.

Kneip, T., 1983. Public health risk of toxic substances. In: Ocean Disposal of Municipal Wastewater: Impacts on the Coastal Environment, edited by E. Meyers, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass, pp. 579-610.

Kolek, A. and R. Cuervels, 1981. Polychlorinated biphenyl analyses of marine organisms in the New Bedford area 1976-1980. Comm. of Massachusetts, Div. of Marine Fisheries, Boston, MA, 24 pp.

LaFlamme, R. and R. Hites, 1978. The global distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in recent sediments. Geochim. Geophys. Acta 42, 289-303.

Lech, J. and J. Bend, 1980. Relationship between biotransformation and the toxicity and fate of xenobiotic chemicals in fish. Env. Health Persp. 34, 115-131.

Longwell, A.C., 1976. Chromosome mutagenesis in developing mackerel eggs sampled from the New York Bight. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Syrup. 2, 337-339.

Longwell, A.C. and J.B. Hughes, 1980. Cytologic, cytogenetic and developmental state of Atlantic mackerel eggs from sea-surface waters of the New York Bight, and prospects for biological effects monitoring with ichthyoplankton. Rapp. R.V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 179, 275-291.

Loose, L., K. Pittman, K.-F. Benitz, J. Silkworth, W. Mueller and F. Coulston, 1978. Environmental chemical-induced immune dysfunction. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 2, 173-198.

MacLeod, W., L. Ramos, A. Friedman, D. Burrows, P. Prohaska, D. Fisher and D. Brown, 1981. Analysis of residual chlorinated hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons and related compounds in selected sources, sinks and biota of New York Bight. NOAA Tech. Memo. OMPA-6. NOAA/OMPA, Boulder, CO, 128 pp.

Mahoney, J., F. Midlidge and D. Deuel, 1973. A fin rot disease of marine and euryhaline fishes in the New York Bight. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 102, 596-605.

Malins, D., 1977. Metabolism of aromatic hydrocarbons in marine organisms. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 298, 482-496.

Malins, D., H. Hodgins, U. Varanasi, W.E. MacLeod, Jr., B.B. McCain and S. Chan, 1984. Chemical measurements of organic pollutants and effects criteria. In: Concepts in Marine Pollution

188

Measurements, edited by H. White, Univ. of Maryland Sea Grant, College Park, pp. 405-425. Malins, D., M. Krahn, S. Myers, L. Rhodes, D. Brown, C. Krone, B. McCain and S. Chan, 1985. Toxic

chemicals in sediments and biota from Mukilteo, Washington: relationships with hepatic neoplasms and other hepatic lesions in English sole (Parophrys vetulus). J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 74, 487-494.

Manning, M.J. and M.F. Tatner, 1985. Fish Immunology. Academic Press, N.Y., 374 pp. McHugh, J.L. and J. Ginter, 1978. Fisheries. MESA New York Bight Monograph 16. New York Sea

Grant, Albany, New York, 129 pp. Means, J.C., R.D. Wijayayatne and W.R. Boynton, 1983. Fate and transport of selected pesticides in

estuarine environments. Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. 40 (Suppl. 2) 337-345. Mearns, A. and M. Sherwood, 1976. Ocean wastewater discharge and tumors in a southern California

flatfish. Progr. Exp. Tumor Res. 20, 75-85. Mehrle, P., T. Haines, S. Hamilton, L. Ludke, F. Mayer and M. Ribick, 1982. Relationship between

body contaminants and bone development in east-coast striped bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 111, 231-241.

Morgan, R.P. and S.E. Sommer, 1979. Polychlorinated biphenyls in Baltimore Harbor sediments. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22, 413-419.

Murchelano, R., 1982. Some pollution-associated diseases and abnormalities of marine fishes and shellfishes: a perspective for the New York Bight. In: Ecological Stress and the New York Bight, edited by G. Mayer, Estuarine Res. Fed., Charleston, S.C., pp. 327-346.

Murchelano, R. and J. Ziskowski, 1976. Fin rot disease studies in the New York Bight. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Syrup. 2, 329-336.

NACOA [National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere], 1981. The role of the oceans in a waste management strategy - a special report to the President and the Congress, Washington, D.C., 120 pp.

Nelson, N., S. Baker, S. Levine, L. Young, J. O'Connor, R. Hill, A. Sarofim and D. Wilson, 1987. Cleanup of contaminated sites. In: Toxic Chemicals, Health and the Environment, edited by L. Lave and A. Upton, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, pp. 205-279.

New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation, 1981. Toxic substances in fish and wildlife: 1979 and 1980 Annual Reports. N.Y. State DEC, Div. Fish and Wildlife. Tech. Rept. 81-1 (BEP), 138 pp.

NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration], 1986. Report on 1984-1986 federal survey of PCBs in Atlantic coast bluefish. Data Report, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA, Washington, D.C., 179 pp.

O'Connor, J.M., 1982. The biology of PCBs in Hudson River plankton. Final Report to the New York State Dept. of Environmental Conservation, Bureau of Water Research, Albany, New York, 202 pp.

O'Connor, J., 1984. PCBs: Dietary dose and burdens in striped bass from the Hudson River. Northeast Env. Sci. 3, 153-159.

O'Connor, J.M., 1986. The toxicology, kinetics and metabolism of PCBs in fishes, with special reference to bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix. Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze En- vironmental Res. Lab., 69 pp.

O'Connor, J.M. and T.J. Kneip, 1986. Human health effects of waste disposal. Rept. to U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 292 pp.

O'Connor, J. and H. Stanford, 1979. Chemical pollutants of the New York Bight: priorities for research, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA-ERL, Boulder, CO, 217 pp.

O'Connor, J., J. Klotz and T. Kneip, 1982. Sources, sinks and distribution of organic contaminants in the New York Bight ecosystem. In: Ecological Stress and the New York Bight, edited by G. Mayer, Estuarine Research Federation, Charleston, S.C., pp. 631-653.

O'Connors, H., C. Wurster, C. Powers, D. Biggs and R. Rowland, 1978. Polychlorinated biphenyls may alter trophic pathways by reducing phytoplankton size and production. Science 201, 737-'/39.

O'Connors, H., C. Powers, C. Wurster, K. Wyman, G. Nau-Ritter and R. Rowland, 1982. Fates and biological effects on plankton of particle-sorbed PCBs in coastal waters. In: Ecological Stress and the

189

New York Bight, edited by G. Mayer, Estuarine Res. Fed. Charleston, S.C., pp. 423-449. Parrish, P.R. and T. Duke, 1986. Literature review of the uptake and metabolism of polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs) by bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), their prey and similar fishes. Rept. to National Marine Fisheries Serv., Washington, D.C., 12 pp.

Payne, J.F., 1984. Mixed-function oxidases in biological monitoring programs: review of potential usage in different phyla of aquatic animals. In: Ecological testing for the marine environment, edited by G. Persoone, E. Jaspers and C. Claus, Vol. 1. State Univ. of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium, pp. 625-655.

Risebrough, R.W., P. Reiche, D. Peakall, S. Herman and M. Kirven, 1968. Polychlorinated biphenyls in the global environment. Nature 220, 1098-1102.

Schnitz, A., K. Squibb and J. O'Connor, 1987. Fate of 7,12-dimethyl-benz(a)anthracene in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Bull. Environm. Contam. Toxicol. 39, 29-36.

Segar, D. and A. Cantillo, 1976. Trace metals in the New York Bight. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Syrup. 2, 171-190.

Segar, D. and P. Davis, 1984. Contamination of populated estuaries and adjacent coastal ocean - a global view. NOAA Tech. Memo. NOS OMA 11. NOAA/National Ocean Service, Rockville, MD, 120 pp.

Sindermann, C.J., 1976. Effects of coastal pollution on fish and fisheries - with particular reference to the Middle Atlantic Bight. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Syrup. 2, 281-301.

Sloan, R., E. Horn, B. Young, C. Zawacki and A. Forti, 1986. PCB in striped bass from the marine district of New York 1985. Tech. Rept. 86-1 (BEP). N.Y. State Dept. of Environmental Conservation. Div. of Fish and Wildlife. Albany, New York, 9 pp.

Smith, C., T. Peck, R. Klauda and J. McLaren, 1979. Hepatomas in Atlantic tomcod Microgadus tom- cod (Walbaum) collected in the Hudson River estuary in New York. J. Fish Diseases 2, 313-319.

Solbakken, J.E., K. Palmork, T. Neppelberg and R. Scheline, 1980. Urinary and biliary metabolites of phenanthrene in the coalfish (Pollachius virens). Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 46, 127-132.

Stegeman, J., 1983. Hepatic microsomal monooxygenase activity and the biotransformation of hydrocarbons in deep benthic fish from the Western North Atlantic. Can. J. Fish. Aquatic Sci. 40, Suppl. 2, 78-85.

Stegeman, J., B. Woodin, S. Park, P. Kloepper-Sams and H. Gelboin, 1985. Microsomal cytochrome P-450 function in fish evaluated with polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies to cytochrome P-450E from scup (Stenotomus chrysops). Marine Environ. Res. 17, 83-86.

Stegeman, J., P. Kloepper-Sams and J. Farrington, 1986. Monooxygenase induction and chlorobiphenyls in the deep sea fish Coryphaenoides armatus. Science 231, 1287-1289.

Stein, J., T. Hom and U. Varanasi, 1984. Simultaneous exposure of English sole (Parophrys vetulus) to sediment-associated xenobiotics: Part I. Uptake and disposition of 14-C polychlorinated biphenyls ans 3-H Benzo(a)pyrene. Marine Environ. Res. 13, 97-119.

Stein, J., T. Hom, E. Casillas, A. Friedman and U. Varanasi, 1987. Simultaneous exposure of English sole (Parophrys vetulus) to sediment-associated xenobiotics. Part 2. Chronic exposure to an urban estuarine sediment with added 3H-benzo(a)pyrene and 14C-polychlorinated biphenyls. Marine En- viron. Res., 22, 123-150.

Turk, J.T. and D.E. Troutman, 1981. Polychlorinated biphenyl transport in the Hudson River, New York, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Invest. 81-9. USGS, Albany, New York, 11 pp.

Varanasi, U. and D. Gmur, 1981. Hydrocarbons and metabolites in English sole (Parophrys vetulus) ex- posed simultaneously to 3H-benzo(a)pyrene and 14C-naphthalene in contaminated sediments. Aquat. Toxicol. 1, 49-68.

Varanasi, U., D. Gmur and P. Treseler, 1979. Influence of time and mode of exposure on biotransforma- tion of naphthalene by juvenile starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) and rock sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata). Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 8, 673-692.

Wasserman, M., D. Wasserman, S. Cucos and H. Miller, 1979. World PCBs map: storage and effects in man and his biologic environment in the 1970s. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 320, 69-124.

190

Weaver, G., 1984. PCB contamination in and around New Bedford, Mass. Env. Sci. Technol. 18, 22A-27A.

Weeks, B. and J. Warinner, 1984. Effects of toxic chemicals on macrophage phagocytosis in two

estuarine fishes. Marine Environ. Res. 14, 327-335. Weeks, B., J. Warinner, P. Mason and D. McGinnis, 1986. Influence of toxic chemicals on the

chemotactic response of fish macrophages. J. Fish Biol. 28, 653-658.

West, R.H., P.G. Hatcher and D.K. Atwood, 1976. Polychlorinated bipbenyls and DDTs in sediments and sewage sludge of the New York Bight. Report to NOAA MESA-New York Bight Project. NOAA- AOML, Miami, FL, 40 pp.

Young, R.A. and B.F. Hillard, 1984. Suspended matter distribution and fluxes related to the Hudson-

Raritan estuarine plume. NOAA Tech. Memo. NOS OMA 8. NOAA, Rockville, MD, 32 pp.