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Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
A Servant Leadership Approach4th Edition
Debra J. Jordan • Donald G. DeGraaf
PROGRAMMING FOR PARKS,
RECREATION, AND LEISURE
SERVICES
DEBRA J. JORDAN
DONALD G. DEGRAAF
A Servant Leadership Approach
Fourth Edition
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© 2019 Sagamore–Venture Publishing LLCAll rights reserved.
Publishers: Joseph J. Bannon/Peter BannonSales and Marketing Manager: Misti GillesMarketing Assistant: Kimberly VecchioDirector of Development and Production: Susan M. DavisProduction Coordinator: Amy S. DagitGraphic Designer: Marissa WillisonTechnology Manager: Mark Atkinson
ISBN print edition: 978-1-57167-954-3 ISBN etext: 978-1-57167-956-7
1807 N Federal Dr.Urbana, IL 61801www.sagamorepub.com
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To those recreation professionals striving to be their best, living lives of servant leadership, serving their communities, and leading us all to make a positive contribution
to the world in which we live.
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CONTENTSPreface ................................................................................................................................................... xi
About the Authors ...................................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................xiv
List of Figures ..............................................................................................................................................xiv
How to Use the Program Highlights Section of Each Chapter ................................1
1 Basic Concepts .............................................................................................................. 3Foundational Concepts .................................................................................................................................4
Recreation Programs ......................................................................................................................................6
The Beginnings of Recreation Experience Programming ...................................................................7
Beneficial Outcomes of Recreation Experience Programs ............................................................ 11
Beneficial Outcomes of Recreation for Individuals .......................................................................... 13
Beneficial Outcomes of Recreation Experiences to Society ........................................................ 17
Recreation Experience Professionals ................................................................................................... 23
Programming: A Servant Leadership Approach .................................................................................. 26
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................... 29
Key Concepts ................................................................................................................................................. 30
References ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
Program Highlight: Nautilus Liveaboards 35
2 Service and Quality in Programming .........................................................................37Understanding the Recreation Experience .........................................................................................37
The Characteristics of Experiences ......................................................................................................40
The Staging of Experiences ......................................................................................................................41
The Concept of Quality ...............................................................................................................................43
The Need for Social Responsibility .........................................................................................................45
Strategies for Delivering Recreation Programs .................................................................................51
Building a Strategy of Program Planning ...............................................................................................58
Summary .........................................................................................................................................................59
Key Concepts .................................................................................................................................................61
References .....................................................................................................................................................61
Program Highlight: Castle Rock Parks and Recreation 65
3 Principles, Philosophy, and Planning ........................................................................67Principles, Values, and Traditions ............................................................................................................68
Traditions .........................................................................................................................................................75
Philosophy and Programming ...................................................................................................................76
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Agency Mission: Its Impact on Programming ......................................................................................77
Agency Vision: Its Impact on Programming .........................................................................................80
Planning Processes ....................................................................................................................................83
Constitutent Involvement .........................................................................................................................84
The Planning Structure ...............................................................................................................................85
Outcomes, Goals, and Objectives ..........................................................................................................92
The Cyclical Programming Process ........................................................................................................94
Interface of Underlying Concepts ..........................................................................................................95
Implications for Recreation Experience Programmers ....................................................................97
The Servant Leadership Perspective ....................................................................................................97
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................100
Key Concepts ..............................................................................................................................................100
References ..................................................................................................................................................101
Program Highlight: We Gotta Regatta 103
4 Asset Mapping and Needs Assessments ............................................................... 105Why Do Asset Mapping and Needs Assessments? ...................................................................... 108
The Process of Asset Mapping ................................................................................................. 114
Accessing Information ............................................................................................................................ 115
The Process of Gathering Needs Assessment Information ....................................................... 118
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 133
Key Concepts .............................................................................................................................................. 133
References .................................................................................................................................................. 134
Resources .................................................................................................................................................... 134
Program Highlight: Center on Halsted 135
5 The People We Serve ................................................................................................ 137Values-Based Dimensions of Diversity .............................................................................................. 139
Dimensions of Diversity .......................................................................................................................... 141
Program Planning and Selected Dimensions of Diversity ............................................................ 143
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)
and the 2008 Amendment .....................................................................................................................148
Inclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 149
Segregated Programming ....................................................................................................................... 153
The Inclusion Process .............................................................................................................................. 154
Life Stages and Age Groups ................................................................................................................... 161
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Adulthood ..................................................................................................................................................... 168
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................... 175
Key Concepts .............................................................................................................................................. 175
References .................................................................................................................................................. 176
Program Highlight: ArtPrize, Grand Rapids, Michigan 177
6 Program Design ......................................................................................................... 179Factors to Consider in Program Design .............................................................................................. 180
Creativity ....................................................................................................................................................... 191
Equipment and Supplies .......................................................................................................................... 198
Physical Environments ............................................................................................................................. 199
Budget ............................................................................................................................................................ 199
Policies, Procedures, and Rules ............................................................................................................. 199
Risk Management ...................................................................................................................................... 200
Staffing .......................................................................................................................................................... 206
Program Goals and Objectives .............................................................................................................. 207
Writing Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 208
Scheduling .................................................................................................................................................... 210
Program Life Cycle ..................................................................................................................................... 211
The Role of the Program Audit ............................................................................................................... 212
A Servant Leadership Approach: Empowering Participants ........................................................ 213
Summary ....................................................................................................................................................... 215
Key Concepts ............................................................................................................................................... 215
References/Resources ............................................................................................................................ 216
Program Highlight: JEWEL: Joining Elders with Early Learners 217
7 Program Promotion ................................................................................................... 219Marketing ...................................................................................................................................................... 219
Public Relations .......................................................................................................................................... 220
Promotion ...................................................................................................................................................... 220
Experiential Marketing .............................................................................................................................. 222
Promotional Tools and Techniques ....................................................................................................... 223
Broadcast Media......................................................................................................................................... 237
Digital Media ................................................................................................................................................ 239
Display Media .............................................................................................................................................. 241
Other Promotional Tools .......................................................................................................................... 245
Factors to Consider When Promoting Programs ............................................................................ 251
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Coordinating the Promotion Mix ........................................................................................................... 253
Promoting Programs: A Servant Leadership Approach .................................................................254
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 257
Key Concepts .............................................................................................................................................. 257
References .................................................................................................................................................. 257
Program Highlight: Leadership Development at Camp Susan Curtis 261
8 Pricing Program Services ......................................................................................... 263Step One of the Pricing Process: Understand Trends ................................................................... 265
Step Two of the Pricing Process: Understand Budgets ............................................................... 269
Step Three of the Pricing Process: Calculate the Overall Costs/
Understand the Price Potential ............................................................................................................ 271
Step Four of the Pricing Process: Determine
the Cost Recovery .................................................................................................................................... 273
Step Five of the Pricing Process: Consider Differential Pricing ................................................ 277
Step Six of the Pricing Process: Examine Alternative Funding .................................................. 281
Step Seven of the Pricing Process: Consider the Psychological
Dimensions of Price .................................................................................................................................. 285
Step Eight of the Pricing Process: Establish the Initial Price ..................................................... 287
Step Nine of the Pricing Process: Understanding Price Revision Decisions.........................290
A Servant Leadership Approach to Pricing ....................................................................................... 291
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................... 293
Key Concepts .............................................................................................................................................. 293
References .................................................................................................................................................. 293
Program Highlight: Naval Air Station Pensacola MWR Program 297
9 Facilitating the Program Experience ...................................................................... 299Facililitating the Program Pre-Experience ........................................................................................ 300
Costumer-Friendly Registration Procedures ................................................................................... 302
Issues Related to Registration ............................................................................................................ 308
Prepared Staff ............................................................................................................................................ 308
Common Forms Used in the Registration Process ........................................................................ 309
Payment Processes ................................................................................................................................. 317
Facilitating the Anticipation Phase of a Program ........................................................................... 319
Facilitating the “Travel To” Phase of Program ................................................................................. 323
Facilitating the Participation Phase of a Program .......................................................................... 323
Staff Preparation ...................................................................................................................................... 323
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Creating the Physical Environment ..................................................................................................... 324
Preparation Checklists ............................................................................................................................325
Activity Analysis ........................................................................................................................................325
Facilitating the Travel Home Phase of a Program ...........................................................................338
Facilitating the Reflection Phase of a Program ..............................................................................339
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................339
Key Concepts .............................................................................................................................................340
References .................................................................................................................................................341
Program Highlight: Sport Leagues and Social Events 343
10 The Essence of Program Evaluation ..................................................................... 345Definitions and Terms .............................................................................................................................. 346
Evaluation .................................................................................................................................................... 346
Assessment ............................................................................................................................................... 346
Measurement ............................................................................................................................................. 346
Formative Evaluation ............................................................................................................................... 346
Summative Evaluation ............................................................................................................................ 347
Process Evaluation ................................................................................................................................... 347
Product Evaluation ................................................................................................................................... 348
Outcomes-Based Evaluation ................................................................................................................ 348
The Need to Conduct Evaluations .......................................................................................................348
Benefits of Evaluation .............................................................................................................................349
Influences on the Evaluation Process and Outcomes ..................................................................352
Ethics and Professionalism in Evaluation .........................................................................................353
Defining One’s Worldview .......................................................................................................................355
The Evaluation Process ...........................................................................................................................357
Guiding Questions .....................................................................................................................................358
Evaluation Models .....................................................................................................................................359
Systems Models ........................................................................................................................................361
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................365
Servant Leadership Connections ........................................................................................................366
Key Concepts ..............................................................................................................................................366
References ..................................................................................................................................................366
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Program Highlight: Warrior Games 367
11 Evaluation Tools, Techniques, and Data Analysis .............................................. 369Sampling .................................................................................................................................................... 369
Data Collection Tools ........................................................................................................................... 371
What Do You Want to Know? .............................................................................................................. 373
Quantitative Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 373
Qualitative Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 381
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 383
Techniques for Quantitative Data Analysis ................................................................................... 384
Techniques for Qualitative Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 387
Interpreting the Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 389
Report Writing ......................................................................................................................................... 390
Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 393
Key Concepts ........................................................................................................................................... 394
References ............................................................................................................................................... 394
Program Highlight: Escape Rooms 395
12 Changes and Opportunities: The Journey to Sustainability ............................ 397Sustainability ........................................................................................................................................... 398
Responding to Change ........................................................................................................................ 398
Responding to Trends ........................................................................................................................... 401
Integrating New Programs into the Fabric of an Organization ................................................. 413
Summary and Key Learning Points ................................................................................................... 415
References ............................................................................................................................................... 416
Appendix A: Tournament Scheduling ........................................................................ 418
Index ...............................................................................................430
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PREFACE
Recently a friend mentioned to us that “it is a lot of hard work to help others have fun,” as we observed some of our students leading a recreation program for families. This astute observation recognizes the role of programmers and programs in offering benefits to participants. Dynamic programming is a must if parks, recreation, and leisure service organizations are going to thrive in the 21st century. Programming is the one common, tangible, visible medium through which parks, recreation, and tourism professionals touch people’s lives. Yet, we know that quality programs don’t just happen; they require careful planning and development. This book is about the art and science of the complete programming process. We strive to go beyond merely presenting the knowledge and skills needed to provide quality programs; we suggest the integration of values into this process. We do this from a servant leadership perspective.
In previous editions of Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services: A Servant Leadership Approach, we consistently noted the importance of integrating skills, technical competencies, and values into undergraduate degrees in parks and recreation. The emphasis on values is noteworthy as it is import-ant for students to have a clear sense of purpose and a vision for the field. We believe that such a vision should encompass the comprehensive view that parks and recreation contribute to well-being and quality of life. This requires that we understand people as well as community and have a focus on service to others.
We think that this emphasis on values continues to be important, and in completing the revision pro-cess for this edition of Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services: A Servant Leadership Ap-proach, we are even more convinced that the servant leadership approach offers our profession a model that makes serving and leading through programs possible. As recreation experience programmers, we see the world changing around us and must respond to those changes in the ways people live, work, and recreate. We must be able to lead when acting on the changes we see through service to others.
The concept of servant leadership offers a solid foundation on which the knowledge and skills of pro-gramming can be developed. We feel it is a powerful model to guide the recreational programming process for it encourages leaders to listen and empower rather than dominate and dictate. It is our hope that even if you do not agree with our values orientation of servant leadership, that the book will be a catalyst for discussing the types of values that professionals in park, recreation, and tourism should emulate.
The chapters in the book reflect two aspects of programming. The first few chapters are about the art of programming. We lay the foundation on which programs can be developed by introducing the concept of servant leadership, helping readers understand the planning processes necessary for effective program-ming, and examining the relationship between service and quality in the programming process. The last chapter of the book helps readers to consider the challenges and opportunities the profession faces through programming with excellence. The other chapters reflect the science of programming, examining the pro-cess of designing, implementing, and evaluating recreation experience programs. New to this fourth edi-tion:
• A reorganization of the book, including reordering and blending of some chapters and adding a new chapter: Challenges and Opportunities: The Journey to Sustainability.
• Program Highlights are presented at the beginning of each chapter; they demonstrate the diversity of recreation programs by sharing information about actual recreation experience programs.
• Updated facts and figures throughout the text. • Updated examples throughout the book that further integrate the concept of servant leadership into
every aspect of the programming cycle. • Key Concepts section added at the end of each chapter to help focus reading and study of the material
in each chapter.
In undertaking a project such as this, there are a number of people to whom we are indebted. We would like to thank the many people who have assisted us (both directly and indirectly) in the completion of this project. Susan Davis and Marissa Willison at Sagamore-Venture have helped pull our material into a quality product.
The evolution of knowledge in a profession is an ongoing process; with this in mind we would like to thank the many authors of programming-related texts and articles who have preceded us. They are numer-ous and have helped us to think and reflect on the many meanings of programming and its importance to our profession. Similarly, our past professors and mentors have given us a strong foundation in the profes-sion and challenged us to think creatively about the field. Current professionals, students, and colleagues throughout the country have also challenged and supported us throughout the writing process.
We also owe a debt of gratitude to the many recreation professionals and organizations that shared pro-gram ideas, promotional pieces, and other pertinent material to the programming process for the book. We would be remiss if we did not also recognize East Carolina University and Calvin College for supporting this writing endeavor over the last year. Last, and certainly not least, we would like to thank our families and loved ones, who continue to offer their enduring support, love, and encouragement throughout the writing process.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Debra J. Jordan, Re.D., began her engagement with recreation program-ming when she was a junior recreation leader while in middle school. Pro-fessionally, her programming experience has included programming for youth in city settings, with youth who were adjudicated through the court system, working as a park naturalist, programming and teaching outdoor living skills to women across the age spectrum, and programming infor-mally at family reunions. During her career, Deb has worked in organized camping, military recreation, county youth services, county parks, adven-
ture education, and environmental education. She went to school at Slippery Rock State College (B.S.), Western Illinois University (M.S.), and Indiana University (Re.D.). As a university faculty member, Deb has taught at Indiana University, Texas State University, the University of Northern Iowa, and Oklahoma State University; she is currently a professor in the Department of Recreation Sciences at East Carolina University. Deb has authored or co-authored three textbooks and multiple other publications. Her teaching has been in the areas of programming, leadership, evaluation, park planning, and outdoor recreation. For fun Deb likes to travel and engage in a variety of outdoor recreation pursuits.
Donald G. DeGraaf, Ph.D., has been involved as a recreation program-mer for almost 40 years, since taking his first professional position as an assistant recreation therapist in 1980. During his career, he has worked in organized camping, military recreation, therapeutic recreation, youth devel-opment, adventure education, and has served as a United States Peace Corps volunteer in the Philippines. After completing his Ph.D. in Recreation Man-agement at the University of Oregon in 1992, Don taught at Longwood Col-lege, the University of Northern Iowa, and Calvin College; most recently
he has served as the Director of Off-Campus programs at Calvin College. In 2019, he is heading “down under” to direct a study abroad program for the Australian Studies Centre. Throughout his teaching career he has led experiential learning experiences for college students in Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Costa Rica, the Netherlands, Florida, Hawaii, Michigan, and New Mexico. Don’s teaching has focused on program management, experiential education, nonprofit management, youth development, and leisure and life sat-isfaction. He has co-authored 13 textbooks and close to 100 articles related to these scholarly interests. He enjoys kayaking, cycling, traveling, reading, and hanging out with his wife, Kathy, and their family.
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LIST OF TABLESChapter 1
Table 1.1 Benefits of Leisure ....................................................................................................................................................................................14Table 1.2 The 10 Characteristics of Servant Leaders .....................................................................................................................................28
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Economic Distinctions ............................................................................................................................................................................38Table 2.2 The Art and Science of Programming .................................................................................................................................................44Table 2.3 Paradigm Shift: Toward a Model of Community Development (CD) ..........................................................................................56Table 2.4 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs and Social Entrepreneurs .....................................................................................................60
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Examples of Core Values of Selected Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Agencies ................................................................72Table 3.2 Examples of Core Values of Selected Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Agencies ................................................................78Table 3.3 Vision Statements ....................................................................................................................................................................................81
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Program Areas and Sample Programs .............................................................................................................................................181Table 6.2 Summary of Program Formats ...........................................................................................................................................................182Table 6.3 Special Event Groupings ......................................................................................................................................................................186Table 6.4 Possible Programs for a Youth-Serving Organization .................................................................................................................214
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Examples of Advertising, Publicity, Personal Selling, and Sales Promotion .......................................................................222Table 7.2 Types of Media and the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Each Type ...................................................................224Table 7.3 How to Write Effective Copy for Brochures ..................................................................................................................................232 Table 7.4 Design Tips for Brochures ....................................................................................................................................................................232 Table 7.5 Digital Media Content ...........................................................................................................................................................................240Table 7.6 Marketing Tools and Techniques for Various Types of Organizations ...................................................................................255
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Cost of an Aerobics Program ..............................................................................................................................................................288Table 8.2 Cost-Volume-Profit Table for an Aerobics Program ....................................................................................................................288
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Coding and Enumeration ......................................................................................................................................................................388
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Result of a National Parks and Recreation Association Survey Identifying Current Sustainability Practices ............... Implemented by Park Agencies ........................................................................................................................................................ 412
LIST OF FIGURESChapter 1Figure 1.1 The art and science of programming .................................................................................................................................................... 4Figure 1.2 Benefits chain of causality ....................................................................................................................................................................12Figure 1.3 Poster highlighting some of the many benefits of engagement in recreation experiences. ..........................................15Figure 1.4 Social capital ...............................................................................................................................................................................................19Figure 1.5 Community benefits of leisure ............................................................................................................................................................22
Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Characteristics of service ......................................................................................................................................................................39Figure 2.2 The four realms of an experience ........................................................................................................................................................40Figure 2.3 Staging recreation experiences ...........................................................................................................................................................42Figure 2.4 Creating moments that matter ............................................................................................................................................................43Figure 2.5 An example of an opportunity to promote common good ...........................................................................................................48Figure 2.6 America’s infrastructure should be beautiful .................................................................................................................................50Figure 2.7 Continuum of program delivery strategies .......................................................................................................................................51Figure 2.8 The marketing approach ..........................................................................................................................................................................54Figure 2.9 A model of community development ..................................................................................................................................................57Figure 2.10 The blurring of sectors: Social entrepreneurship at the nexus .................................................................................................60Figure 2.11 Example of a social entrepreneurship approach to recreation programming .......................................................................61
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Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Functions of philosophical foundations ............................................................................................................................................68Figure 3.2 Courage Center Camps Logo .................................................................................................................................................................80Figure 3.3 The relationships between concepts and programs/services ..................................................................................................84Figure 3.4 Factors affecting the planning process ............................................................................................................................................85Figure 3.5 Excerpts from the Sisters ......................................................................................................................................................................86Figure 3.6 Enhancing program performance with logic models, University of Wisconsin-Extension ...............................................87Figure 3.7 Salisbury (NC) Parks and Recreation Program Proposal ...............................................................................................................88Figure 3.8 Example of Gantt Chart for program planning .................................................................................................................................93Figure 3.9 Example of PERT Chart for program planning ...................................................................................................................................93Figure 3.10 Recreational assessment and goals ..................................................................................................................................................95Figure 3.11 Servant leadership as applied to program planning .......................................................................................................................98
Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Definitions of needs-related terms .................................................................................................................................................106Figure 4.2 Reasons to conduct asset inventories and needs assessments ........................................................................................109Figure 4.3 General asset categories and examples ........................................................................................................................................114Figure 4.4 Common social indicators collected by the United Nations ...................................................................................................116Figure 4.5 Internal inventory sample questions ...............................................................................................................................................117Figure 4.6 Invitation to a town hall meeting .......................................................................................................................................................121Figure 4.7 Invitation template to a focus group meeting ..............................................................................................................................122Figure 4.8 Outline for a focus group meeting ....................................................................................................................................................123Figure 4.9 Camp Tons-O-Fun (Enfield, CT) inclusion intake form introduction .......................................................................................124Figure 4.10 Sample needs assessment survey ..................................................................................................................................................125Figure 4.11 Bentonville city data from City-Data.com ......................................................................................................................................129Figure 4.12 Youth participant registration form...................................................................................................................................................131
Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Definitions of culture-related terms ................................................................................................................................................137Figure 5.2 Definition of culture ...............................................................................................................................................................................139Figure 5.3 Hofstede’s six values-based cultural dimensions ......................................................................................................................140Figure 5.4 Dimensions of diversity ........................................................................................................................................................................142Figure 5.5 ADA compliant facilities .......................................................................................................................................................................150Figure 5.6 Creating integrative environments ..................................................................................................................................................151Figure 5.7 Continuum of inclusion .........................................................................................................................................................................153Figure 5.8 Sample intake form, Portland, OR .....................................................................................................................................................155Figure 5.9 Aspects of development .....................................................................................................................................................................162
Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Decision factors in programming design .......................................................................................................................................180Figure 6.2 Possible goals for special events ......................................................................................................................................................185Figure 6.3 An online banner identifying a Friends group for Hermosa Beach .........................................................................................188Figure 6.4 Guidelines for brainstorming ..............................................................................................................................................................192Figure 6.5 Cycle of service .......................................................................................................................................................................................193Figure 6.6 An example of a mind map ...................................................................................................................................................................194Figure 6.7 Association URL Examples ..................................................................................................................................................................196Figure 6.8 General guidelines for rules ................................................................................................................................................................200Figure 6.9 For negligence to exist, all four elements must exist .................................................................................................................202Figure 6.10 Outdoor special event guide, City of Asheville, NC ......................................................................................................................204Figure 6.11 Program planning includes the use of waivers and releases ...................................................................................................205Figure 6.12 Champaign IL Park District summer program guide ....................................................................................................................210Figure 6.13 Program Life Cycle ..................................................................................................................................................................................211Figure 6.14 An example of a generic weekly/daily program grid for a camp ..............................................................................................213Figure 6.15 Program audit form ................................................................................................................................................................................214
Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The relationship among marketing, public relations, and promotion ....................................................................................220Figure 7.2 Cherry Republic .......................................................................................................................................................................................223Figure 7.3 Poster example incorporating a QR Code ......................................................................................................................................225Figure 7.4 Select pages from the City of Wyoming annual report .............................................................................................................226Figure 7.5 Cover of the HI-USA annual report ....................................................................................................................................................227Figure 7.6 Lauderdale-by-the-Sea brochure in the shape of a flip flop ....................................................................................................227Figure 7.7 Desert Museum, AZ brochure ............................................................................................................................................................228Figure 7.8 Florida State Parks brochure ..............................................................................................................................................................229Figure 7.9 Ontario Digital Adventure Passport brochure ...............................................................................................................................230Figure 7.9a Ontario Adventure Passport location placard ..............................................................................................................................230Figure 7.10 Mini Brochure, Copper Country Geo-Trail (folded and unfolded) .............................................................................................231Figure 7.11 Youth Sports Flyer ..................................................................................................................................................................................233Figure 7.12 Junk in the Trunk flyer ...........................................................................................................................................................................233Figure 7.13 Universal signs of accessibility ..........................................................................................................................................................233
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Figure 7.14 Dove Springs Recreation Center flyer written in Spanish (Austin) ........................................................................................233Figure 7.15 Cyclovia Tucson infographic ................................................................................................................................................................234Figure 7.16 Gallup Journey magazine ad ................................................................................................................................................................235Figure 7.17 Boys & Girls Club of West Central Missouri newsletter ...........................................................................................................235Figure 7.18 Chicago Park District: If Statues Could Talk podcast announcement .................................................................................240Figure 7.19 An example of a street-side billboard ..............................................................................................................................................242Figure 7.20 An example of a bulletin board ...........................................................................................................................................................242Figure 7.21 Electronic kiosk .......................................................................................................................................................................................243Figure 7.22 HI-USA sign, an example of an exhibit .............................................................................................................................................243Figure 7.23 Exhibit at an AZ state park ..................................................................................................................................................................243Figure 7.24 Green Gala poster ...................................................................................................................................................................................244Figure 7.25 Sustainable tourism educational advertising poster ................................................................................................................245Figure 7.26 Banyule, Australia, volunteer awards flyer .....................................................................................................................................246Figure 7.27 Direct mailing example ..........................................................................................................................................................................247Figure 7.28 Girl Scouts logo .......................................................................................................................................................................................248Figure 7.29 T-shirt promotional item .....................................................................................................................................................................250Figure 7.30 Questions pertaining to coordinating the promotional mix .....................................................................................................253Figure 7.31 Example of promotional strategy: Hostelling International-USA ...........................................................................................254
Chapter 8Figure 8.1 A nine-step process for setting a price ...........................................................................................................................................264Figure 8.2 Trends impacting financing and pricing of parks, recreation, and tourism programs and services ...........................265Figure 8.3 Types of budgets ....................................................................................................................................................................................270Figure 8.4 Total cost of a program .........................................................................................................................................................................271Figure 8.5 Cost allocation methods ......................................................................................................................................................................272Figure 8.6 Pricing objectives ...................................................................................................................................................................................274Figure 8.7 Differences between services according to type of service .................................................................................................275Figure 8.8 Cost Recovery Model – City of Roseville, CA ................................................................................................................................276Figure 8.9 Fee philosophy–Flagstaff, AZ .............................................................................................................................................................278Figure 8.10 Leisure card, Halton, UK .......................................................................................................................................................................280Figure 8.11 Ecotour and waterpark coupons .......................................................................................................................................................280Figure 8.12 YMCA of Silicon Valley partnerships ................................................................................................................................................284Figure 8.13 Psychological dimensions of price ...................................................................................................................................................285Figure 8.14 Break-even analysis graph for aerobics program example .......................................................................................................289Figure 8.15 Example of process questions used to determine program price ........................................................................................290
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Three phases of an experience ..........................................................................................................................................................300Figure 9.2 Consumer decision-making questions ...........................................................................................................................................301Figure 9.3 Common needs for registration procedures .................................................................................................................................302Figure 9.4 Iowa City Parks and Recreation registration information (2018) ..........................................................................................303Figure 9.5 Kimberly, WI Park & Recreation Parks and Recreation form (2018) ......................................................................................306Figure 9.6 Bloomington, IN Park & Recreation Parks and Recreation registration form (2018) .....................................................307Figure 9.7 Web-shaped organization chart .........................................................................................................................................................309Figure 9.8 YMCA of Northwest North Carolina parent code of conduct agreement (2018) ............................................................311Figure 9.9 Holland (MI) Recreation Division Scholarship Application Form (2018) ..............................................................................312 Figure 9.10 Northbridge, MA parental consent and liability release form ..................................................................................................313Figure 9.11 Bloomington, IN Parks and Recreation Inclusion Questionnaire (2018) ..............................................................................314Figure 9.12 Smaug’s Jewels Activity Description .............................................................................................................................................. 322Figure 9.13 Pre-program questions for an outdoor trip program ...................................................................................................................326Figure 9.14 Sample job descriptions, Calvin College, Grand Rapids, MI ......................................................................................................331Figure 9.15 Valpo Parks (Valparaiso, IN) Background Check Policy ..............................................................................................................332Figure 9.16 Volunteer briefing card .........................................................................................................................................................................333Figure 9.17 Redlands (CA) Parks and Recreation volunteer recruitment announcement (2018) ....................................................333Figure 9.18 SPACE and BLAST considerations to help staff to focus on customer complaints .......................................................338Figure 9.19 Techniques to enhance the reflection stage of the customer experience ........................................................................340
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Formative and summative evaluation within the program cycle ............................................................................................347Figure 10.2 The content of evaluation consists of both the process and the product ........................................................................348Figure 10.3 There are many benefits and reasons for conducting evaluations .......................................................................................349Figure 10.4 When deciding on an evaluation approach, programmers must first decide on a worldview, then a model, and then techniques to collect the data ............................................................................................................355Figure 10.5 Characteristics of qualitative and quantitative paradigms .....................................................................................................357Figure 10.6 The evaluation process is cyclical ....................................................................................................................................................358Figure 10.7 Answering six key questions helps to guide a programmer in the evaluation process ..................................................358Figure 10.8 Evaluation by goals and objectives ...................................................................................................................................................361
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Figure 10.9 An example of a Gantt chart for a special event .........................................................................................................................362Figure 10.10 A program evaluation review technique (PERT) chart identifies tasks and a timeline in a flow chart format ........362Figure 10.11 Graphic depiction of a logic model ....................................................................................................................................................363Figure 10.12 Importance-performance grid ............................................................................................................................................................364Figure 10.13 Cost-benefit analysis involves weighing the identifiable costs with benefits of a program .......................................365
Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Theoretically a random sample would select people who represent the entire population ..........................................370Figure 11.2 Three concerns with evaluation instruments ...............................................................................................................................371Figure 11.3 Reliability and validity ............................................................................................................................................................................372Figure 11.4 Sample survey–Side A ..........................................................................................................................................................................375 Sample survey–Side B ..........................................................................................................................................................................376Figure 11.5 Question formats ............................................................................................................................................................................................Figure 11.6 Interview methods move from being very fluid to highly structured ....................................................................................382Figure 11.7 Triangulation results in strong evaluations ....................................................................................................................................383Figure 11.8 Calculating frequencies .......................................................................................................................................................................385Figure 11.9 Calculating percentages ......................................................................................................................................................................385Figure 11.10 Calculating the mean ............................................................................................................................................................................386Figure 11.11 Calculating the median and mode .....................................................................................................................................................386Figure 11.12 Calculating the range ............................................................................................................................................................................387Figure 11.13 The constant comparison process involves three stages ......................................................................................................389Figure 11.14 An example of a report cover .............................................................................................................................................................391Figure 11.15 Background information in an evaluation report helps provide context and increased understanding ...................392Figure 11.16 Recommendations are based on the conclusions ......................................................................................................................393
Chapter 12Figure 12.1 ALS Ice Bucket Challenge ....................................................................................................................................................................400Figure 12.2 On the subway in Beijing: Alone Together .......................................................................................................................................402Figure 12.3 Pop-up park in Yarraville, Australia ....................................................................................................................................................404Figure 12.4 Beach at Boracay ....................................................................................................................................................................................407Figure 12.5 Climate change, parks, and health ....................................................................................................................................................410Figure 12.6 Add on versus integrate organizations ..........................................................................................................................................414
How to Use the Program Highlights Section of Each Chapter
Each chapter of this book opens with a description of a program that represents one of the many facets of our professions—parks, recreation, and tourism. We are an incredibly diverse field. We serve all types of people through all types of frameworks, and it is important to understand the diversity in how programs are presented. Thus, you will find programs that represent nonprofit, for-profit, community, and military settings. In the different programs we highlight, those being served include the elderly, wounded armed ser-vice members, the general public, children, youth, and those who identify as LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning).
At the end of each highlight, we pose questions for you to think about; we offer several additional questions here to help you think about all the aspects of programming needed to make an event a success.
• How would you categorize the type or format of a particular program?• What program considerations might you need to keep in mind?• How could you adapt this program to meet the needs of all types of people from all walks of life?• What support services (electrical, sanitation, etc.) would you need to successfully hold such an event?• How might you best market or promote the event?• How would you solicit participants (for instance, in the ArtPrize program, how would you find artists
to share their artwork)?• What might be the best way to register people for such an event?• What type of organizational structure do you think would best support the programming effort?• What other types of agencies might be appropriate partners for such a program?• What pricing strategy makes the most sense when determining the cost-benefits of this type of
program?• How could you evaluate the event to determine its success?• Who would be the primary beneficiaries of such a program?• Who would be the secondary beneficiaries?• What would be the impact on the local community?• How might the program you just read about be implemented in your area?
As you think about responses to these questions, you will be applying the concepts learned throughout the text to specific (and successful) existing programs. We hope you enjoy the highlights—if you want more information about any one of them, simply search for them on the Internet. You’ll likely find news articles, blogs, and information about the agency that hosts that particular event.
1Basic Concepts
providing day camp programs for children with disabilities, as a commercial tour operator offering wilderness backpacking trips for inner-city youth, or an event coordinator planning a festival, programming is a central part of the job.
Most are well aware that quality recreation programming does not just happen—it is hard work. And, to complicate things a bit, programming can be viewed as both an art and a science. The art aspect of programming comes from experience and creativity. Our goal in this text is to explore both the art and science of programming and to integrate a servant leadership perspective throughout (see the Programmer Profile in this chapter). The importance of servant leadership is based on the premise that all parks, recreation, and tourism professionals serve their constituents through programs. Thus, a servant leadership perspective is an integral aspect of programming. In describing the importance of servant leadership, Greenleaf (1977, p. 49) stated:
…if a better society is to be built, one that is more just and more loving, one that provides greater creative opportunity for
Why are you interested in pursuing a degree in parks, recreation, and tourism? What are you hoping to get from taking a class in recreation programming? Why did you choose a career in this field? How do you see yourself making a difference in this world through your choice of a major or career in parks, recreation, tourism, and related fields? We begin this book with these questions because we feel that recreation experience professionals can make a difference through the programs they offer. Programs are one of the primary means by which recreation experience professionals provide value to people and make a difference for individuals, communities, and society at large.
Over 30 years ago, two professionals in our field defined programming; the definition still stands today. Carpenter and Howe characterized programming as a continual process of planning, implementing, and evaluating leisure experiences for an individual or a group of individuals (1985). Thus, programming is an important concept for all parks, recreation, tourism professionals to grasp and understand. Whether one is working for a municipal recreation department providing sport leagues for adults, for a nonprofit organization
4 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
its people, then the most open course is to raise both the capacity to serve and the very performance as servant of existing major institutions by new regenerative forces operating within them.
chapter examines the role of the parks, recreation, and tourism professional in the programming pro-cess, with special emphasis placed on helping the reader gain an understanding of the relevance and importance of servant leadership to programming. We believe that parks, recreation, and tourism pro-fessionals are often the spirit and song of society.
Foundational ConceptsWe began this book with some foundational
questions and with our belief that recreation programs are one of the primary means by which agencies/organizations provide value to people and make a difference across all segments of society. Whereas there are a lot of different activities that could be considered recreation around which we can create programs, it is important to identify and understand the factors that may influence an individual’s ability to experience leisure. Understanding these factors will help parks, recreation, and tourism professionals in planning and designing successful programs. The following factors have been shown to be important to providing satisfying recreation experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Neulinger, 1974; Samdahl, 1991).
FreedomFreedom has two components: freedom from
and freedom to. Freedom from means to be able to act without interference or control from another, or to choose or act in accordance with one’s own will. If we are free, no one else forces us do something. Freedom to is about our ability to choose to do something. In order for a successful recreation experience to occur, participants must exercise some element of choice (freedom).
Perceived CompetenceThe perception of having skills and abilities
necessary for successful participation leads to a satisfying recreation experience. Thus, in order for an experience to be successful, people must have a degree of competence equal to the challenges of the intended recreation experience. If not, they must freely choose to stretch themselves. Generally, people match their skill levels to their choice of
QUALITYLeisure Services
Programming
INTUITIVE ASPECTS and EXPERIENCE
SCIENTIFIC ASPECTSPlanning • Marketing
• Leadership • Promotion • Evaluation
PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION
Figure 1.1. The art and science of programming
We agree with Greenleaf that if a better soci-ety is to be built, we need to serve by ensuring our programs contribute to both individual and soci-etal well-being. This will be the operationalizing principle of this book; thus, this chapter begins to lay the foundation for the remainder of this text. Operational definitions of leisure and recreation are presented along with a glimpse of the history of recreation programming and the relevance of pro-gramming in today’s world. Individual and socie-tal benefits of programming recreation experienc-es are examined with an emphasis on helping the reader understand an outcomes-based manage-ment approach to programming. In addition, this
Basic Concepts 5
participation in a particular game, activity, or experience.
Intrinsic MotivationBeyond having the element of choice in
recreation activities, participants must choose their involvement because they are moved from within and not because they are influenced by external factors. This means that the drive for leisure (as an internal state of being) comes from within each person; the activity itself motivates an individual to act (rather than the motivation coming from a desire to lose weight, be with friends, and so forth).
Locus of ControlThe concept of locus of control refers to the
need to exert influence within the context of the recreation experience. Individuals need to have some control or influence within the recreation process for a successful experience to occur. This does not mean that participants need to be involved in the planning of every aspect of every
activity or event, but they should feel some degree of control as the experience unfolds. For instance, participants might choose their teammates; influence the day, time, or place an activity occurs; or decide to modify rules.
Positive AffectThe remaining factor that relates to a satisfying
recreation experience is that of positive affect. This refers to enjoyment—people who have positive affect are happy, upbeat, and pleasant; they are in a good mood. Recreation experiences offer inherent affect, and if they are truly recreation, result in positive affect for the participants.
Active/Passive RecreationAlthough not a foundational concept to
recreation, there are two more terms that we want to introduce in this chapter as they relate to our perception of what programming is and can be. These concepts, active and passive recreation, refer to the type of recreation program that is being
6 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
offered. Historically, active recreation has been thought of as activities and programs that require significant programmer involvement. Examples of active recreation activities include sports such as baseball, volleyball, and soccer as well as adventure activities such as skiing, mountain biking, and bungee jumping. More recently the concept of active recreation has expanded to include any activities in which staff are directly engaged in leadership.
Programming for these types of activities typically involves intensive management and purposeful attention to ensure program benefits or outcomes. In contrast, programming for passive activities can be thought of as providing space where participants can shape their own experiences. A relatively new phenomenon that is illustrative of passive recreation is that of pop-up parks. Pop-up parks are spaces designed to look like and serve as temporary parks. Programmers set up various park features such as picnic tables, table games, gardens, and park benches, all of which can stimulate engagement in recreation activities. Memphis, Tennessee introduced a pop-up park at one of its riverfront parks and experienced a significant increase in park attendance (https://choose901.com/riverplay-pop-park-coming-memphis-riverfront-summer/). In some cases, pop-up parks have been established in urban areas as places for people to relax, enjoy a sense of community, and experience nature. Wichita, Kansas is one such example (https://downtownwichita.org/discover/placemaking/pop-up-park).
While distinctions between active and passive recreation are still evident today, we want future programmers to realize the possibilities that programming offers for any activity along the active/passive recreation continuum. What matters is not so much the activity as the outcomes that the recreation professional wants the program to provide. Within passive recreation this may mean paying more attention to the variables that create space or provide the equipment for participants to create their own outcomes; this, in fact, might be the desired outcome of creating an environment where people can experience freedom, learn the skills for competence, develop the motivation, and engage a locus of control to experience positive satisfying recreation experiences.
Understanding these factors as they relate to fulfilling recreation experiences is very important if parks, recreation, tourism programmers are going to design and implement programs and services to meet the needs and demands of a variety of people. When recreation experience professionals plan programs to help individuals experience these elements, they can facilitate a positive recreation experience.
Recreation ProgramsRecreation programs are found in all areas
of work and life in the public, nonprofit, and for-profit sectors, which include the following types of settings:
1. Public or governmental agencies at the federal, state, and local levels (e.g., National Park Service, Department of Natural Resources, City of Tucson Parks and Recreation Department, Mecklenberg County Parks and Recreation Department)
2. Voluntary nonprofit organizations, both nonsectarian and sectarian (e.g., Jewish Community Center, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, YMCA/YWCA, Easter Seals, the Friends of Balboa Park, San Diego, CA)
3. Private membership associations (e.g., the Dunes Golf and Country Club, sports clubs, travel teams)
4. Commercial, profit-oriented recreation busi-nesses (e.g., Schlitterbahn Waterpark Resort in Texas, Bar W Guest Ranch in Montana)
5. Armed Forces (although these are components of government, they constitute a distinct form of recreation programming) (e.g., Coast Guard Morale, Welfare and Recreation; Air Force Child Development Centers)
6. Campus recreation programs serving college and university students and staff members (e.g., Campus Recreation at the University of Arizona, Fitness & Recreational Sports at the University of Nevada)
7. Corporate recreation programs serving com-pany employees (USAA Insurance Employee Recreation and Fitness Center, Yellowstone Co-Op Employee Recreation Program)
8. Therapeutic recreation services for people with special needs—both in clinical and
Basic Concepts 7
community settings (e.g., inclusion programs, County of Maui Recreation and Support Division; Recreational Therapy and Child Life Program at Children’s Specialized Hospital in Mountainside, New Jersey)
The scope and breadth of recreation programs in all of these settings continue to expand to meet the needs and demands of a variety of participants. For example, it is not uncommon to find older adults demanding high-risk activities such as alpine skiing, adolescents wanting opportunities to travel, blended families who are looking for bonding opportunities, and singles flocking to wine tasting travel programs. The common tie between all these groups and activities is programming.
We have seen a continuous increase in partnerships between organizations to better meet the needs of participants. For instance, across the United States, new programs are appearing as a result of collaboration between various parks, recreation, and tourism agencies and organizations. As an example, consider the Play on the Way program, a collaboration between two parks and recreation departments in Michigan (Isabella County Parks and Recreation, Chippewa River District Library) and Central Michigan University’s (CMU) Recreation, Parks, and Leisure Services Department. The program is geared toward getting children outside to play and take part in a variety of recreation activities. During the summer months, CMU students drive their mobile recreation truck to nearby communities in Michigan and provide a day of play, getting young children and their families outside to play and be active. The program is win/win, providing communities additional programming, while providing CMU students majoring in recreation an opportunity to get hands-on experiences as well as give back to their communities.
Recreation programs have long been the lifeblood of parks, recreation, and tourism organizations in that programs are the vehicle professionals use to deliver recreation benefits to both individuals and society. Programs are where people and parks, recreation, and tourism agencies and organizations meet. Recreation programs are purposeful interventions deliberately designed and constructed to produce certain behavioral
outcomes (e.g., having fun with family and friends, meeting new people, learning new skills, increasing fitness levels) in an individual and/or group. A key element to remember is that programs are not ends in themselves; rather, people (and the outcomes they desire) are the true reasons for the existence of parks, recreation, and tourism organizations. This commitment to people can be seen throughout the history of the organized recreation movement in the United States, which dates back to the late 1800s. It is also the reason we call for a servant leadership approach to programming throughout this text.
The Beginnings of Recreation Experience ProgrammingIn North America, formal recreation
organizations emerged during the late 1800s to address the tremendous social, psychological, and general welfare needs that grew out of the Industrial Revolution. Social reformers saw the potential of using play and recreation to improve people’s quality of life. For instance, the Boston Sand Gardens (considered to be the first playground) were established to meet the play needs of disadvantaged children and give them a safe place to play. Many of the first organized camps were designed for and targeted “sickly boys”; they were also an attempt to regain the rural countryside in the middle of an urban area and give people who lived in crowded slum tenements a place to relax and get away from it all. Further, the settlement house movement used recreation as a means to ease the transition of immigrants to living in large urban American cities (see the Programmer Profile of Jane Addams).
Initially, many aspects of the recreation movement were focused on providing places for people to experience leisure—parks, playgrounds, and recreation centers. As the movement progressed, the importance of organized programs was acknowledged. Over 100 years ago, Curtis (1915) wrote, “the playground that has no program achieves little” (p. 163). Boden and Mitchell (1923) suggested that “programs are necessary to make playgrounds more interesting and efficient” (p. 264).
8 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
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Programmer Profile
Jane Addams
Jane Addams was a pioneer in the field of social work, community and economic development, as well as parks and recreation. She was also one of the first women to graduate from college in the late 1800s and was the epitome of a servant leader. Addams lived during a time of great transition in America as large numbers of immigrants entered the United States. Many of the immigrants worked in low-paying and dan-gerous jobs created by the industrial revolution. She saw recreation programs as one way to address many of the social issues facing the United States as a result of large-scale immigration and industrialization.
What was Addams’ career path?After graduating from Rockford College in 1881, Addams toured Europe. This trip lasted two years and was followed by a second trip in 1887. During this second trip, she visited Toynbee Hall in London, which was a product of the settlement house movement. The settlement house movement began in industrial England in the mid-1800s and offered food, shelter, and educational opportunities to the urban poor. Toynbee Hall “offered something new in place of old-fashioned modes of relief to the poor; it provided mutual engagement across class lines and a broad education for working men and women” (Elshtain, 2002, p. 74).
Addams and her traveling companion, Ellen Gates Starr, were impressed by what they saw at Toynbee Hall and resolved to begin a similar endeavor among the working poor in the United States, not through charity but by living and working together to make a better life for all. Thus, after returning home in 1889, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr opened the doors of Hull House in the 19th ward of Chicago. Hull House quickly became a center of community life, attracting people who needed services. Residents (staff mem-bers) were often idealistic young middle-class men and women who committed to live for an extended pe-riod of time in urban slums, seeking to bring education and other programs to the immigrant poor. What made Hull House unique was that Addams thought of those who came and went as citizens, or citizens in the making, not as clients or receivers of services (Elshtain, 2002). In the process, the residents of Hull House worked with the working class poor and created the following firsts (Elshtain, 2002):
• First social settlement in Chicago, and first social settlement to include both male and female residents• First public baths and first public kitchen in Chicago• First public playground and first public gymnasium in Chicago• First little theater in the United States• First citizenship preparation classes in the United States• First painting loan program in Chicago• First Fresh Air camps for children in Chicago• First public swimming pool in Chicago• First Boy Scout troop in Chicago
Basic Concepts 9
What roles did Addams fill at Hull House?• Community activist and social reformer: Jacob Riis—as quoted in Elshtain (2002)—penned these
words of praise for Jane Addams: “They have good sense in Chicago. Jane Addams is there.” This sen-timent, however, was not universally shared. In 1935, Elizabeth Dilling, in her book, The Red Network: A Who’s Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots, described Addams as a “dangerous radical mas-querading as a saintly champion of the poor” (p. 19).
• Friend and mentor: Asked to sum up Hull House and Jane Addams, one member of the neighborhood stated: “she opened up a whole new world to us, is what she and the others did … I see her as a great lady. She had a way with children, a way with people. And she emphasized responsibility. You can do it, she would say, you can do it, and we did it partly because we didn’t want to disappoint her. We did it out of respect… Hull House was the greatest experience of my life” (Elshtain, 2002, p. 13).
• Sanitary inspector for the city of Chicago: This was the only paid position Jane Addams ever held, and it grew out of her concern for children and youth playing close to the rotting garbage on Chicago streets. Through her efforts at Hull House, Addams and her staff educated residents about the impor-tance of garbage removal and treatment.
• Advocate for women’s suffrage: Addams was a fearless campaigner for women’s right to vote and be-came a political force on the national scene. She made the nominating speech for Theodore Roosevelt as the presidential candidate for the Progressive Party in 1912.
• Anti-war demonstrator, peace activist: Her experience in the Hull House had shown her that people of different nationalities could live together peacefully; thus, Addams opposed the war. This opposi-tion to the war lost her popular support among local politicians and residents, yet the support slowly returned and she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.
How did Jane Addams exemplify the characteristics of a servant leader?Addams was a woman of vision who also had the ability to work with people to co-create the future.
Underlying all of her efforts was the drive to build citizens and equip them with the social capital necessary to make a difference and, in the process, build up a social culture of democracy. In this endeavor, everyone contributed and became partners in working for the common good. “Addams was adamant throughout her life that Hull House should offer shelter from the storm and a new way of being in this world. It was a place of civic education, a spirited enterprise that served as a vehicle for the creation of community and the sustaining of identities … [For Addams] there was no cure for the human condition, but there was a cure for the sense of purposelessness, and it lies in the forging of purposeful lives in and through community. One doesn’t use community for self-seeking purposes. One participates, and in fellowship and friendship, finds the self relocated” (Elshtain, 2002, 153–155).
Addams saw the potential of recreation to promote fellowship and friendship, and through relation-ships was able to work together with others to improve the quality of life of many. Thus, Addams is a fine example for all recreation professionals, combining the ability to be an entrepreneur, to continually grow and develop to serve others, while practicing many of the virtues of servant leadership.
10 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
The expansion of recreation programs has been a major factor in the growth and development of public recreation departments. As the profession has matured and diversified, most public recreation agencies across the country adopted a philosophy that views leisure as an end in itself. In other words, public recreation drifted away from a social welfare model (with specific social service goals) and adopted a model of providing services to all.
Beginning in the last half of the 20th century, we have seen tremendous growth in all sectors of parks, recreation, tourism, and other aspects of what is known as “the experience industry.” Public, private nonprofit, and for-profit recreation experience agencies continue to grow at a rapid rate. In addition, parks, recreation, and tourism organizations have dealt with phenomenal social and economic changes. On one hand, the demand for a wide range of recreation experiences has skyrocketed. People from all walks of life are seeking and demanding recreation experiences in their lives. At the same time, the environment in which these experiences can be created has also been changing. For example, both public and private nonprofit organizations continue to be asked to be more financially accountable and do more with less. For-profit organizations are being asked to be more ethically responsible (e.g., fuel/energy conscious) in the programs they offer (e.g., sustainable tourism). All organizations are being asked to respond to greater diversity in potential customer groups.
The Desire to Help PeopleWhether it be public agencies responding to
the play needs of children by creating playgrounds, private nonprofit organizations developing summer camps to help children experience the great outdoors, or the vast increase of tourism operators engaging in and supporting sustainable tourism, recreation experience professionals have always demonstrated a desire to make people’s lives better. This is a vital element of the servant leadership philosophy that is even more important today. Increasingly, recreation experience agencies and organizations are being called upon to address a wide range of societal issues such as building community, encouraging healthier lifestyles, and preparing young people to be successful adults.
An Entrepreneurial SpiritThe entrepreneurial spirit may be defined as
a belief in innovative ideas that result in quality products or services that will benefit both those who use the product and those who developed it. It implies creativity, passion, a willingness to take risks, innovation, and the ability to execute a plan (Ehrlichman, 2015). Early in the millennium, Putnam (2000) recognized this entrepreneurial spirit in the early social reformers who were instrumental in developing parks, playgrounds, and community centers. He said:
We desperately need an era of civic inventiveness to create a renewed set of institutions and channels for reinvigorating our civic life that fits the way we have come to live. Our challenge now is to reinvent the twenty-first century equivalent of the Boy Scouts or the Settlement House or the playground.... What we create may well look nothing like the institutions Progressives invented a century ago, just as their inventions were not carbon copies of the earlier small town folkways whose passing they mourned. We need to be as ready to experiment as the Progressives were. Willingness to err—and then correct our aim—is the price of success in social reform. (p. 401)
Changes in TechnologySuccessful parks, recreation, and tourism
agencies and organizations have been able to respond to societal changes that are going on around them as evidenced by their entrepreneurial spirit. As early as 1893, Jane Addams noted that, “the one thing to be dreaded in the settlement [house movement] is that it loses its flexibility, its power of quick adaptation, its readiness to change its methods as its environment may demand.” The environmental changes we have been experiencing in recent years are unprecedented. How do we respond to these changes? How do we prepare for the changes we will continue to see in the years and decades to come?
Basic Concepts 11
Consider that more than 30 years ago (in 1987) each of your authors bought their first portable computers. They weighed 20 pounds and cost approximately $2,500. Today the smartphones we have weigh only a few ounces and cost between $500 and $1,000—and they are more powerful than our first computers, with much more memory. The smartphone has revolutionized the way people communicate and how individuals experience recreation. Technology has been and will continue to be a driving force in society, and it is our job as recreation experience professionals to find ways to use these changes to better serve our constituents. In this regard, the words of economist Jeremy Rifkin still hold true today when he wrote in The Age of Access (2001) that we are headed for a new economic era where people will shift from a paradigm of ownership to one of experience. As experiences become more important, implications for parks, recreation, and tourism agencies and organizations will become increasingly visible.
To be successful, parks, recreation, and tourism programmers must build upon the past—by going forward—to meet and create the future. Recreation experience programmers will need to continue to respond to societal changes in innovative ways to empower individuals and communities to grow and develop through recreation-based programs.
Beneficial Outcomes of Recreation Experience
ProgramsToday’s complex world demands that parks,
recreation, and tourism providers understand societal changes as well as the specific beneficial outcomes customers expect from recreational programs and experiences. One recent study evaluating outcomes-based management found that a successful benefits approach demands understanding benefits, as well as managing projects and programs to deliver on the outcomes and benefits desired, and then measuring performance based on these outcomes (PMI, 2017). This comprehensive approach is vital when planning and developing programs to meet constituent needs. In an attempt to accomplish this task, many recreation experience organizations (especially public recreation services agencies)
have embraced a beneficial outcomes-based approach to providing services.
A beneficial outcomes approach to recreation has evolved from outcomes-focused management theory (Driver, 2008). This theory encourages recreation experience providers to consider a broad model for explaining outcomes in such a way that funders and managers understand the positive and negative outcomes of participating in recreation programs. Within such a model, benefits are defined as the following:
• An improved change in a condition. Individ-uals, communities, as well as biophysical and heritage resources, can all experience these types of benefits. The gains can be psychologi-cal, physiological, social, economic, and/or en-vironmental.
• Maintenance of a desired condition, preven-tion of an undesired condition, or reduction of an undesired condition. These benefits in-clude maintaining facilities, structures, and spaces; preventing social ills; and decreasing negative impacts on the natural environment.
• The realization of a satisfying recreation ex-perience. Benefits one can accrue from partic-ipating in satisfying recreation experiences in-clude a reduction in stress, increased physical fitness, and spiritual renewal. (Driver, 2008, p. 4–5)
In this regard, outcomes-focused management has become a major catalyst in helping to dispel a popular myth: that parks, recreation, and tourism agencies provide something of value, but only as long as the pleasurable experience lasts. Outcomes-focused management, particularly the focus on beneficial outcomes, moves the recreation experience profession forward by integrating the concept that value is added to people’s lives (and the environment) following on-site recreation participation. For example, Figure 1.2 identifies a variety of immediate benefits and potential long-term benefits of a couple hiking together in a natural area.
According to Driver and Bruns (1999), the fundamental question raised by a benefits approach to recreation-based programming is to add as much value as possible—to optimize net
12 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
benefits. This requires that parks, recreation, and tourism professionals be able to understand the values added by recreation experiences, articulate those values, and understand how to “capture” them. Thus, it is important for programmers and managers to understand the immediate and potential long-term beneficial outcomes connected to their programs and work to maximize those outcomes.
The National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) has embraced the concept of outcomes-focused management starting in the 1990s with “The Benefits Are Endless” campaign. Although NRPA has moved on to other marketing campaigns, the message of these new promotions is consistent with an outcomes-focused management approach to providing services. A current effort to promote parks and recreation through benefits or outcomes can be seen in a campaign by the Florida Recreation
and Park Association (FRPA). FRPA began the “It Starts in Parks” initiative to better position parks and recreation in the future and to bring attention to the important beneficial outcomes and services provided by the profession (http://www.frpa.org/isip/isipwhat). The message of It Starts in Parks is centered around three core beneficial outcomes that have been associated with recreation programs and facilities:
COACHING (for activities and for life)Florida’s parks encourage healthy, active lifestyles as well as social development. Sound bodies and sound minds require physical activity and the chance to experience personal growth. Parks offer a wide range of activities suitable for all ages to get outside and get active —teaching positive lifestyle habits in all areas from nutrition to physical activities to sports and life skills.
Key:
Feel good about getting exercise
On-site benefits
Better or maintained
physical fitness
Enjoy sights and sounds of nature
Mental rest
Learn something about natural environment
Maintain open communication
with partner
Feel closer to partner
Leads to variety of on-site benefits
which may contribute to a number of longer term benefits for the couple
which may contribute to a number of longer term benefits for society
Increased work performance
Longer term individual benefits
Enhanced stewardship ethic
Better problem solving with
partner
Avoid break-up
Couple hiking in a natural area
Couple spends $ in region during travel
Lower healthcare costs
Economic impact of money spent during activity
Higher productivity
Fewer environmental
problemsMore intact families
Longer term social benefitsPersonal Activities
Figure 1.2. Benefits chain of causality
Basic Concepts 13
CONNECTING (to our environment and our history)Florida’s parks are key to connecting with our natural and historic treasures in order to preserve them. Connecting to everything around us and to each other, we learn to value our environment, our heritage, and our place in the world. We grow in awareness of our responsibility to protect and cherish these things through green practices and gentle use increasing our desire to conserve what we enjoy today for future generations.
COMMUNITY (investment and enrichment)Florida’s parks have become an integral component to economic development as well as an investment in the arts and cultural growth within our communities. Parks provide the setting for social events large and small where people can connect with each other, and participate in classes and group activities for personal enrichment. Parks also provide an investment in infrastructure needed to accommodate revenue generating sporting events and tourism, benefiting the local economy and community as a whole. (FRPA, 2017)
defined as a stronger sense of well-being and more happiness. Understanding people’s subjective level of happiness or well-being has drawn a lot of attention over the last 25 years. Drawing from a wide range of research on happiness, we have learned that happiness depends less on external things (e.g., money, status, possessions) than we might think. Better predictors of happiness come from knowing people’s personality traits, what type of friend networks they have, and the depth of their family relationships. Many years ago, Weimer noted that “social scientists estimate that about 70% of our happiness stems from our relationships, both quantity and quality, with friends, family, coworkers, and neighbors. During life’s difficult patches, camaraderie blunts our misery; during the good times, it boosts our happiness” (2008, p. 114). As a recreation programmer, it is important to note the role recreation experiences play in promoting a sense of well-being and happiness. It is also important to understand the role that recreation programs can play in promoting close relationships, social support, purpose, and hope. See Table 1.1 for a list of benefits recreation experiences provide.
Buettner (2017) reiterated the importance of creating structures that encourage mechanisms for people to create lasting joy and to improve their quality of life both individually and as a community. In his 2017 book, The Blue Zones of Happiness: Learning from the World’s Happiest People, Buettner examined three different strands of happiness that come together to create joy. He calls these strands pleasure, purpose, and pride. What is interesting about Buettner’s work is that he talks about how local leaders can establish places where individuals can create their own happiness. Buettner quoted Calamar, who says, “In the United States, the happiest places tend to be places where enlightened leaders over the past century decided to shift their focus away from just economic development and growth to quality of life” (2018).
As one thinks about how recreation programs can assist people to create their own happiness, recreation experience professionals should keep in mind how recreation programs can contribute to helping people enjoy activities, celebrate their communities, provide purpose, and connect to others. For example, consider an arts festival in a
As one can see, the benefits of parks and recreation are far reaching and can impact the well-being of both individuals and communities. It is important that in developing recreation programs that professionals are intentional about the outcomes they want to provide. With this in mind, we now turn to examining each of these types of beneficial outcomes.
Beneficial Outcomes of Recreation for IndividualsSigns are everywhere that people are concerned
with improving the quality of their lives. We want a higher degree of life satisfaction—typically
14 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
Table 1.1 Benefits of Leisure (Crompton, 2008)
Personal Benefits–Psychological
Better Mental Health and Health Maintenance
• Holistic sense of wellness• Catharsis• Positive changes in mood and emotion• Stress management (i.e., prevention, mediation, and
restoration)• Prevention of, or reduced, depression/anxiety/anger
Personal Development and Growth
• Self-confidence • Self-competence • Values clarification • Leadership • Adaptability• Spiritual growth • Problem solving • Tolerance • Self-reliance• Self-assurance• Humility• Aesthetic enhancement• Creativity enhancement• Cognitive efficiency• Nature learning• Balanced living• Environmental awareness/understanding• Balanced competitiveness• Independence/autonomy• Improved academic/cognitive performance• Sense of control over one’s life• Prevention of problems to at-risk youth• Acceptance of one’s responsibility• Cultural/historic awareness/learning/appreciation
Personal Appreciation and Satisfaction
• Sense of freedom • Flow/absorption • Stimulation • Challenge • Creative expression • Nature appreciation • Quality of life/life satisfaction• Positive change in mood and/or emotion• Self-actualization• Exhilaration• Sense of adventure• Nostalgia• Aesthetic appreciation• Spirituality
Environmental Benefits
• Environmental ethic• Maintenance of physical facilities• Stewardship/preservation of options• Public involvement in environmental issues• Maintenance of natural scientific laboratories• Preservation of particular natural sites and areas• Improved relationships with natural world• Understanding of human dependency on the natural
world• Preservation of cultural/heritage/historic sites and
areas• Environmental protection—ecosystem sustainability
and species diversity
Personal Benefits–Psychophysiological
• Improved control and prevention of diabetes• Increased bone mass and strength• Reduced spinal problems• Decreased body fat/obesity/weight control• Improved neuropsychological functioning• Reduced incidence of disease• Increased life expectancy• Management of menstrual cycles• Management of arthritis• Improved functioning of the immune system• Reduced or prevented hypertension• Reduced serum cholesterol and triglycerides• Reduced consumption of alcohol and use of tobacco• Increased muscle strength and healthier connective
tissue• Cardiovascular benefits (including prevention of
strokes)• Respiratory benefits (increased lung capacity, benefits
to people with asthma)
Social and Cultural Benefits
• Ethnic identity• Social support • Reciprocity/sharing • Cultural identity• Enhanced worldview • Reduced social alienation • Community satisfaction• Family bonding• Social mobility• Cultural continuity• Community integration• Nurturance of others• Pride in community/nation (pride in place)• Community/political involvement• Social bonding/cohesion/cooperation• Conflict resolution/harmony• Support democratic ideal of freedom• Understanding and tolerance of others• Environmental awareness, sensitivity• Socialization/acculturation• Prevention of social problems • Developmental benefits for children• Cultural/historical awareness and appreciation• Greater community involvement in environmental
decision making
Economic Benefits
• Reduced health costs • Decreased job turnover • Reduced on-the-job accidents• Local and regional economic growth• Contribution to net national economic development• International balance of payments (from tourism)• Increased productivity• Less work absenteeism
Basic Concepts 15
community that creates the opportunity for families to come together and engage in activities together (e.g., listening to local bands or artists, painting projects, eating). Special events such as this provide participants opportunities to experience the three strands of happiness identified by Buettner.
In examining the benefits of recreation partic-ipation, Moore and Driver (2005) identified five categories of individual (e.g., psychological, psy-chophysiological) and social benefits of recreation (e.g., sociological, economic, environmental). Ta-ble 1.1 presents a few examples of specific benefits in each category. In recent years, parks, recreation, and tourism professionals have worked hard to document many of these benefits through research and evaluation. The following are a few examples of studies documenting the role that recreation programs play in a person’s well-being:
• Organized camping has had a positive impact on youth development. Reports from groups of children and young people, parents, and camp counselors indicate significant growth from precamp to post-camp in each of the following four domains: social skills, physical and thinking skills, positive identity, positive values, and spiritual growth (Henderson,
Thurber, Scanlin, & Bialeschki, 2007). This study was recently reinforced by Fine (2016), who reported that the highest rate of positive growth of campers was found in the area of emotional intelligence, which is defined as the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions. The study found that 69% of all campers experienced an increase in the development of their emotional intelligence.
• Physical benefits of parks and recreation have long been documented (see Figure 1.3) through such programs as the Heart N’ Parks program, which was initiated in 2000. Participants in Hearts N’ Parks programs across the country reported significant improvements in what their citizens know, think, and do about heart-healthy eating and physical activity. A collaboration between the National Recreation and Park Association and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health, Hearts N’ Parks was a community-based program designed to reduce the growing trend of obesity and to lower the risk of coronary heart disease in the United States (Hearts N’ Parks, 2004).
Figure 1.3. Poster highlighting some of the many benefits of engagement in recreation experiences.
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• Several authors have reported physical, psychological, and social benefits provided by engagement in recreation and parks (Salvo, Banda, Sheats, Winter, Lopes dos Santos, & King, 2017; Yeh, Stone, Churchill, Wheat, Brymer, & Davids, 2016).The Play 60 movement is a collaboration between the National Football League (NFL), the American Heart Association, schools, and nonprofit youth serving organizations designed to facilitate children being active for at least 60 minutes each day through play, thereby creating a roadmap to a healthy heart (Play 60 Challenge, 2017).
• Russell (2017) provided a strong case for why recreation is so vital to individuals and society. Her work reiterates the importance of recreation in making us feel free, providing intrinsic meaning, happiness, pleasure, play, humor, relaxation, solitude, ritual, commitment, risk, and spirituality. These benefits underscore the role recreation experiences play in offering individuals enjoyment and fulfillment in their day-to-day lives. Russell continues to reinforce earlier authors who noted the wide range of important benefits that recreation experiences provide. For example, in the early 2000s Estes and Henderson noted,
with its focus on individual, communi-ty, environmental and economic out-comes, the “benefits” movement has served the profession well as a foun-dation for documenting important ex-trinsic benefits of parks and recreation. Professionals shouldn’t forget, however, that the outcomes related to enjoyment are still at the core of what makes our profession unique and valuable among other human service areas—we facil-itate fun and intrinsically motivating experiences. Although the values of our profession go beyond “fun and games,” enjoyment is, at all times, cen-tral to our work. Therefore, parks and recreation professionals would do well to remember the unique thing they do best—providing people opportunities for enjoyment. (2003, p. 27)
Despite the many positive benefits of involvement in recreation experiences, many individuals find obtaining them difficult—constraints interfere with experiences. Several authors have found that a variety of constraints interfere with individuals’ opportunities to participate in parks and recreation programs. Among others, constraints include a lack of time, cost, no one to participate with, lack of skill, no access to programs, gender norms, and health issues (Stankowski, Trautvien, & Hall, 2017; Stone, Gagnon, Garst, & Pinckney, 2018). Some of these factors can be addressed on an individual level, while others require collective action for an overall community or region. For instance, lack of time is often cited as one of the major constraints for individuals in engaging in recreation experiences. A recent global study noted that this is not just an American issue; despite growing incomes, people around the world are feeling increasingly pressed for time, undermining their well-being and quality of life (Whillans, Dunn, Smeets, Bekkers, & Norton, 2017).
Pressures surrounding time is related to what many sociologists have identified as time famine. Although some express disagreement over the extent of time famine for individuals, there is consensus that, real or not, people perceive that they are more rushed and believe they have less free time now than in the past. Many attribute this to the rapid pace of contemporary society. Regardless of the cause, people are feeling a time crunch, and this has led to a paradox inherent in recreation experiences. In the past it may have been possible to allow recreation experiences to “just happen”; today individuals need to intentionally make time for recreation experiences. Professional programmers can help people to overcome the issue of time famine.
The implications of time famine for parks, recreation, and tourism programs are diverse and include helping individuals create time for recreation, as well as preparing and educating individuals to use discretionary time wisely. Presentient, Henry Ward Beecher’s advice over a century ago to “multiply picnics” by reconnecting with friends and neighbors is still relevant today. “We should do this, ironically not because it will be good for America—though it will be—but because it will be good for us” (Putnam, 2000, p. 414).
Basic Concepts 17
Beneficial Outcomes of Recreation Experiences to
SocietyRecreation settings such as parks and
community centers, and programs such as sports leagues and art classes, offer people the opportunity to connect with others and to build friendships. This is important because relationships play an essential role in people’s overall well-being. While somewhat dated, Weimer (2008) reiterated this in his research on happiness. Weimer reviewed the data on subjective happiness in countries around the world and concluded that,
Money matters, but less than we think and not in the way that we think. Family is important. So are friends. Envy is toxic. So is excessive thinking. Beaches are optional. Trust is not. Neither is gratitude…[Ultimately he concluded that] happiness is relationships and trustworthiness. Trust is a prerequisite for happiness. Trust not only of your government, of institutions, but trust of neighbors. Several studies, in fact, have found that trust—more than income
or even health—is the biggest factor in determining happiness. (p. 92)
Many years ago, in documenting the importance of creating places where trust can develop, Oldenburg (2000) coined the term third place. Third places are public places where people can gather and interact informally. They are a venue for passive recreation programming. In contrast to first places (home) and second places (work/school), third places allow people to put aside their concerns and simply enjoy the company and conversation around them. Third places include such places as parks, sports fields, basketball courts, cafes, main streets, community centers, senior centers, fitness centers, pubs, coffeehouses, and other places that are the heart of a community’s social vitality and the foundation of a functioning democracy. They promote social equality by leveling the status of those present, provide a setting for grassroots politics, create habits of public association, and offer psychological support to individuals and communities.
For young Americans, many third places are now virtual—from Facebook and chat rooms to online meet-up spaces to group texts. But as Oldenburg noted in 2000, the most effective
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third places for building real community seem to be physical places where people can easily and routinely connect with each other. These spaces should ideally be inexpensive or even free to use. Food and drink, while not necessarily essential, also help to create interest and draw in occupants. Third places should also be highly accessible, and even within walking distance to their target audience. Finally, third spaces need to be comfortable and welcoming. Soft music, muted or calming colors, and cozy furniture are always a big help in this area. Furthermore, a third place should be an ideal spot where friends new and old can meet. Most third spaces involve regulars, who are those who habitually congregate (Cool Stuff Studios, 2016).
While coffee shops and local bars have served at third places in the past, we may continue to see the idea of third places expand as businesses and organizations become increasingly intentional about building welcoming spaces for people to gather. For example, in the last decade the number of microbreweries has grown from 1,500 to more than 5,300 and many microbreweries are working toward becoming the evening version of the third place of the morning, which is the coffeehouse (Morrison, 2017). In such places, you won’t find people hypnotized by giant television screens blaring sports or their smartphones. One will find them talking at community tables, maybe playing a game like Cards Against Humanity, Scrabble, or cribbage, or intensely removing one piece at a time from a giant Jenga set. An example is the Glass Die board game parlor in Reno, Nevada—they have nine handcrafted tables to gather around, over 415 games to choose from (free of charge), 12 taps with a rotating selection of craft beer and cider as well as wine, leaf tea, and bottled soda (Glass Die, 2017).
While new businesses work hard to become third places, old businesses are trying to reinvent themselves as gathering places. McDonald’s has redecorated to become more welcoming by adding softer colors, expanding the size of their seating areas, adding more flexible seating where multiple parties can meet, and in some places even adding giant televisions on the wall. The result has found that for many lower income Americans, the twin arches are becoming a third place of sorts with groups of retirees meeting for coffee and talk or holding regular Bible study meetings as people
treat the restaurant as an inexpensive gathering place (Butler & Diaz, 2016).
One of the challenges for recreation experience programmers is to create places where people of different socioeconomic classes can meet and interact to serve as venues for third places. Parks, recreation, and tourism agencies (especially those in the public and nonprofit sectors) are uniquely qualified to create these kind of public spaces, which include both passive and active recreation, as well as informal and formal programs. For example, one could envision and work toward creating a third place at a library or community center. Beyond specific places, consider how recreation programs could foster a feeling of community for individuals. One example is the HUG program—Help Us Gather, which is based in Tampa, FL. It is a social media effort to connect people with disabilities to social activities and events in the community. The site allows individuals to post upcoming events for children, teens, adults with disabilities, and their families (https://hugtampabay.org/).
Social CapitalUnderstanding and advocating for the societal
beneficial outcomes of recreation demands that parks, recreation, and tourism professionals are able to articulate outcomes in contemporary terms, like third places. Another such concept is social capital (see Figure 1.4); it is “features of social life—networks, norms, and trust—that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives” (Putnam, 1995 as cited in Robinson & Godbey, 1997, p. 168). This is a critical element to the success of democracy (living together, civility, ideals of fair play). Yet, Putnam, in his book Bowling Alone (2000), documented the decline of social capital in the U.S. as reflected by decreasing membership in voluntary organizations such as the Boy Scouts, the League of Women Voters, and Parent Teacher Associations at that time. Putnam also recognized recreation experience professionals and the programs they offer as important elements in rebuilding the social capital needed to move forward as communities.
Over 100 years ago, in 1916, L. Judson Hanifan, a young educator, first identified the idea of social capital when he returned to his native West Virginia to work in the rural school system after being gone
Basic Concepts 19
for several years. He observed that older customs, general neighborliness, and civic engagement (e.g., debating societies, barn raisings, apple cuttings) had been neglected and people had become less considerate of their neighbors. As a result, families were isolated and communities stagnated (Putnam & Goss, 2002). He noted the loss of opportunities for social capital to develop and thrive. As the theory of social capital has developed, various distinctions of social capital have emerged and, although these categories were developed over 15 years ago, we still feel they apply today. These distinctions include the following:
Formal versus informal social capital. Formal social capital refers to organizations that have recognized officers, membership requirements, dues, and regular meetings—like clubs and associations. Informal social capital refers
to nonformal gatherings, such as pickup games of basketball or people who gather at a microbrewery or coffeehouse.
Thick versus thin social capital. Thick social capital is closely interwoven and multistranded as exemplified by a group of neighbors who work, play, and worship together. Such strong ties are defined in terms of frequency of contact and closeness. A weak or thin tie is the relationship between people who have a passing acquaintance and share few common friends.
Inward-looking versus outward-looking social capital. Some social capital is inward-looking and tends to promote the material, social, or political interests of its members, while other social capital is outward-looking
Figure 1.4. Social capital
Types of Social Capital
Describes strong ties and relationships within a network, community, or group among people who are already similar in some way (e.g., family members, close friends, neighbors). Brings together those who already have some affinity.
Describes weaker, more diffused ties that link or cut across communities/groups. It can include networks and contacts between different or heterogeneous groups (e.g., differing in background, age, gender).
Inherent in the relationships between different social powers or authorities. Includes links between individuals and groups who can provide access to resources (e.g., access to services, jobs), and relates to the capacity to leverage resources, ideas, and information from formal institutions beyond the community.
Bonding Bridging
Linking
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and concerns itself with public goods such as seeking what is in the best interests of all.
Bridging versus bonding social capital. These types of social capital are similar to the inward and outward-looking forms of social capital. Specifically, bridging social capital refers to the social networks that bring people together who are unlike one another. Bonding social capital usually brings together people who are like one another in some respect (e.g., ethnicity/race, sex/gender, religion; Putnam & Goss, 2002).
It is interesting to note the multidimensional nature of social capital as well as the connection between the various forms of social capital. For example, informal, thin, outward-looking, and bridging social capital all share some common characteristics; likewise, the formal, thick, inward-looking, and bonding types of social capital appear connected. Although all types of social capital are important, Florida (2002) noted that
where strong ties among people were once important, weak ties are now more effective. Where old social structures were once nurturing, now they are restricting… our evolving communities and emerging society are marked by a greater diversity of friendships, more individualistic pursuits and weaker ties within the community. People want diversity, low entry barriers, and the ability to be themselves. (p. 269)
Many forms of informal social capital can be generated through recreation programs and may be best suited for knitting a society together and for building broad norms of generalized reciprocity. Hanifan, himself, documented the connection between social capital and recreation programs.
The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his [sic] associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbors….When the people of a given community have become acquainted with one another
and have formed a habit of coming togeth-er occasionally for entertainment, social intercourse, and personal enjoyment, then by skilled leadership this social capital may easily be directed towards the general im-provement of the community well-being. (cited by Putnam, 2002, p. 5)
While Putnam (2000) documented the decline of social capital, others disagreed with Putnam and argued that the way people connect and associate with one another is simply changing. For example, in contemporary society, people are redefining the forms and nature of their participation in the community. More of the efforts toward creating social capital may now be accomplished on mobile devices and through social media and therefore may not be as visible as the in-person contacts. In many instances, as people seek to build community they are turning the workplace into a source of friendships, meaning, and social interaction (Brooks, 2016).
Thus, the debate continues over whether social capital has declined or is changing into new ways for people to connect. Certainly, technology has influenced the way people connect in the 21st century. As this debate plays out, many believe that significant attention in the United States needs to be placed on creating the kind of social capital that helps us bridge differences, especially between the privileged and those who have less social power. Recreation experience professionals have the opportunity to do this through programming. Likewise, it is important to understand the kinds of support that individuals and families will need in the future to connect. We cannot be bound by the past, and we must be willing to consider that “the life we think about as uniquely American—close families and friends, tight neighborhoods, civic clubs, vibrant electoral politics, strong faith-based institutions, and a reliance on civic leadership—is giving way to something new” (Florida, 2002, p. 269).
Florida argued that the key to urban success was to attract and retain talent, not just to draw in companies. One of the best ways to do this was to create a vibrant quality of place, with great restaurants and cafes, a music scene, and lots of
Basic Concepts 21
other things to do. Over the last 15 years, Florida has preached that for cities to be successful in the new people-driven, place-based economy, they must do the little things to make cities great places to live and work—things like making sure there are walkable, pedestrian-friendly streets, bike lanes, parks, exciting art and music scenes, and vibrant areas where people can gather in cafes and restaurants (Florida, 2017).
Many cities have used this formula of a place-based economy to create an urban renewal that is exciting but has brought new challenges. One of those challenges is that as cities and neighborhoods gentrify, many families and individuals are unable to cope with the rising costs of urban living; thus, they are essentially forced out of their homes and neighborhoods. Florida (2017) chronicled these challenges in his book about the urban crisis and offered a variety of recommendations to address these issues. Some of these suggestions include: increasing planned urbanism, building more affordable rental housing, investing in infrastructure for density, tackling poverty by investing in people and places, and empowering cities and communities.
From this context, it is important for parks, recreation, and tourism agencies to examine how their programs are working to create a more inclusive society. Modern-day recreation experience programmers are challenged to determine if their recreation programs are designed to promote social capital, and if so, how. Early research on recreation and social capital is mixed, and some caution must be used in directly correlating social capital and recreation experiences. Hemingway (2000), in examining the role of recreation in building social capital, noted that the importance of social capital to a democratic society cannot be overlooked. An example of a recreation program that intentionally sets social capital as a goal is the Viata program in Romania. This is one example of a recreation program that is working on “developing caring citizens who feel empowered to act” (http://www.new-horizons.ro).
Building social capital may be one of the major ways in which all parks, recreation, and tourism organizations, whatever the service orientation—nonprofit, public, or for-profit—serve society. For-profit recreation experience-based agencies
and organizations may be involved on an individual level, assisting individuals in building bonding social capital with family and friends. Public organizations or agencies, on the other hand, might be more involved at a community level, encouraging the development of bridging social capital. Strengthening the social fabric of communities through recreation experiences can help build neighborhood ties and strengthen intergroup and intergenerational relations. One of the foci of the American Planning Association is the role parks play in community and individual health. They note that parks “are a powerful tool to improve urban life” (https://www.planning.org/blog/blogpost/9108788/); parks provide physical and mental health to individuals, protect the environment, increase economic values of urban areas, and draw in and connect people from all walks of life (2018). Parks are a common setting where passive recreation programming occurs.
In addition to social capital, Russell (2017) identified the importance of recreation experiences in building the cultural capital that people need to be successful in life. The more cultural capital an individual has, the greater their potential to succeed in school and occupations. In many ways, recreation experiences provide individuals the shared experiences they need to succeed in society. Russell cited the research of Downey and Powell (1993) as an example of the power of recreation to help children succeed in school. The researchers found that eighth graders who were most successful in school participated in Scouting, hobby clubs, neighborhood clubs, Boys & Girls Clubs, nonschool team sports, 4-H, YMCA/YWCA activities, and summer and other recreation programs. More recently, Stalker (2011) made the case that participating in a wide variety of recreational activities is a strong indicator of cultural capital.
Crompton (2008) also identified the importance of recognizing the community benefits of recreation programs, especially for public and nonprofit organizations, which compete strongly for tax dollars as well as grants and donations (Figure 1.5). Crompton argued that if recreation programs simply looked to provide on-site benefits to those who participate in the programs (individual benefits), parks and recreation professionals run
22 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
the risk of losing the support of the larger public who may not participate in these programs.
To gain the support of nonusers, an agen-cy has to provide a convincing answer to the question, “what is in it for them?” Broader community support is likely to be dependent on an agency being able to demonstrate in easily recognized, prefera-bly quantifiable terms that tax payers and elected officials understand that park and recreation services are effectively and effi-ciently addressing issues of importance to the community. Widespread community support will be based primarily on the off-site benefits that accrue to nonusers, rather
than on on-site benefits that accrue to us-ers. (p. 192)
As a result of the emphasis placed on the beneficial outcomes of recreation over the last 20 years, the profession has quantifiable evidence of the impact of parks and recreation facilities and programs on individuals and society. Beneficial outcomes can be grouped into several areas: economic prosperity, environmental sustainability, individual and community health, and alleviating social problems (American Planning Association, 2018; Salvo et al., 2017). Understanding the community benefits of recreation as well as such important concepts as social and cultural capital, provides a strong argument for increased public
Each of the benefits listed in this figure are a result of research studies that demonstrate the role that recreation programs, services, and facilities play in the community.
Economic Prosperity: Recreation programs and services generate additional tax revenues, create jobs, and enhance economic development; these benefits can take the form of:
Attracting touristsAttracting businessesAttracting retireesEnhancing real estate valuesReducing taxesStimulating equipment sales
Environmental Sustainability: Parks, open spaces, and other natural areas provide environments where natural resources can function as intended, and cost effectively. These services include:
Protecting drinking water Controlling flooding Cleaning air Reducing traffic congestion Decreasing energy costs Preserving biological diversity
Alleviating Social Problems: A failure to invest resources in delivering services today often creates bigger issues for the overall community at a later date. Recreation programs, services, and facilities are a strong vehicle for facilitating the social process of enhanced social connectedness (social capital). These benefits include:
Moderating environmental stress Regenerating communities Preserving cultural and historical resources Facilitating healthy lifestyles Reducing deviant behavior Raising levels of educational achievement Alleviating unemployment distress
Figure 1.5. Community benefits of leisure (Crompton, 2008)
Basic Concepts 23
support of public parks and recreation facilities and programs in the future. Yet, one cannot stop at simply understanding the community benefits of recreation programs and facilities. The key to sustaining this support is for public and nonprofit agencies and organizations to continually reposition themselves so they are perceived to contribute to alleviating a community’s most pressing problems.
Recreation Experience Professionals
As recreation experience professionals, we need to be aware of the issues that challenge the communities where we live and work. We need to be willing to experiment in offering programs that help address complex social challenges, and to forge connections across disciplines to enhance the quality of life for all people in our communities. Professionals also need to embrace research to make an impact on society, practice, and policy. Many people feel that the increasing number of recreation choices for participants, the concern about the lack of social capital in communities, the need for inclusive urban renewal, and the growing time famine are just some of the challenges that must be overcome in planning, implementing, and evaluating recreation experience-based programs. Addressing problems such as these takes a tremendous commitment on the part of parks, recreation, and tourism professionals. In addition to organizational commitment, energetic and skilled professionals who desire to serve others and live with a servant leadership orientation are needed.
Recreation experience programmers may be found working in a variety of agencies and or-ganizations, including public agencies (e.g., city, county, state, and federal governments); private, nonprofit agencies (e.g., religious sponsored orga-nizations, youth-serving organizations, organiza-tions serving special populations [hospitals, treat-ment centers], relief organizations, social service organizations, conservation organizations, service clubs); and for-profit organizations (e.g., travel tour operators, entertainment services, theme parks). Because of recreation programmers’ widespread impact, our role as recreation experience profes-
sionals is to understand the power and potential of recreation experiences to meet desired ends (out-comes) of constituents. Whether one is involved in direct leadership, organizing a specific aspect of a program or event, or managing a recreation facility, programmers are pivotal to the success of parks, recreation, and tourism agencies and orga-nizations.
Characteristics and Skills of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Professionals
First and foremost, the recreation experience programmer is a professional. Despite the many different ways people choose to serve (in public, nonprofit, and for-profit organizations), one’s commitment to professionalism can be seen in a number of ways including the values they hold (as seen in such things as the core values professed in one’s organization and the code of ethics that have been developed by many related professional organizations). Some of those organizations are the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), American Camp Association (ACA), Association of Experiential Education (AEE), American Therapeutic Recreation Association (ATRA), and The International Ecotourism Society (IES). Further, professionalism is reflected in the various forms of accreditation that have been developed for practitioner preparation programs, and the various professional associations to which one belongs where they seek to obtain continuing education credits (e.g., ACA, NRPA, AEE); and individual certifications (e.g., Certified Park and Recreation Professional (CPRP), Certified Park and Recreation Executive (CPRE), Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist (CTRS) to which one aspires.
One professional value held by recreation experience programmers is the need for continuing education to meet the needs of a changing world. This education can be found in many professional development opportunities that focus on technical skills such as managing a pool at an aquatics center, leading an activity, or using a specific type of software. Beyond technical skills, professionals are concerned with the conceptual and relational skills needed to be successful in the 21st century. Over the last several years, a number of groups
24 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
have attempted to identify the needed skills that workers will need in the years to come. The most important (and agreed upon in industry) 21st century learning skills are:
communication, collaboration and teamwork, creativity and innovation, critical thinking, and problem solving.
These 21st century skills reinforce much of the work of Godbey, who in 1997 identified four strategies for those who will work in parks, recreation, and tourism in the 21st century. Similar to the factors that have shaped the field identified earlier in this chapter, the strategies center on being adaptable and innovative in serving others. These strategies include serving others (a key
component of servant leadership), becoming an entrepreneur, being flexible, and calling attention to the importance of what we do.
Serving OthersAn ethic of service will continue to distinguish
recreation-based services in the public, private nonprofit, and for-profit sectors. A recreation experience programmer emphasizes the people served and the beneficial outcomes provided rather than the program itself. Thus, recreation programs are not thought of as an end, but rather
…a means to an end—a higher quality of life, increased learning, better health, im-proved physical fitness, more appreciation
Basic Concepts 25
and understanding of nature, improved morale, and less crime are among the many benefits.…The worth of the profession (and the professional) is not linked to recreation, but to the benefits recreation, under some conditions and in some circumstances, can provide. (Godbey, 1997, p. 228)
As recreation programmers strive to serve others, they will need to be aware of the cultural differences in their participants while also working hard to be socially responsible, balancing the needs of the individual with the needs of society. We discuss cultural adaptability and the richness of diversity in Chapter 5.
Becoming an EntrepreneurIn the mid-1980s, Peter Drucker noted that
entrepreneurship is founded on systematic inno-vation. He indicated that systematic innovation consists of the purposeful and organized search for changes and systematic analysis of the oppor-tunities such changes might offer for economic or social innovation. Reflecting this notion, a new en-trepreneurial spirit is being evidenced in the Unit-ed States and Canada, supported by the number of unique new jobs that have emerged over the past few decades. These new jobs result from entrepre-neurial ventures in the service and information sectors of society, with many in the parks, recre-ation, and tourism areas.
Entrepreneurs serve as pace-setters of oppor-tunity, a challenging and demanding role. Their work is dynamic, diverse, inventive, and creative. As noted previously, social entrepreneurs produce new ways of meeting needs and seeking the com-mon good by adopting a mission to create and sustain social value; recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities to serve that mission; engaging a process of continuous innovation, ad-aptation and learning; acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand; and exhib-iting heightened accountability to the constituen-cies served and the outcomes created (Dees, 2012). Becoming an entrepreneur entails a number of the 21st century learning skills including: collabora-tion, creativity, critical thinking, communication skills, and problem solving.
Becoming More FlexibleIn a world of rapid and continuing change,
the ability to adapt to changing circumstances is critical. One of the most detrimental ways that professionals in parks, recreation, and tourism sometimes lose flexibility is to assume that an issue does not concern them because recreation is not at the core. Recreation and leisure are among the more diverse and complex concepts in the world; they relate to myriad issues that concern freedom, pleasure, human growth and understanding, health, nature, spirit, and learning. Becoming more flexible means the boundaries of what is relevant to a programmer must become more agile and adaptable. Likewise, programmers must be willing to collaborate and work creatively with a wide range of other disciplines to accomplish common objectives.
Calling Attention to the Importance of What We Do
Parks, recreation, and tourism professionals must believe in the power and potential of recreation programs to affect change in the lives of individuals and society and be able to communicate that message to others. Professionals must be strong and vocal advocates, stressing the notion that recreation experiences are critical components of society, not just “frosting on the cake.” The field can contribute to the creation of an environment that nourishes human potential.
Recreation experience professionals must also believe in their own ability to make a difference in the world. Little things do matter. In a wide variety of settings, recreation programmers blend ideas to design programs that facilitate recreation experiences for participants. In the programming process, programmers manipulate a variety of variables in the physical, natural, and social environments that help participants experience the conditions needed to produce a leisure experience (e.g., freedom, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, locus of control, and positive affect). Within this framework it is important to remember that programmers do not produce recreation experiences and outcomes, but instead produce opportunities for recreationists to produce these experiences and benefits for
26 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
themselves. Thus, parks, recreation, and tourism professionals produce recreation opportunities, just as teachers produce learning opportunities and doctors produce health-restoring opportunities. Identifying the process of creating, implementing, and evaluating programs, and understanding how programmers can manipulate the variables associated with this process is a recurring theme throughout this text.
Understanding the skills identified by Godbey as well as the critical 21st century skills necessitates that professionals seek continuous learning opportunities. These learning experiences can come in a variety of ways from formal training to collaborating with other professionals to searching out creative and imaginative ways to learn to being open to new ways of thinking and making connections across disciplines. For your authors, servant leadership is one such connection that has evolved and become the foundational concept of this book.
Programming: A Servant Leadership Approach
In designing opportunities for people to engage in recreation, we believe there is a need for a type of leadership and programming model that puts serving others—including customers, employees, and the community—as the number one priority. As a result, we advocate a servant leadership approach as the foundation upon which leisure and recreation programming should be based for all types of recreation agencies/organizations. We believe this emphasis on serving others stresses the similarities between various for-profit, private nonprofit, and public organizations rather than their differences. Although the philosophy of each of these types of organizations will impact programming decisions, the underlying desire to serve will remain constant.
In some ways, the term servant leadership is an oxymoron since people commonly view a leader as one who leads and a servant as ones who follows. Yet, this is part of the inherent value of the concept of servant leadership; the importance of both leadership and followership are emphasized. All of us both lead and follow. One is not better than the
other; in the course of our lives we are called to do both.
Parks, recreation, and tourism professionals must learn to be good leaders by learning to be good followers, by listening to participants, and by helping them lead so we (as professionals) can fol-low. This holds true in programming. Recreation experience-based professionals must truly listen to their constituents and follow their lead before mak-ing global statements about appropriate program-ming. Thus, servant leadership offers a powerful foundation to guide the recreation programming process. Throughout the remainder of this book, we will examine how the characteristics of ser-vant leaders fit into the overall planning process to help recreation professionals co-create programs. In this way, we feel the reader will be prepared to follow in the footsteps of early pioneers like Jane Addams, to improve the quality of life of individu-als, and contribute to the common good of society.
Characteristics and Skills of Servant Leaders
In 1995, Spears characterized servant leader-ship as an approach that
…attempts to simultaneously enhance the personal growth of workers and improve the quality and caring of our many institutions through a combination of teamwork and community, personal involvement in decision making and ethical and caring behavior. (p. 4)
The power of the servant-leadership model lies in the ability of its ideas to inspire people to be collectively more than the sum of their individual parts. According to Greenleaf, leadership should call individuals to serve something or someone beyond themselves, a higher purpose. Thus, one of the most important aspects of leadership is helping organizations and staff identify their higher purpose. Greenleaf noted that the best test of servant-leadership is…
…do those served, grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely
Basic Concepts 27
themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society: Will he [sic] benefit; or at least will he not be further deprived? (Greenleaf, 2002, p. 24)
To achieve this higher purpose, programmers must be passionate about their desire to improve their communities and themselves. The process of becoming a servant leader demands that one understand one’s own strengths and shortcomings. To guide individuals in this process, we present 10 characteristics of servant leaders in Table 1.2 (Spears, 1995).
When considering the 10 characteristics of servant leaders, it is important to look at them in relationship to one another rather than as individual elements. Rather than a ladder or a cyclical process, where characteristics build upon each other or lead one to the other, it is more appropriate to view these characteristics as a weaving, with each strand supporting and shaping the others. As with any good weaving, the servant leader draws greater strength from the combination of the characteristics rather than their application in isolation. The servant leader who is able to combine these 10 characteristics in a dynamic process when dealing with people and the environment will fulfill the potential of servant leadership to make a difference in the lives of the people they serve. DeGraaf, Tilley, and Neal (2004) identified three key themes that run through the ten characteristics and form the foundation on which they are built. These three themes are reflection, integrity, and passion.
ReflectionTo commit to being a servant leader, one must
create time to reflect in order to understand oneself and how he or she relates to staff, customers, and the larger community. This is referred to as being reflexive. Being reflexive provides the opportunity to step back and understand the big picture of an organization while not forgetting the small integral parts that must come together to help achieve the mission. Self-reflection helps one to rejuvenate and find the inner confidence to move forward in dealing with staff and customers as well as practice
such characteristics as listening, empathy, healing, conceptualization, and foresight.
IntegrityOne definition of integrity is completeness, the
ability to live out one’s values and vision as well as dealing with others in a straightforward manner. By being reflexive and thinking before acting, servant leaders can deal with people and programs with integrity. When a leader is perceived as acting with integrity, it enables him or her to be a healing force within an organization and to persuade others to the leader’s point of view. Leaders who are perceived to act with integrity are well on the way to earning the trust and support of staff and constituents, which are needed to harness the synergistic power that is inherent in servant leadership.
PassionPassion goes beyond simply being dramatic,
powerful, and emotional; it is more accurately characterized as an unfailing dedication to an ideal. Thus, intensity and duration often demonstrate passion. Seeing things through over the long haul, whether it be a program or the way a department functions, and not being deterred requires passion. When servant leaders can demonstrate their passion for many of the core values of their organization, they reaffirm their organization’s commitment to the growth of people and building social capital within their communities. As a result, professionals must continue to develop the “inner fire” within themselves. This allows a programmer to continue to deliver programs and services at a high level over the long-term, as well as encouraging a passion for services within staff to meet the needs of customers.
In following through on these themes of reflection, integrity, and passion, servant leaders can begin to weave many of the characteristics presented in Table 1.1 with the characteristics and skills of parks, recreation, and tourism professionals presented in the preceding section. Through this integration process, we can create the blend of compassion and effectiveness that is the mark of a servant leader. However, it is important to stress that there are no easy answers presented
28 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
Table 1.2 The 10 Characteristics of Servant Leaders (Spears & Lawrence, 2002)
The ability to foresee issues and plot the course of the organization
Foresight is closely related to the ability to the con-ceptualize the future, yet still distinct. Conceptual skills allow us to see the big picture, the where we want to go. Foresight allows us to map out how we are going to get there by anticipating the various consequences of our actions and then choosing the action that will best serve the organization.
The ability to be a good steward
In today’s society, stewardship is often seen in association with environmental or financial responsibility, yet it can be so much more if we are willing to be accountable for something larger than ourselves. Peter Block, in his book, Stewardship: Choosing Service Over Self-Interest, defines stewardship as “the willingness to be accountable for the well-being of the larger organization by operating service, rather than control, of those around us. Stated simply, it is accountability without control or compliance.”
The ability to be committed to the growth of others
By committing to the growth and development of staff and customers, servant leaders can adopt a benefits-based approach to delivering services and recognizing the inherent power of programs and services to make a difference. Consider how the definition of a benefit parallels the ultimate test of a servant leader. A benefit is defined as a realization of a desired and satisfying on-site experience, changes that are viewed to be advantageous as a result of an experience, or the prevention of a worse condition. Now reconsider Greenleaf’s ultimate test of a servant leader. “Do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants (the realization of desired and satisfying on-site experiences)? What is the effect on the least privileged in society: Will they benefit (improvement in condition) or, at least, will they not be further deprived (prevention of a worse condition)?”
The ability to build community
Servant leaders are committed to contributing to the bigger picture, constantly looking for ways in which their programs and organizations can contribute to the common good. This can be accomplished in many ways. For example, building community through programs, encouraging virtuous behavior in staff, and encouraging customers to take responsibility for themselves and their actions can lead to the common good.
The ability to listen
Listening is the first characteristic of servant leadership, for it is through listening that many of the other characteristics can be nurtured. When we listen, not just to others but also to our own internal voice, we create a mind-set that fosters such characteristics as empathy, awareness, foresight, and commitment to others.
The ability to empathize with others
Empathy is the capacity for participation in an-other’s feelings or ideas; it is important in deal-ing with staff and customers. People need to be accepted and recognized for their special and unique spirits.
The ability to offer healing
Being a healer within an organization starts with understanding the “matters of the heart.” Learning to heal is a powerful force for trans-formation and integration. The desire to foster the healing process in an organization comes to us as we listen and empathize with those with whom we serve and work.
The ability to be self-aware
In an ever-changing world, the need for leaders to be aware of their customers, their staff, and their organizations is well documented. Yet, servant leaders are asked to take an additional step, to develop self-awareness. This entails making time for self-reflection, to understand the big picture. This type of general awareness, and especially self-awareness, aids in understanding issues involving ethics and values. It enables one to view most situations from a more integrated position.
The ability to build consensus
Servant leadership offers a scenario whereby leaders encourage workers to build consensus around the true purpose of the organization as well as the means of achieving this purpose. Within this type of environment, staff are en-couraged to use persuasion rather than coer-cion in influencing others to their point of view.
The ability to conceptualize “what might be”
From an early age, we are taught to deal with complexity by breaking things down into their separate parts. The flip side of this approach is to see the big picture, or to see things whole, we need to put the pieces back together. The ability to see things whole and offer a preferred vision for programs or the organization as a whole is critical to the success of any program or orga-nization.
Basic Concepts 29
in this model and that the concept of the servant leader is a paradox. The real strength of the concept is in remembering the process of balancing the concept of
servant and leader is not either/or; it is both/and. In the end, being a servant leader is not something we do, but rather something we are. It is about creating the right environment to get the best out of people and unleash their true potential.
SummaryAll parks, recreation, and tourism agencies and
organizations are concerned with programming. After all, programs are the vehicle professionals use to deliver recreation benefits to both individuals and society. In this chapter we have laid the foundation for understanding the recreation programming
process by presenting definitions, introducing the ideals of the early recreation movement, and discussing a number of important concepts.
First and foremost, recreation programmers must understand the five prevailing factors that characterize the leisure experience—freedom, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, locus of control, and positive affect. Freedom implies choice, spontaneity, and being free from constraints that inhibit participation. Perceived competence refers to the skills that individuals believe they possess that will contribute to successful participation. Intrinsic motivation refers to an individual’s desire to participate in recreation experiences based on personal needs and desires, rather than external motivation. Locus of control refers to the need of an individual to control elements of the recreation experience once he or she is engaged in the process, and positive affect refers to a sense of enjoyment felt while engaged
30 Programming for Parks, Recreation, and Leisure Services
in the recreation experience. Understanding these factors as they relate to satisfying recreation experiences is imperative if parks, recreation, and tourism programmers are going to design and implement programs and services to meet the needs and demands of a variety of people.
A second important consideration in deliver-ing recreation experiences is the concept of out-comes-focused programming. An outcomes-fo-cused approach to recreation encourages a broad understanding of the long-term and short-term beneficial outcomes provided by the recreation ex-perience. Both individual and societal benefits ex-ist. The development of social capital is one com-mon outcome or benefit of parks, recreation, and tourism programs. In many ways, benefits serve as the driving force behind programming approach-es.
In addition to discussing the foundations of recreation programming, we also introduced the role of the programmer in planning, implementing, and evaluating programs. Important elements include understanding what it means to be a part of a profession as well as defining what makes a profession—a code of ethics, opportunities for accreditation and certification, taking advantage of ongoing educational opportunities, and behaving with integrity. Within the professional context, we presented servant leadership as a philosophical approach to programming recreation experiences. Servant leadership emphasizes increased service to others by encouraging shared decision making and a sense of community. Such an approach emphasizes the three factors that have shaped all forms of parks, recreation, and tourism programs at their best: the desire to help people, an entrepreneurial spirit, and the ability to respond to societal changes.
Servant leaders exhibit a number of important characteristics. Each subsequent chapter of this book will highlight various characteristics from Table 1.2 that fit with the contents of that chapter. One characteristic—commitment to the growth of people—flows through every chapter in the book and is profiled here. Edginton and Chen (2008) noted that recreation provides an optimal environment for individuals to seek new experiences, experiment, and to learn and grow anew. Leisure provides an environment that
enables individuals to change or to be transformed. They went on to say,
Increasingly, leisure service providers will be viewed as advocates, social entrepre-neurs, community organizers, facilitators, as well as direct service providers. This new focus for assisting and facilitating the pro-cess of transformation; helping individuals, communities, and nations think differ-ently about issues related to social justice, the environment, and in general their so-cial development including how humans use their creative abilities to enhance their quality of life and well-being from multiple perspectives including social, cultural, and economic interests related to leisure. Be-cause the properties of leisure not only as-sist people in the transformation or change process, but also help individuals maintain a link to their more stable roots, leisure service providers will be key agents in as-sisting individuals to cope with the ever increasing social, cultural and economic disruptions that will occur during this time of great transformation. (p. 127)
In fulfilling this role, parks, recreation, and tourism programmers must not only help people grow and develop, but must also help them deal with the changing world. This is a tremendous responsibility as well as an opportunity to fulfill the promise of leisure and recreation for both individuals and communities. It is our hope that this book will help you catch the vision of the possibilities for recreation programs to make a difference, while also giving you the tools and knowledge to create programs that help participants grow and develop.
Key Concepts• All parks, recreation, tourism, and related pro-
fessions are concerned with programming—it is the lifeblood of what recreation experience professionals do.
• Recreation programs have the potential to make a positive difference in the lives of indi-viduals and their communities if the programs
Basic Concepts 31
are well planned and implemented; programs must be purposeful interventions.
• Programs are not ends in themselves; they are the means by which parks, recreation, and tourism professionals produce beneficial outcomes—the benefits people seek in their recreation experiences (e.g., freedom, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, locus of control, positive affect).
• Although parks, recreation, and tourism programmers know that fun and enjoyment are central to what we do, we must also remember the power of programs to address larger societal issues, such as health and fostering active living, enhancing community and building relationships, environmental issues, and helping people connect to the world. We believe that this demands that we take a servant leadership approach to offering programs.
• Servant leadership emphasizes increased service to others by encouraging shared decision making and a sense of community. Such an approach emphasizes the three factors that have shaped all forms of parks, recreation, and tourism at their best: the desire to help people, an entrepreneurial spirit, and the ability to respond to societal changes.
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