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Thinking, Language and IntelligenceChapter 10-Chapter 11

Exam: Memory, Cognition, and Language

Chapter 9 and Chapter 10- FridayMidyear: Chapters 1- Chapter 12Self-shaping Project: January 14th

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Do Now: How would you define “Thinking?” Do animals think? Do men and women think differently?

AIM: How do we think?

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Thinking

Thinking, or cognition: a process that involves knowing, understanding,

remembering, and communicating.

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Concept

The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

•Schemas•Example: Chair

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Prototypes

We may base our concepts on prototypes – the most typical example of a concept

Triangle definition) Bird (mental image)

Daniel J. C

ox/ Getty Im

ages

J. Messerschm

idt/ The Picture C

ube

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Categories

Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category

prototype.

Courtesy of O

liver Corneille

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Problem Solving

There are two ways to solve problems:

1)Algorithms: Methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem.2) Heuristics

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Algorithms

S P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face

907,208 possibilities.

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Heuristics

Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that

allow us to make judgments and solve problems

efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-

prone than algorithms.

B2M

Productions/D

igital Version/G

etty Images

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Heuristics

Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.

S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y

Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.

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Insight

Insight involves a sudden novel

realization of a solution to a

problem.

Grande using boxes toobtain food

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Insight

Insight activates the right temporal cortex

From M

ark Jung-Beekm

an, Northw

estern U

niversity and John Kounios, D

rexel University

Insight Problems

• What occurs once in every minute, twice in every moment, yet never in a thousand years?

• What is so unusual about the sentence below?

(Aside from the fact it does not make a lot of

sense.) “Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.”

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Obstacles in Solving Problems

Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.

Example: Multiple Choice

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Fixation

Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional

fixedness.

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Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was

successful in the past.

The Matchstick Problem: How

would you arrange six matches to form

four equilateral triangles?

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The Matchstick Problem: Solution

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Functional Fixedness

A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object.

Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.

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Functional Fixedness

Use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the end of one rope. Swing it toward

the other rope to tie the knot.

The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight isfunctional fixedness.

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Heuristics

1) representative heuristics 2) availability heuristics

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Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than

such professors.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent a particular prototype.

If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be?

An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?

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Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic: judging a situation

based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially

How is retrieval facilitated?1. How recently we have heard about the

event.2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.

Do Now: Distinguish between AVAILIABILITY HEURISTIC and REPRESENTATIVE HEURISTIC

The easier it is for people to remember an instance in which they were betrayed by a friend, the more they expect such an event to recur. This best illustrates the impact of: a. framing. b. the representativeness heuristic. c. functional fixedness. d. the availability heuristic.

A defense attorney emphasizes to a jury that her client works full-time, supports his family, and enjoys leisure-time hobbies. Although none of this information is relevant to the trial, it is designed to make the defendant appear to be a typical member of the local community. The lawyer is most clearly seeking to take advantage of: a. confirmation bias. b. functional fixedness. c. belief perseverance. d. the representativeness heuristic.

What are some impediments to problem solving?

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Overconfidence

Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs

and judgments.

Example: stock market

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Exaggerated Fear

Exaggerated fearirrationalparanoia

AP

/ Wide W

orld Photos

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Framing Decisions

Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon

how an issue is framed or worded.

Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?

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Belief Bias

Making illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs

Example: Democrats support free speech

Dictators are not democratsTherefore, Dictators do not support

free speech

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Belief Perseverance

Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary

evidence.

Example: Creationism vs Evolutionists

1. Brutus believes that men enjoy watching professional football and that women are categorically distinct from men. His gender stereotypes are so strong, however, that he mistakenly reasons from these premises the illogical conclusion that women do not enjoy watching professional football. His reasoning difficulty best illustrates: a. the framing effect. b. the availability heuristic. c. belief bias.d. functional fixedness.

2. When her professor failed to recognize that Judy had her hand raised for a question, Judy began to think her professor was unfriendly. Although she subsequently learned that the professor’s limited vision kept him from seeing her raised hand, she continued thinking the professor was unfriendly. Judy’s reaction best illustrates: a. the framing effect. b. belief perseverance. c. functional fixedness.d. category hierarchies.

Convergent and Divergent Thinking

• Convergent Thinking- thinking pointed towards one solution– Left hemisphere

Example: 4x+2= 8

• Divergent Thinking

-more than one solution

- creative thinkingExample: Literary analysis

How does cognition relate to language?

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Language

Language is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others.

Language transmits culture.

M. &

E. B

ernheim/ W

oodfin Cam

p & A

ssociates

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Language Structure

Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example:

bat, has three phonemes b · a · t

chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t

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Language Structure

Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. For example:

Milk = milkPumpkin = pumpkin

Unforgettable = un · for · get · tableUn

ForgetAble

How many morpheme and phonemes are in the following

words:• Screwdriver

• Chimps

• Psychology (ooo tricky!!!)

Do Now: Review homework

AIM: How do humans develop language?

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Structuring Language

Phrase

Sentence

Meaningful units (290,500) … meat, pumpkin.Words

Smallest meaningful units (100,000) … un, for.

Morphemes

Basic sounds (about 40) … ea, sh.Phonemes

Composed of two or more words (326,000) … meat eater.

Composed of many words (infinite) … She opened the jewelry box.

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Grammar

Grammar is the system of rules in a language

Grammar

SyntaxSemantics

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Semantics

Semantics is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from sentences.

Example: Semantic rule tells us that adding –ed to the word laugh means that

it happened in the past.Adding an “S” makes a word plural

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Syntax

Syntax consists of the rules for ordering words into grammatical sentences.

In English we say white house. In Spanish, it is reversed; casa blanca.

“You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous composers, artists, and

writers are buried daily except Thursday”

Syntax FAIL

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How many new words do we learn a day?

We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500

words a year, amassing 60,000

words by the time we graduate from high

school.

Tim

e Life Pictures/ G

etty Images

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When do we learn language?

Babbling Stage:-Beginning at 4 months-spontaneously uttering of sounds (ah-goo.)-not imitation of adult speech.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuMdIxKnqz8

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When do we learn language?

One-Word Stage: Beginning around his/her first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time

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When do we learn language?

Two-Word Stage: -Starts Before Year Two-Telegraphic speech (the child speaks like a telegram)

“Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car.

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When do we learn language?

2 years: Longer phrases with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor.

You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there.

Overgeneralization

After 2 years of age, children may incorrectly follow the rules of grammar:

Overgeneralization or overregularization

Examples: “I goed to the store”

“I runned outside”

“There were lots of mouses”

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When do we learn language?

What is the critical period for language?

Up to 7 years

Two Theories for Language Development

• Behaviorists– We develop language by imitating sounds

• Nativists– Biological Predisposition for Language

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Explaining Language Development: Behaviorism

1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) -language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles

A. ImitationB. Reward/Punishment

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Explaining Language Development: Nativist

2. Language Acquisition Device: A. Linguist Noam ChomskyB. Children born with innate ability to gather rules of languageC. Contrary to “blank slate”D. Critical Period

Proof for Language Acquisition

• All languages have grammar rules

• Children overgeneralize use morphemes in predictable orders: “go-ed,”

• Genes in twin studies

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Explaining Language Development

Statistical Learning and Critical Periods: -- brains statistically analyze which syllables in go together. Example: hap-py-ba-by-Statistical analyses are learned during critical periods.

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Language & AgeLearning new languages gets harder with age.

Language & Thinking

Language and thinking intricately intertwine.

Rubber B

all/ Alm

ay

Language Influences Thinking

Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the way we think.

Language Influences Thinking

When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about

these objects more clearly and remember them

Balanced Bilinguals are superior to monolinguals in terms of:

• Cognitive flexibility

• Concept formation

• Creativity

• Better ability to learn more languages

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Problem Solving

Apes are famous, much like us, for solving problems.

Chimpanzee fishing for ants.

Courtesy of Jennifer B

yrne, c/o Richard B

yrne, D

epartment of P

sychology, University of S

t. Andrew

s, Scotland

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Animal Culture

Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations.

Dolphins using sponges asforging tools.

Chimpanzee mother using andteaching a young how to use

a stone hammer.

Copyright A

manda K

Coakes

Michael N

ichols/ National G

eographic Society

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Mental States

Can animals infer mental states in themselves and others?

To some extent. Chimps and orangutans (and dolphins) used mirrors to inspect

themselves when a researcher put paint spots on their faces or bodies.

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Do Animals Exhibit Language?

There is no doubt that animals

communicate.

Vervet monkeys, whales and even

honey bees communicate with members of their species and other

species.Rico (collie) has a

200-word vocabulary

Copyright B

aus/ Kreslow

ski

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The Case of Apes

Chimps do not have a vocal apparatus for human-like speech (Hayes & Hayes,1951).

Therefore, Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe, a chimp, who learned 182

signs by the age of 32.

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Gestured Communication

Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is

possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.

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Sign Language

American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees

a form of communication.

When asked, this chimpanzee usesa sign to say it is a baby.

Paul Fusco/ Magnum

Photos

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Computer Assisted Language

Others have shown that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater

vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1991). Kanzi and Panbanish developed vocabulary for

hundreds of words and phrases.

Copyright of G

reat Ape T

rust of Iowa

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Conclusions

If we say that animals can use meaningful sequences of signs to communicate a

capability for language, our understanding would be naive… Steven Pinker (1995)

concludes, “chimps do not develop language.”

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Intelligence

Chapter 11

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What is Intelligence?

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations.

In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures.

This tends to be “school smarts.”

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Conceptual Difficulties

Psychologists believe that intelligence is a concept and not a thing.

When we think of intelligence as a trait (thing) we make an error called

reification — viewing an abstract immaterial concept as if it were a

concrete thing.

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Controversies About Intelligence

Despite general agreement among psychologists about the nature of

intelligence, two controversies remain:

1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several specific abilities?

2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can we locate and measure intelligence within the brain?

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Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?

Have you ever thought that since people’s mental abilities are so diverse, it

may not be justifiable to label those abilities with only one word, intelligence?

You may speculate that diverse abilities represent different kinds of intelligences.

How can you test this idea?

AP PsychologyJanuary 7, 2010

What is intelligence?

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Homework: 1) Read pages 434-442 2) Complete Psych Sim

Spearman’s Studies

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Factor Analysis: cluster of items that measure a common ability

Example: vocabulary, paragraph comprehension,Grades in English classes, SAT verbal

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General Intelligence

General intelligence (g) is a factor that underlies all intelligence .

BUT…. Spearman’s Theory of General Intelligence was controversial.

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Other Early Theories of Intelligence as Multiple Abilities

-Intelligence as Seven Clusters of Primary Mental Abilities- Thurstone

-General Intelligence as an evolutionary adaptation

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Contemporary Intelligence Theories

Howard Gardner-multiple intelligences-exceptionally intelligent people, such as savants

People with savant syndrome excel in abilitiesunrelated to general intelligence.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhcQG_KItZM

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Howard Gardner

Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences (and speculates about a ninth one — existential intelligence. )

How is Gardner’s theory problematic?

• Difficult to research

• Talents or intelligences?

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Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences

rather than eight.1. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence

that makes us adapt to novel situations, generate novel ideas

2. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.

3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).

Sternberg and Gardner’s studies are important in broadening our

definition for intelligence…… in the workplace, the classroom, on the

athletic field.

Do Now: Compare and contrast Spearman, Gardner, and Sternberg’s Theories of Intelligence. Which do you think is the best theory and why?

January 8AIM: How can we assess

intelligence?

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Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and manage

emotions

-proposed by Daniel Goleman

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Emotional Intelligence: Components

Component Description

Perceive emotionRecognize emotions in

faces, music and stories

Understand emotion

Predict emotions, how they change and blend

Manage emotionExpress emotions in different situations

Use emotionUtilize emotions to adapt or

be creative

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Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence correlates positively with career, marriage, and parenting

success.proposed by Daniel Goleman

Emotion Recognition Mischel’s Marshmallow

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Emotional Intelligence: Criticism

Should intelligence apply to emotions?

But, studies show general intelligence DOES matter

*Crystallized and fluid intelligence

• Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge

• Fluid intelligence: ability to reason quickly when solving new problems

• How does each change with age?

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Intelligence and Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates

slightly with intelligence.1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things

in novel ways.3. Adventuresome Personality: A personality that

seeks new experiences rather than following the pack.

4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within.

5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.

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Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?

Recent Studies indicate some correlation (about +.40) between brain size and

intelligence.

Gray matter concentration in people with high intelligence.

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Brain Function

Intelligence tests and reaction time

People with higher intelligence respond correctly and quickly tothe above question.

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Assessing Intelligence

Intelligence testing: a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes

and comparing them with others

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Alfred Binet

Alfred Binet: predictor intelligence testing developing questions that would predict children’s future progress

Mental Age: IntelligenceIncreases as we age

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Lewis TermanStanford-Binet Test: The following is the

formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by

William Stern: