lAD-A1GA 929 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TALLAHASSEE FLA WATER RESOURCES DIV F/G 8I8WATER-RESOURCES INFORMATION FOR THE WITILACOOCHEE RIVER RE6IO#E.-ETC(U)AUG 81 Rt A MILLER, W ANDERSON, A S NAVOY

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ATlU-USOURCES INIORATION FOR THE

WITULACOOCHEE RIVER REGION,

WEST-CENTRAL FLORIDA

by Robert A. Miller, Warren Anderson, Anthony S. Navoy,

James L. Smoot, and Roger G. Belles

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Water-Resources Investigations 81-11

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Prepared in cooperation with the

U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS

Tallahassee, Florida

1981

UNITED STATES DEARhKlI O01 INTIR

JAM1 G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Doyle G. Frederick. Acting Director

For additional Information write to:

U.S. Geological surveySuite 7-240325 Jom Knox RoadTallabeesee, nL32303

CONTEfTS

Page

Abstract .............. ... .. .......... ....... 1Introduction ............. .... . ... .... ...... . ... . 2

Study area .................................. ............. 2Purpose ................ .................... ... ....... .... 5Scope ........................... . . ..... .................. 5Climate ............................................... 0.. 0. 15Rainfall ........................................... ....... . 15Evapotranspiration ......... . .......................... 6

Water Use ............ ........... ....... .. .. ...... .............. 6eneral p.............. ....................... - ........... 6

Public supply .............. . ...................... 9Rural domestic ................. o.......... .. ....... .... oo. 9Livestock ....... of.the.Wi...a.ooc ..e r ........... 9Irrigation (self-supplied) ....... .......................... 13Industrial (self-supplied) ......................... o......... 13

Thermoelectric power generation ........ ...... - ......... 13Water-use stumary .......... ................................ 19

Hydrogeology ..... ...o........ .... ............... ........ 19Physiography .............................. ................. 19

Highland areas ........................................ 19Lowland areas .... o.................................... 26Morphology of the Withlacoochee River .................. 27Morphology of sinkholes and spring;s .................... o 27

Morpholo of lakes............ ................ . 28eology... ................................. ............ .. 30

Structure ........... ............. ............... 30"Stratigraphy ..... 30

Pre-Tertiary basement rock ... .. ...... .......... 30Cedar Keys Formation ....... .... . ..... ........... 30Oldsmar Limestone ............. o ......... ... ...... 34Lake City Limestone ..... ......... ... . ............ 34Avon Park Limestone ...... ...................... 34Ocala Limestone... F.......o....o.................. 34Suwannee Limestone ............................ .. 34Tampa Limestone ......... ... ................. .. 35G awthorn Formation .... ......... .................. 35Alachua Formation ................. .... o........... 35Fort Preston Formation of Puri and Vernon

(1964) (Citronelle(?) Formation)- .............. 35Quaternary terrace deposits.,. A:." ... .. /'35

Economic geology, ...... e.........0... .0....." 35Ground-water resources ...... .0........... .......... ....... 38

The surficial aquifer. .................. ..... .. ..... .... 39Occurrence ...• .. • • • ...... ,. -0

• , rodes

Ground-water resources--Continued PageThe surf icial aquifer--Continued

Characteristics. . .. ......................... .. . 39Composition..................................... 39

Thickness. .. .. ... . .. ............ .. . ... . ...... 39Hydraulic characteristics......................... 39Water in the surficial aquifer.................... 39

Secondary artesian aquifers.......................... 42Confining beds ... ..................... o....... ...... 42The Floridan aquifer... ........ o... o....... o........... 42

Character and distribution ............ ....... o....... 42Storage.. . ............................ o . .. 44Leakance ..... o..........o...-..o............. 44

Potentiometric surface ........ o........o.... o.... o.......49Estimated well yields. ..... .... o........ .. 49Water quality................... o........... .... o. 49

Well record... o....... o.............. o.............. ....... 54Ground-water modeling.......................... ..._..... 54

Surface-water resources............. o.............. o............. 80Streamsn.... o............o...-...................... 80

Drainage basins ..... ...................... ......... 80Runoff.......................... o.............* 80Station record ............................. ........ 82Seasonal variation of discharge .................... 82F low duration...................................... 82Quality of surface wuater ................ ........... o 82

Chemical type .................................... 89Dissolved solids ........... o.......... ...... 89Conductance ......... .......................... 92Nutrients ....... ~o............... .. .. . 92Color ............. o......................... 95pH.........o......................... ... 95Temperature..................................... 98

Lakes.. ..................................... .... 98Lakes record..................... #.......98Stage fluctuations. .. .. .. .... o........ * ......... 95Water quality ..................... ....... 104Specific lake studies. .. .. . ... ................. o .. 107

Lake Rousseau ............... .............. 107Teala Apopka Lake. ............ . . .. .. .. .. ... 109Lake Panasoffkee .. ........... o ........... 109Lake Ocklawaha. ..... o . .. ......... . ........ . - 110

Surface-water modeling ........... . .. o ... . ... . .. . .. o . . .. . ... 114

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PageAreas of technical needs ......................................... 116

Water use ................................... ............... 116Analysis of recent water-use data ...................... 116

Ground-water source delineation.................... 116Irrigation application rates.........................116Limerock-mining water use....... .......... 116Industrial water-use rates......................... 116Water consumption .............................. 1 117

Ground-water resources..................................... 117Hydraulic characteristics of the Floridan aquifer...... 117Evaluation of the surficial and secondary artesianaquifers ............................................ 117

Analysis of water-rich areas .................... 117Effects of mining on the water resources .............. 117

Surface-water resources.................................... 118Time of travel .............................. 118Flow routing....................................... 118Quality modeling.................................... 118Water-quality data pertaining to public supplies ...... 118Effects on surface-water resources due to ground-water pumpage ....................................... 118

Stage data for lakes................................ 119Relation between lake and aquifer water levels........ 119Quality of water in lakes......... ............. ..... 119Precise inventory of lakes........ ..... ...... 119Water quality of springs............................. 119Discharge of springs................................. 120

Sumnary...............-oo .. o ... o. ...... .. 120Selected Bibliography.................................... 123

ILLUSTRATIONSPage

Figure 1. Map showing location of study area. .............. 32. Map showing surficial features of the study area.... 43. Graph showing average and extreme monthly rainfall

2 miles east of Bushnell, 1937-76..............8

4. Graph showing average annual lake evaporation ........ 85. Graph showing total freshwater withdrawals in

the Withlacoochee River region by use category,in million gallons per day................ 21

6. Graph showing freshwater withdrawals by county, inmillion gallons per day............... .... 22

7. Graph showing freshwater withdrawals in theWithlacoochee River region by county and majoruse category ........... .. ................. ... 23

8. Graph showing freshwater withdrawals by county ....... 249. Physiographic map. ............................... 25

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PageFigure 10. Diagram showing collapse sink, solution depression,

water-table spring, artesian spring, and theirrelation to water table, potentiometric surface,and geology ............... .. ..................... 29

11. Geologic map ........................................ 3212. Map showing orientations of Peninsular Arch and

Ocala Uplift ....................................... 3313. Terrace map ............................ ............. 3714. Map showing thickness of surficial deposits above

confining beds for areas where such data havebeen published ..................................... 40

15. Map showing generalized depth to water table ......... 4116. Map showing thickness of confining beds for areas

where such data have been published ................ 4317. Map showing altitude of top of the Floridan aquifer

for areas where such data have been published ...... 4518. Map showing altitude of base of the Floridan aquifer

for areas where such data have been published ...... 4619. Map showing thickness of the potable-water zone

in the Floridan aquifer ............................ 4720. Generalized leakance map ........................... 4821. Map showing potentiometric surface of the Floridan

aquifer, May 1979, for areas where such data havebeen published .................................... 50

22. Map showing yields of 12-inch wells .................. 5123. Map showing chloride concentrations in water from

the upper part of the Floridan aquifer ............. 5224. Map showing sulfate concentrations in water from

the upper part of the Floridan aquifer ............. 5325. Map showing dissolved-solids concentrations in

water from the upper part of the Floridanaquifer ........................ .... ........ 55

26. Map showing hardness of water in the upper part ofthe Floridan aquifer ... ............................. 56

27. Map showing locations of wells listed in table 13 .... 7828. Map showing drainage basins and average annual

basin runoff ...................................... 8129. Map showing locations of continuous-record gaging

stations listed in table 14 ........................ 8630. Map showing chemical types of streams during low-

flow conditions .................................... 9031. Map showing dissolved-solids concentrations in

stream ............................................ 9132. Map showing maximum-observed specific conductance of

stream ......................... 0...........0........ 93

33. Map showing average total nitrogen concentrations instream ...... 0...........0..........0.......0........ 94

34. Map showing maximum orthophosphate concentrations instream .. .... .. ...... . . .. . . . ............... 96

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Page35. Map showing maximum color of water in streams ........ 9736. Map showing minimum pH of water in streams ........... 9937. Map showing locations of lakes having continuous

stage data ......................................... 10338. Graph showing flow-duration curves for Lake

Rousseau, Blue Run, and Withlacoochee River,1966-76 ..... ....... ....... .. . .. . .. . .... 108

39. Map showing locations of springs with dischargegreater than 1 cubic foot per second............... 113

TABLES

Page

Table 1. Average monthly rainfall, in inches, for threeselected sites.................................... 7

2. Public-supply water withdrawals during 1977 by

county .......................................... 103. Public-supply water uses during 1977 by county, in

million gallons per day............................ 114. Rural domestic and livestock water withdrawals by

county for 1977, in million gallons per day ....... 125. Self-supplied irrigation water withdrawals by

county during 1977, in million gallons per day(acre feet per year) ............................... 14

6. Irrigation application rates by county for 1977 ...... 157. Irrigation crop acreages by county for 1977, in

acres........... ...................... 168. Industrial self-supplied water use by county for

1977, in million gallons per day .................. 179. Total water withdrawal in the Withlacoochee River

region for 1977 by source, in million gallonsper day................................... 18

10. Freshwater withdrawal by county for 1977, in milliongallons per day .. .......................... 20

11. Stratigraphy of study area .......................... 3112o Terraces of central Florida ...................... .3613. Record of wels . . . .................... 5714. Continuous-record gaging stations .................... 8315. Mean monthly discharges of selected streamflow-

gaging stations ................................... 8716. Flow-duration values of selected stations............ 8817. Record of lake stations having continuous stage

data ............................................. 10018. Duration table of daily stages for selected lake

stations .................... ..... ................ 10519. Summary of water-quality data for lakes ............. 10620. Record of selected springs........... ......... 111

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GLOSSARY

Aquifer.--A formation, group of formations, or part of a formationthat is water bearing and will yield significant quantities ofwater to wells and springs.

Clastic.--Pertains to rocks composed of fragmented material derivedfrom preexisting rocks and transported mechanically to its placeof deposition.

Confined aquifer.--A formation constrained between two confining beds,usually having the potentiometric surface above the top of theaquifer. The latter condition is termed artesian.

Confining bed.--A formation that is stratigraphically adjacent to oneor more aquifers and has a permeability that is low in relationto the permeabilities of the aquifers.

Drawdown.--The distance the potentiometric surface at a particularpoint is lowered when water is removed from an aquifer by a pump-ing well.

Evapotranspiration. -The overall loss of water by evaporation from landand water surfaces and by transpiration from plants growingthereon.

Fault.--A fracture in the Earth's crust accompanied by a displacementof one side of the fracture with respect to the other and in adirection parallel to the fracture.

Formation.--A geologic unit consisting of a group of rocks composedof similar materials and displaying common group characteristics.

Geohydrology.--The science dealing with the laws of the occurrence andmovement of subterranean waters, and in which the emphasis isplaced on hydrology.

Head (static head).--The height above a standard datum of the surfaceof a column of water that can be supported by the static pressureat a given point.

Hydraulic conductivity.--The volume of water that will move in unittime under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measuredat right angles to the direction of flow.

Hydraulic gradient.--The change in head per unit distance in a givendirection.

Hydrology.--The science dealing with the properties, distribution, andcirculation of water on the surface of the land, in the soil andunderlying rocks, and in the atmosphere.

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Infiltration.--The movement of water from the land surface downwardthrough the unsaturated zone to the water table.

Karst.--A type of terrain, marked by sinkholes, in which the topographyis chiefly formed by the dissolution of rock, usually limestone,by surface and ground water.

Leakance.--The ratio of the vertical hydraulic conductivity of a confiningbed to its thickness, which is the volume of water transmittedthrough the confining bed per unit area per unit of head differenceacross the confining bed per unit time.

Lithology.-The description of rocks as differentiated by mineralcomposition and structure.

Milliequivalents.--An equivalent concentration that results when theconcentration of a chemical constituent in milligrams per liter isdivided by the combining weight of the constituent involved. Whenexpressed in milliequivalents per liter, the unit concentrationsof all ions are chemically equivalent. If all the chemical con-stituents of a water sample are correctly determined, the totalmilliequivalents of anions should exactly equal the totalmilliequivalents of cations.

Percolation.--The movement, under hydrostatic pressure, of waterthrough the interstices of rock or soil.

Permeability.--A property of a porous medium that relates to itscapacity to transmit a fluid under a potential gradient.

Porosity.--The ratio of volume of interstices or voids in rock or soilto its total volume.

Potentiometric surface.--A surface which represents the static head ofwater in an aquifer. It is defined by the level to which waterwill rise in tightly cased wells penetrating the aquifer.

Recharge.--The amount of water which enters the aquifer underconsideration.

Runoff.-The part of precipitation that appears in surface streamshaving reached the stream channel by either surface or subsurfaceroutes.

Specific capacity.--The rate of discharge of water from a well dividedby the drawdown of the water leveL in the well.

Specific (electrical) conductance.--Pertains to the capacity of waterto conduct an electrical current. It varies with temperature, ionconcentration, and chemical composition of the water. Specificconductance is reported in units of micromhos per centimeter at 25*C.

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Specific retention.--ThL rdtlo of the volume of water a given body ofrock or soil will hold against the pull of gravity to the volumeof the body itself.

Specific yield.--The ratio of the volume of water that will drain bygravity from a saturated rock or soil to the volume of rock orsoil.

Storage coefficient.--The volume of water an aquifer releases from ortakes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unitchange in head.

Transmissivity. -The rate at which water is transmitted through a unitwidth of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.

Water table.--The water surface in an unconfined aquifer at which thepressure is atmospheric. It is defined by the level at whichwater stands in wells that penetrate the aquifer just far enoughto hold standing water.

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ABBREVIATIONS, CONVERSION FACTORS, AND GEODETIC DATUM

For use of those readers who prefer to use metric (SI) unitsrather than inch-pound units, the conversion factors for the terms usedin this report are listed below:

Multiply inch-pound units 12 To obtain metric (SI) units

inch 25.40 millimeter (Wn)foot 0.3048 meter (i)mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (kin)pound (ib) 0.4535 kilogram (kg)acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)galion (gal) 3.785 liter (L)cubic foot per second 28.32 cubic decimeter per second(ft3/s) (dm3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)million gallons per day 0.04381 cubic meter per second

(Mgal/d) (m3/s)

micromho (umho) 1.000 microsiemens (PS)

Temperature in degrees Celsius can be converted to degrees Fahrenheitas follows:

°F - 1.8 °C + 32

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD of 1929) is the geodeticdatum formerly called mean sea level (msl). Its use is understoodwhen the terms "altitude" or "sea level" are used in this report.

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WATER-RESOURCES INFORMATION FOR THEWITHLACOOCHEE RIVER REGION, WEST-CENTRAL FLORIDA

By Robert A. Miller, Warren Anderson, Anthony S. Navoy,James L. Smoot, and Roger G. Belles

ABSTRACT

Daily water use in the Withlacoochee River region in 1977 averagedabout 2,005 million gallons per day, 94 percent of which was salinesurface water used in thermoelectric power-generation cooling. Industrialand irrigation uses required 73 percent of the freshwater. The largestuser of freshwater was Hernando County, using 43.0 million gallons perday.

The ground-water system is comprised of up to three differentaquifers-the surficial, the secondary artesian, and the Floridan.Little is known about the surficial and secondary artesian aquifers.

The Floridan aquifer consists mostly of limestones and dolomites,and is as much as 1,500 feet thick. Transmissivities are known to be ashigh as 25 million feet squared per day. Yields of 2,000 gallons perminute from 12-inch wells are possible. Although the range in fluctua-tions of the potentiometric surface is as great as 20 feet, no signi-ficant change has occurred since the 1930's when data were first collected.

The quality of water within the Floridan aquifer is generallyexcellent except near the Gulf Coast and in extreme east Marion County,near the St. Johns River where saltwater is present in the aquifer. Ironand hydrogen sulfide are sometimes a problem, but they can usually be con-trolled by proper well design and aeration of the water. Concentrations ofsulfate do not exceed 250 milligrams per liter in the study area, and only

in a small part of the area do dissolved-solids concentrations exceed 250milligrams per liter.

Summaries were compiled of more than 1,000 wells, 43 continuous-record gaging stations, 21 lakes, and 46 springs. The predominantchemical type for both streams and springs is calcium and magnesiumbicarbonate due to the dissolution process of the carbonate rocks.Along the coastal areas and near the St. Johns River, water is commonlyof the sodium chloride type. The majority of the streams have averagedissolved-solids concentrations between 100 and 200 milligrams per

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liter, maxinum-observed specific conductance between 250 and 750 micro-shoo per centimeter, and average total nitrogen concentrations of lessthan 1.2 milligrams per liter.

Data for six lakes showed that the rane of stage between the 90and 10 percent exceedance stages is as great as 4.5 feet and as small as2.2 feet. Little water-quality data for lakes are available, especiallyfor the Important constituents such as biochemical oxygen demand, totalnitrogen, total phosphorus, and total carbon.

Flow-duration data for springs show mall ranges in discharge. Thedifferences between the 10 and 90 percent exceedance discharges are 350cubic feet per second for Silver Springs and 280 cubic feet per secondfor Rainbow Springs, the two largest springs in the area. Water qualityof the springs is relatively constant with time because of the water'slong residence time within the carbonate rocks.

INTRODUCTION

Study Area

The study area of this report, the Withlacoochee River region, isin the counties of Levy, Marion, Citrus, Hernando, and Sumter (fig. 1).These counties are located in the central part end along the Gulf Coastof Florida. The area is about 4,300 mi2 in size (2,740,000 acres)(University of Florida, 1974), and has an estimated 1980 population of209,400 people (University of Florida, 1977). The population growthduring 1970-73 for each county except Levy was greater than the stateaverage.

The five counties which comprise the study area border the Withia-coochee River along its lower reaches (fig. 2), hence the name of thearea Withlacoochee River region. These five counties also comprise theareas of the Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council and WithlacoocheeRegional Water Supply Authority, two organizations involved with themanagement of the area's water resources.

The county seats are Bronson in Levy County, Ocala in Marion County,Inverness in Citrus County, Brooksville in Hernando County, and BushnellIn Sumter County. These towns are connected by three major north-southhighways: U.S. 41 in the west; 1-75 and U.S. 301 in the center of thestudy area; and U.S. 27, a southeast-northwest highway connecting Ocalaand Bronson.

The major lakes within the study area include Weir, Rousseau, TealsApopka and Panasoffkee. Drainage is provided by the WithlacoocheeRiver, the Waccasassa and Suwannee Rivers in Levy County, the St. Johnsand Oklawaha Rivers in Marion County, and several small coastal streamsIn Levy, Citrus, and Hernando Counties. Land cover is primarily evergreenforest with wetlands vegetation near the rivers and citrus groves in theagriculturally developed highlands.

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Figure 1.-Location of study area.

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Purpose

The Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council and the Withiacoocho.Regional Water Supply Authority actively sought and obtained Congres-sional authorization and funding f or a study, to be performd by theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers, that would specifically address the watersupply problem within the Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council area.The first stage of the Corps' study is a reconnaissance report document-ing all activities required to determine the need and justification forfurther investigation.

As a part of the first stage, the U.S. Geological Survey, in coop-eration with the Corps of Engineers, prepared this report on the waterresources of the area to provide basic technical information for use in:assessing future capabilities of various water supply sources, determiningfuture investigation and study needs, and identifying measures thatcould be taken to prolong or protect existing water-supply sources.

Scope

This report presents a compilation of water resources informationavailable for the Withlacoochee River region and suggests studies thatshould be initiated in order to better understand the interrelation ofthe area's water resources. Information provided was taken from existingreports and from available hydrologic records; no new data were collected.If two or more published reports were found to be in conflict regardingdata or analysis no attempts were made to resolve the conflict. Rather,the information from each report is presented. Data provided on wateruse, wells, springs, streams, and lakes are based on records previouslycollected by the U.S. Geological Survey. Known reports on the waterresources of the area are referenced in the bibliography.

Climate

The climate is subtropical. Summers are characterized by largeamounts of rainfall, high humidity, and numerous thunderstorms. Wintersare mild with dry periods separated by cold, wet weather caused by theinvasion of cold fronts from the north.

Temperatures generally range from 70* to 90*F in the summer andfrom 30* to 75*F in winter. A few periods of freezing weather arerecorded per year.

Rainfall

The mean annual rainfall for the State of Florida is presented byHughes and others (1971) for the period 1931 to 1955. Northern Levy,most of Marion, and Sumter Counties receive about 52 inches per yearwhile southern Levy, Citrus, and Hernando Counties receive about 56inches per year.

Rainfall records are summarized for Inverness in Citrus County andOcala in Marion County by Anderson (written counun., 1980) and for thevicinity of Bushnell by Anderson (1980). Average monthly rainfall at

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Inverness ranged from a low of 1.60 inches In November to 9.14 inchesduring July and August, at Ocala from 1.77 Inches during November to8.58 inches during July, and at Bushnell from 1.71 inches in November to8.42 inches in July. Average monthly rainfall for the three sites areshown in table 1.

For the 40-year period 1937-76 when data were collected nearBushnell, 62 percent of the rain fell during the rainy season, Junethrough October, and 38 percent fell during the dry season, Novemberthrough May.

Average and extreme monthly rainfall for Bushnell are shown infigure 3 (Anderson, 1980). The monthly rainfall ranged from a maximmof 18.18 inches in July to zero in April and October.

Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration is composed of transpiration by plants andevaporation from water bodies and land surfaces. Cherry and others(1970) estimate the evapotranspiration in the Middle Gulf area, TampaBay north to Citrus County, to be 38.5 inches per year. Pride andothers (1966) estimate the evapotranspiration in the Green Swamp area tobe 36.8 inches per year. Grubb and Rutledge (1979) used an estimate of40 inches per year of evapotranspiration in their modeling work on theGreen Swamp area.

The average annual lake evaporation for Florida, as taken fromKohler and others (1959), is shown in figure 4. Lake evaporation in thestudy area is about 48 inches per year.

WATER USE

General

All water-use data reported in this section are from a 1977 water-use estimate compiled by Leach and Healy (1980). Their sources ofinformation were waterplant operating reports, industry records, countyagricultural agents, and water-use specialists of the State WaterManagement Districts and the U.S. Geological Survey.

Data concerning water consumption, that water which is removed fromsources accessible to man, are not presented in this report because ofproblems associated with the variable. First, all water-use data collec-tors do not agree on the definition of the term, thereby causing differenttypes of data to be collected. Second, complexities involved with thefield measurements cause the data to have a large error component.

Time-dependent trends in water use are not presented because of theshort period of water-use recordi available for estimation. Also changesin rates of use may reflect refinement in data collection rather thanrepresent an actual trend.

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Figure 3.--Average and extreme monthly rainfall 2 miles east of Bushnell,1937-76 (from Anderson, 1980).

-50- CONTOUR REPRESENTS

EVAPORATION, INCHES

Figure 4.--Average annual lake evaporation (from Kohler and others, 1959).

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Public Supply

The public-supply water-use category includes all uses of waterdistributed by a public-supply utility system. These uses may be furtherdelineated by domestic, agriculture, industry, commercial, and airconditioning subcategories. The domestic subcategory, in addition toincluding household and lawn watering use, also contains fire protectionuse, water main flushing, and water not accounted for (source pumpageminus metered usage).

The part of the population served by a public-supply utility averagedabout 30 percent for the whole study area and ranged from 14 percent inCitrus County to 47 percent in Levy County.

Ground water is the sole source of public supply water in theregion. Table 2 shows that 63,600 people were serviced by a public-supply utility system during 1977. Withdrawal by public supply systemin 1977 totaled 9.63 Mgal/d. The average per capita use was 151 gal/d.

Table 3 shows that the largest use of public-supply water Is domestic,6.72 Mgal/d or about 70 percent of the total use. The average percapita domestic use was 106 gal/d (6.72 Mgal/d used by 63,600 persons).The remaining 30 percent is used for commercial and industrial purposes,mostly in Marion County. Marion County also uses about 63 percent ofall public-supply water.

Rural Domestic

The rural domestic water use category consists of uses of waterfurnished by an individual water supply system for a household. Someexamples of use are: toilet flushing, bathing, drinking, cooking,cleaning, laundering, car washing, pool filling, lawn sprinkling, andwater conditioner back washing.

An estimated 145,800 people supply their own domestic water needs.As indicated in table 4, this supply is derived solely from ground-watersources through individual wells. These wells withdraw approximately16.07 Mgal/d or about 110 gal/d per person.

Livestock

Livestock as a water-use category includes water for drinking andto clean commercially raised animals.

Table 4 shows that livestock use totaled 4.04 Hgal/d, 87 percent ofwhich is from ground-water sources. The small amount of surface-waterwithdrawal is in the coastal counties of Levy and Hernando. The highestlevel of livestock activity is in Marion County where nearly half of theWithiacoochee River region livestock is raised.

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Table 2.--Public-supply water withdrawals during 1977 by county(from Leach and Healy. 1980)

[All water withdrawn is fresh ground water]

Water Per capitaCounty Population Population withdrawn u1/

served (1gal/d) (aald)

Citrus 38,600 5,500 0.66 120

Hernando 32,200 5,300 .92 174

Levy 15,900 7,500 1.05 140

Marion 101,100 38,000 6.08 160

Sumter 21,600 7,300 .92 126

Total 209,400 63,600 9.63 151

1/Computed by dividing water withdrawn by population served.

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Table 3.--Public-supply water uses during 1977 by county. in milliongallons per day (from Leach and Realy. 1980)

Public-supply Countyuses Citrus Hernando Levy Marion Sumter Total

Domestic 0.43 0.92 1.02 3.49 0.86 6.72

Agriculture 0 0 0 0 0 0

Industry 0 0 0 1.31 0 1.31

Comercial .23 0 .03 1.28 .06 1.60

Air condi-tioning 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 0.66 0.92 1.05 6.08 0.92 9.63

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Table 4.-Rural dom,-:stic and livestock water withdrawals by county for

1977. in million gallons per day (from Leach and Healy, 1980)

[All water withdrawn is freshwater]

Rural Domestic LivestockSurface Ground Surface Ground

County water water Total water water Total

Citrus 0 3.60 3.60 0 0.11 0.11

Hernando 0 2.69 2.69 0.05 .39 .44

Levy 0 .86 .86 .49 .36 .85

Marion 0 7.47 7.47 0 1.90 1.90

Sumter 0 1.45 1.45 0 .74 .74

Total 0 16.07 16.07 0.54 3.50 4.04

12

r

Irrigation (Self-Supplied)

The self-supplied irrigation water-use category includes water usedfor irrigation which is derived from surface-water or ground-watersources, and not supplied by a public-supply utility system.

Marion County is the largest user of irrigation water. Totalwithdrawal is 18.40 Mgal/d compared to 30.84 Mgal/d for the entireWithlacoochee River region (table 5). Ninety-two percent of the region'sirrigation demands are supplied by ground water.

As shown in table 6, Marion County also has the largest amount ofirrigated land, over 15,000 acres. Citrus County uses the least irriga-tion water, 1,663 acre-ft/yr (1.49 Mgal/d), and has the lowest irrigatedacreage, 800 acres. However, the irrigation application rate in Citrus

County is the highest in the region. About 25 inches of water wereapplied during 1977. The lowest irrigation application rates were foundin Levy and Sumter Counties. About 7 inches were applied during thesame annual period.

The type of crops irrigated consisted mostly of citrus and variedtruck-farm crops. Watermelons, corn, pasture, tobacco, and other croptypes were also irrigated (table 7).

Industrial (Self-Supplied)

This category includes all water used for industrial purposes notincluded in livestock or thermoelectric power generation categories andnot supplied by a public supply system.

In the Withlacoochee River region self-supplied industrial water isderived totally from ground-water sources. Of the 51.45 Mgal/d used byself-supplied industry in the region, 40.46 Mgal/d, or about 79 percent,is used in mining limerock (table 8). Limerock mining is done mostly inHernando and Sumter Counties and some in Citrus County. Other water-useindustries include chemical, citrus, and food products.

Thermoelectric Power Generation

This category includes water used for condenser cooling and forelectrical power generation, such as boiler makeup water. Other uses ofwater at the powerplant are included either under self-supplied industrialor the industrial part of public-supply use.

The only water used for thermoelectric power generation is in theCrystal River area of Citrus County. As shown in table 9, the fresh-water used is derived from ground-water sources and amounted to 0.63

Mgal/d in 1977. In addition, saline surface water was withdrawn at an

average rate of 1,892 Mgal/d for cooling purposes during 1977 (to gener-

ate 8,240 million Kilowatt-hours of electrical power).

13

Table 5.--Self-supplied irrigation water withdrawals by county during

1977, in million gallons per day (acre feet per year)(from Leach

and Healy, 1980)

[All water withdrawn is freshwater]

Source

County Surface water Ground water Total

Citrus I/0.37 (413) 1.12 (1,250) 1.49 (1,663)

Hernando .84 (943) 4.73 (5,300) 5.57 (6,243)

Levy .05 (59) 1.94 (2,171) 1.99 (2,230)

Marion .92 (1,030) 17.48 (19,569) 18.40 (20,599)

Sumter .17 (190) 3.22 (3,604) 3.39 (3,794)

Total 2.35 (2,635) 28.49 (31,894) 30.84 (34,529)

,1/1 Hgal/d f 1120.15 acre-feet per year.

114

Table 6.--Irrigation application rates by county for 1977(from Leach and Healy. 1980)

Land1 . Land area Land area Water Applicatignarea- irrigated irrigated withdrawn rate-"

County (acres) (acres) (percent) (acre-ft/yr) (in/yr)

Citrus 358,208 800 0.22 1,663 24.95

Hernando 309,952 5,330 1.72 6,243 14.06

Levy 692,800 3,809 .55 2,230 7.03

Marion 1,023,680 15,126 1.48 20,599 16.34

Sumter 355,264 6,580 1.85 3,794 6.92

Total 2,739,904 31,645 1.16 34,529 13.09

I From University of Florida (1974).-/Computed by dividing water withdrawn by land area irrigated and

neglecting conveyance losses.

15

-Ao. -

Table 7.--Irrigation crop acreages by county for 1977. in acres(from Leach and Healy, 1980)

CountzCrop type Citrus Hernando Levy Marion Sumter Total

Citrus 300 3,600 0 6,500 500 10,900

Truckfarming 0 0 68 3,000 2,500 5,568

Pasture 0 0 484 0 1,000 1,484

Sugar cane 0 0 0 0 0 0

Tobacco 0 0 80 13 15 108

Corn 80 80 1,610 400 100 2,270

Water-melons 160 s0 400 990 2,200 3,800

Other 260 1,600 1,167 4,223 265 7,515

Total 800 5,330 3,809 15,126 6,580 31,645

16

Table 8.-Industrial self-supplied water use by county for 1977. inmillion sallons per day (from Leach and Healy. 1980)

[All water used is fresh ground water]

Industrial Countyuses Citrus Hernando Levy Marion Sumter Total

Limerockmining 1.03 23.43 0 0 16.00 40.46

Pulp andpaper 0 0 0 0 0 0

Chemicalproducts 0 0 0 0 .04 .04

Phosphatemining 0 0 0 0 0 0

Citrusproducts .14 0 0 0 0 .14

Foodproducts .15 .17 0 0 .02 .34

Air-conditioning 0 0 0 0 0 0

Other 0 10.16 0 .31 0 10.47

Total 1.32 33.76 0 0.31 16.06 51.45

1

~17

Table 9.-Total water withdrawal in the Withiacoochee River regtionfor 1977 by source, in million rallona per day (from Leachand Hecaly, 1980)

SourceSurface water Ground water

Use category Fresh Saline Fresh Saline Total

Public supply 0 0 9.63 0 9.63

Rural domestic 0 0 16.07 0 16.07

Livestock 0.54 0 3.50 0 4.04

Irrigation (self-supplied) 2.35 0 28.49 0 30.84

Industrial (self-supplied) 0 0 51.45 0 51.45

Thermoelectricpowergeneration 0 1,892.20 0.63 0 1,892.83

Total 2.89 1,892.20 109.77 0 2,004.86

Water-Use Summary

Daily water use in the Withlacoochee River region totaled 2005Mgal/d in 1977 (table 8). Of this total 1,892 Mgal/d, or 94 percent,was saline surface water used for thermoelectric power generation cooling.No saline ground water and only 2.89 Mgal/d of fresh surface water wasused. Ground water, the predominant source of freshwater supplied 110Mgal/d.

As shown in table 10 and figure 5, most freshwater is supplied forindustrial and irrigation uses. Together, these two uses comprise 82.29Mgal/d or 73 percent of all freshwater withdrawal. Other uses of fresh-water include rural domestic, public supply, livestock, and thermo-electric power generation. Together they account for the additional30.37 Mgal/d of freshwater used.

Figure 6 and table 10 show that the largest use of freshwater,43.38 Mgal/d, is in Hernando County. Nearly 78 percent of the total, or33.76 Mgal/d, is used by self-supplied industry. Other large areas ofwater use are in Marion County where 18.40 Mgal/d are used for self-supplied irrigation, and in Sumter County where 16.06 Mgal/d are usedfor self-supplied industry. Table 10 and figure 7 identify major water-use categories in each of the five counties. In Citrus and MarionCounties, the major uses of freshwater are for rural domestic andirrigation; in Hernando and Sumter Counties, for irrigation and industry;and in Levy County for irrigation and public supply.

The total freshwater withdrawal and the total per-capita freshwateruse by county are shown in figure 8. The per capita use of freshwateris calculated by dividing the total use of freshwater for all usecategories in the county by the county population. Hernando County hasthe highest total per capita freshwater use as well as the highestcounty freshwater withdrawal, 1,347 gal/d and 43.38 Mgal/d, respectively.

* Citrus County has the lowest total per capita use, 202 gal/d; LevyCounty has the lowest freshwater withdrawal, 4.75 Mgal/d.

HYDROGEOLOGY

Physiography

Land forms in the area can be grouped into highland and lowlandlj areas. These areas have been named by White (1970) and are shown on

figure 9.Highland

Areas

Brooksville Ridge is the westernmost and the largest of the centralFlorida ridges. Its alinement is approximately north-south in a coast-parallel direction. The ridge has a very irregular surface with alti-tudes that range from approximately 70 to 200 feet over short distances.The ridge has been cut through by the Withlacoochee River near Dunnellonin south-western Marion County forming the Dunnellon Gap.

19

- -----

Table l0.--Freshwater withdrawal by county for 1977, in million gallonsper day (from Leach and Healy, 1980)

CountyUse category Citrus Hernando Levy Marion Sumter Total

Public supply 0.66 0.92 1.05 6.08 0.92 9.63

Rural domestic 3.60 2.69 .86 7.47 1.45 16.07

Livestock .11 .44 .85 1.90 .74 4.04

Irrigation(self-supplied) 1.49 5.57 1.99 18.40 3.39 30.84

Industrial(self-supplied) 1.32 33.76 0 .31 16.06 51.45

Thermoelectricpower generation .63 0 0 0 0 .63

Total 7.81 43.38 4.75 34.16 22.56 112.66

20

PUBLIC SUPPLY

THERMOELECTRIC 9.63 Mgal/d0.63 Mqal/d (8.5 PERCENT

(0.6 PERCENT)

RURAL DOMESTIC16.07 MgaI/d

(14.2 PERCENT)

INDUSTRIAL(SELF SUPPLIED)

51.45 Mgol/d TOCK(45.7 PERCENT) 4.04 M9ga/d (3.6 PERCENT)

IRRIGATION(SELF SUPPLIED)

30.84 Mgol/d(27.4 PERCENT)

TOTAL 112.66 Mgol/d

NOTE:SHADED AREA REFLECTS SURFACE WATERSOURCE. UNSHADED AREA REFLECTSGROUND WATER SOURCE

Figure 5.--Total freshwater withdrawals in the WithlacoocheeRiver region by use category, in million gallons per day(data from Leach and Healy, 1980).

21

4. ma

SUMTER22.56 MgaIMd

(200 PERCENT)

HERNANDO4338 MgIM/

(38.5 PERCENT)

MARION34.16 049011

(30.3 PERCENT)

(42 PERCENT

TOTAL s 112.66 MgaI/d

Figure 6.-Freshwater withdrawals by county, in million gallons per day(data from Leach and Healy, 1980).

22

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Cotton Plant Ridge in western Marion County is alined anomalouslynorthwest-southeast and is lower in altituae than the nearby Brooksville

r Ridge. The maximum altitude of the ridge is less than 100 feet. Theridge has little, if any, surface drainage and appears to be an assem-blage of dunes.

Fairfield Hills, Martel Hill, and Ocala Hill are irregularly shapedareas of high ground, alined in a north-south direction, and named afternearby communities in western Marion County. These hills, alinedconsistently with other central Florida ridges, are thought to be partof the relict Atlantic coastal features.

Mount Dora Ridge in eastern Marion County parallels the othercentral Florida ridges and is thought to be part of the same system ofrelict coastal features.

The Marion, Sumter, and Lake Uplands, occurring in proximity to theaforementioned ridges, are highlands according to White (1970), thatresulted from differential reduction caused by the solution of theunderlying sediments. Their altitudes are not as high, however, as theridges.

Lowland Areas

The Western and Central Valleys are generally located where thedifferential reduction, solution, and compaction of underlying sedimentshas produced a lowland. The Western Valley contains the Tsala ApopkaPlain and part of the Withlacoochee River (fig. 9).

The Tsala Apopka Plain, a flatter and lower area within the WesternValley includes Lakes Tsala Apopka and Panasoffkee. The Plain is con-sidered to be a remnant of a large lake existing before the WithlacoocheeRiver exited the Western Valley through the Dunnellon Gap (White, 1958,p. 19-27).

The Central Valley, to the east of the Sumter Upland and west ofthe Mount Dora Ridge, contains more lakes than the Western Valley. TheOklawaha River and its tributary, Orange Creek, drain the Central Valley(White, 1970).

The Gulf Coastal Lowlands occurring in the western part of thestudy area contain several notable features: terraces, coastal swamps,and an area of drowned karst features.

Terraces, present throughout central Florida, are more identifiablealong the Gulf Coastal Lowlands than in other parts of the study area.Terraces were formed in Pleistocene to Holocene geologic time when therelative position of sea level, with respect to the land surface, wasstable long enough to form a wave-cut scarp or beach line deposits asthe climate alternated between glacial and interglacial. periods.

26

The coastal swamps located along the Gulf coast of the study areahave an irregular shoreline. White (1970, p. 149-150) interprets thisas relict, drowned karst features where insufficient sand is availableto form beaches. This may indicate a young shoreline.

Morphology of the Withlacoochee River

The Withlacoochee River has, within its course, an apparent dif-fluence with the Hillsborough River. This diffluence occurs shortlybefore the Withlacoochee turns northward in eastern Pasco County. Atthis point the Hillsborough River flows off to the southwest. White(1958, p. 20) estimated that the Withlacoochee River receives twice asmuch flow through the diffluence as does the Hillsborough River.

White (1958, p. 19-27) presents convincing evidence that theWithlacoochee River was at one time tributary to the Hillsborough River.The key to its present course is the channel through the BrooksvilleRidge at the Dunnellon Gap. It can be shown that the Gap did not alwaysexist or at best did not influence the river's former course. Withoutthe Gap, there is no surface drainage alternative other than to flowsouth to the Hillsborough, which would be a normal drainage pattern.

White (1958, p. 22) has discussed how the Withlacoochee River couldhave been a tributary to the Hillsborough River, and how it reversed itscourse to the present. The limestone bedrock in the vicinity of Dunnellonis very porous. In addition, Vernon (1951, plate 2) and White (1958, p.23) mapped faults running through the Gap. It seems evident that whenthe Withlacoochee River was tributary to the Hillsborough River, therewas secondary, subsurface drainage from the ancestral lake through thearea now occupied by the Gap. Subsurface drainage may have been concen-trated along the fault fractures, which, when widened by solution,collapsed causing the Gap. At this point a new surface outlet to thegulf sea was created, draining the ancestral lake area and reversing theflow of the Withlacoochee River.

Morphology of Sinkholes and Springs

Sinkholes and springs are physiographic features related to thegeology and occurrence of ground water in a region. Two kinds of sink-holes are evident, a solution depression and a collapse sink. A solutiondepression is caused by the solution of carbonate material in the soilor clastic sediment above the bedrock. Very gradual in time, there isno physical disturbance other than the dissolution of the carbonatematerial and a compaction of the residuals.

A collapse sink is a surface manifestation of the collapse of anunderlying solution cavity in carbonate bedrock. Originating from afracture or bed of high solubility in the bedrock, the cavity willenlarge by solution into ground water until its roof cannot be supported.

27

Triggered by a decline in water level caused by drought or heavy nearbypumpage, a collapse will occur propagating through the overlying sedi-ments to the land surface. The collapse can be instantaneous or con-tinue for several hours to days. Typically, collapse sinks are round inmap view and conical in profile. In area, they are comparable to solutiondepressions. Cavity formation generally takes place in the upper partof the limestone where ground water is commonly undersaturated incarbonate and where significant ground-water flow occurs. The surfacedepression of either type of sink can become a lake basin.

Rosenau and others (1977, p. 6) define two kinds of springs, watertable and artesian. Ground-water flow above a relatively impermeablebed to an outcrop produces a water-table spring or seep. Usually inFlorida such springs have a low and variable flow. An artesian springis formed where water is under sufficient hydrostatic pressure to causeit to flow to the land surface through a natural breach in the confiningbeds. Florida's large springs are of this type. Figure 10 is a pictorialrepresentation of solution depression, collapse sinks, and water tableand artesian springs.

Morphology of Lakes

The many lakes of central Florida can be classified by their morphologyor origin of their lake basins. Zumberge and Ayers (1964) recognizedeleven different lake origin types. Ignoring manmade and meteoriteimpact, four origin processes are relevant to Florida: solution, tectonic,fluvial, and shoreline. Most Florida lakes have morphologies which area combination of some or all of these types.

Solution processes, including sinkhole and depression formation,have been discussed previously in the section on sinkholes. CentralFlorida's large lakes are thought to have been formed by a depressionprocess, at least in part, rather than a coalescing of many sinkholes asonce thought (White, 1958, p. 69). Lakes formed by collapse sinksgenerally do not have a good hydraulic connection to the underlyinglimestone, because the fill material from the overlying clastic sedimentsprovide an effective plug.

Tectonic processes, such as faulting and crustal upwarping, cancontribute to lake basin development. These deformation processes mayuplift rocks of different weathering or dissolution competence andprovide favorable locations for lakes.

Fluvial processes, either erosional, depositional, or a combinationof both, can contribute to the origins of lake basins. The Withlacoocheeand Oklawaha Rivers provide inlets and outlets to many lakes within thestudy area. These rivers affect the lakes through scouring or thebuilding of levees.

28

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The shoreline of present and ancestral Florida has associated dunesand barrier islands. When sea level falls these become relict beachridges. Impounded behind these ridges, lakes form in linear patternscommon to central Florida. These lake basins can then be acted upon bythe other lake-building processes.

Geology

The geology of the study area is predominantly that of a sedimen-tary carbonate bedrock overlain by a veneer of clastic sedimentarymaterial of variable thickness. Several episodes of crustal upwarpinghave superimposed structure upon the nearly horizontally depositedsediments.

The following sections describe the structure and stratigraphy ofthe study area. Table ii is Li outline of the stratigraphy and figure11 shows the areal geology underlying the alluvium and terrace depositsof the study area.

Structure

The Peninsular Arch (fig. 12) is one of two major structural featuresto have an effect upon the geology of the study area. Extending fromsouthern Georgia to Lake Okeechobee, the arch forms the axis of theFlorida Peninsula (Stringfield, 1966). The crest of the arch is locatedapproximately 60 miles west of Jacksonville.

The second major structural feature is the Ocala Uplift. Both theOcala Uplift and the Peninsular Arch are alined northwesterly (fig. 12),however, the crest of the Ocala Uplift extends through Citrus and LevyCounties, about 40 miles southwest of the Peninsular Arch crest.

Stratigraphy

Pre-Tertiary basement rock.--Basement material, underlying northpeninsular Florida is generally composed of sediments, meta-sediments,and igneous rocks. Several oil test wells within the study area havebottomed in meta-sedimentary material believed to be Paleozoic in age(Vernon, 1951). The igneous material, generally diabase, basalt, orrhyolite, have a potassium-argon dating of from 89.3±2.2 to 183.±10million years before present (B.P.), which makes them Mesozoic in age(Milton, 1972). These igneous rocks are probably correlative to thewidespread Mesozoic volcanism of the Atlantic seaboard and gulf coast.

Cedar Keys Formation.--The lithology of the Cedar Keys Formation ofEocene age is predominantly gray, porous, hard dolomite, and evaporite(gypsum and anyhydrite) with some limestone (Chen, 1965). In the studyarea the top of the Cedar Keys occurs at a depth of approximately 2,500feet below sea level in the south to 1,500 feet below sea level in thenorth (Chen, 1965). The thickness of the Cedar Keys in the study area

is approximately 400 to 800 feet.

30

Table ll.--Stratigraphy of study area

ThicknessErathem System Series Formation (feet)

HoloceneQuaternary and Alluvium and terrace deposits 0-50

Pleistocene

Pliocene Fort Preston Formation ofand Purl and Vernon (1964) 0-100

Miocene (Citronelle(?) Formation)

Alachua Formation 0-66

Miocene Hawthorn Formation 0-140Tampa Limestone 0-100

Oligocene Suwannee Limestone 0-200

Cenozoic Tertiary Ocala Limestone 0-200

Eocene Avon Park Limestone 200-600

Lake City Limestone 700-900

Oldsmar Limestone 400-600

Paleocene Cedar Keys Formation 400-800

MesozoicBasement rock Unknown

Paleozoic

31

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Figure 12.--Orientations of Peninsular Arch and Ocala Uplift (from Chen, 1965).

33

- ~ ~ N . 4

Oldsmar Limestone.--The Oldsmar Limestone of Eocene age is litholog-ically different from the Cedar Keys. The upper part of the Oldsmar iswhite to light-brown, fine-grained, fossiliferous limestone. The lowerpart of the Oldsmar is a dark-brown, fine- to coarse-grained dolomite.The Oldsmar does contain some evaporites (gypsum and anhydrite) and somechert (Chen, 1965). Within the study area, it occurs at a depth ofapproximately 1,000 feet below sea level in the north and it has athickness of approximately 400 feet (Chen, 1965).

Lake City Limestone.--Lithologically, the Lake City Limestone ofEocene age is a light-brown to brown, highly fossiliferous limestone anda brown to dark-brown dolomite. Thin laminae of peat or carbonaceouslimestone-dolomite occur at the top of the formation. Very minor amountsof evaporites (gypsum and anhydrite) are also present (Chen, 1965).Within the study area, it occurs at a depth of 300 feet below sea levelin the north, with a thickness of approximately 700 feet. In the southit occurs at a depth of 700 feet below sea level and it has a .±c~iessof 900 feet.

Avon Park Limestone.--Lithologically, the upper part of the AvonPark Limestone of Eocene age is a cream to brown, fine-grained, fossilif-erous, porous limestone or dolomite. At its base is a nonfossiliferousbrown to dark-brown, fine- to medium-grained dolomite. Minor amounts ofevaporites and carbonaceous material are also present (Chen, 1965). TheAvon Park is very permeable and cavernous in some areas. Within thestudy area, it is exposed at the land surface in the north and there hasa thickness of approximately 200 to 300 feet. In the south it occurs ata depth of 200 feet below land surface and there has a thickness ofapproximately 600 feet.

Ocala Limestone.--Ocala Limestone of Eocene age is a pure whitethrough cream to yellow colored soft limestone. Typically it has agranular texture. In places the limestone is a microcoquinoid, and inother places, the limestone has been hardened by deposition of travertineor calcite in its pore spaces.

Ocala Limestone can be subdivided into different members. At thispoint, a difference in nomenclature appears. The U.S. Geological Surveyrecognizes an upper and lower member (Rosenau and others, 1977) and

• refers to it as Ocala Limestone. The more locally popular subdivision,into three formations, the Inglis, the Williston, and the Crystal River(oldest to youngest) is supported by the Florida Bureau of Geology whorefers to it as the Ocala Group (Puri and Vernon, 1964). In this report,the Ocala Limestone is shown as a single formation in figure 11.

The Ocala Limestone has a thickness of approximately 200 feetthroughout the study area. In some areas the upper member has beensomewhat eroded. The Ocala Limestone is quite porous and cavernous.

Suwannee Limestone.--The Suwannee Limestone of Oligocene age is ahard yellow or creamy fossiliferous limestone, which locally has a pinkishtinge (Yon and Hendry, 1972). The lower part of the formation in places

34

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I

is dense and hard. The Suwannee contains many solution cavities.Within the study area the Suwannee is present at or near the surface inCitrus, Hernando, and southern Sumter Counties. The Suwannee ranges inthickness from 0 to 200 feet within the study area.

Tampa Limestone.--The Tampa Limestone of Miocene age is a white tolight yellow, soft, moderately sandy and clayey, somewhat fossiliferouslimestone. Locally it is very fossiliferous and in some areas it isbrecciated. Within the study area, the Tampa ranges from 0 in the northto approximately 100 feet thick in the south.

Hawthorn Formation.--The Hawthorn Formation of Miocene age cangenerally be differentiated into an upper and a lower part. The lowerpart is a white to gray, sometimes clayey, phosphatic limestone anddolomite. The upper part is a white to green and gray phosphatic clayeysand, sometimes with interbedded clayey shells. Erosion has reduced theoccurrence of the Hawthorn to Marion, Sumter, and Hernando Countieswithin the study area. The thickness ranges from 0 to about 140 feet.

Alachua Formation.--The Alachua Formation of Pliocene age has arather diverse lithology. Composed of terrestrial, lacustrine, andfluvial sediment it may also be, in part, in place residuum of olderformations. Generally it is composed of interbedd-ed deposits of clay,sand, phosphatic rock and clay, and silicified limestone. Within thestudy area the Alachua Formation occurs in eastern Hernando County,Citrus County, and Marion County and in western Levy County. The thicknessof the Alachua is variable; Vernon (1951) observed a maximum thicknessof 66 feet in Citrus County.

Fort Preston Formation of Puri and Vernon (1964) (Citronelle(?)Formation).--A middle Miocene and younger deltaic and nonmarine sediment,composed of gray, yellow, and red sands, gravels, and clays is found ineastern Marion County and elsewhere in central Florida. These sediments,at most 100 feet thick, unconformably overlie the Hawthorn Formation.

Cooke (1945, p. 231) correlated these sediments with the Pliocene Citronelleof western Florida. Purl and Vernon (1964) differentiated them fromthe Citronelle, calling them the Fort Preston Formation.

Quaternary terrace deposits.--Terrace deposits seen throughoutFlorida are manifestations of a change in sea level over a fixed landsurface. At the different stands of sea level, alluvium and terracematerial was deposited at various elevations. Table 12 shows the relation-ship of the terrace deposits to the glacial and to the interglacialperiods and their characteristic altitudes. Figure 13 shows the arealdistribution of the terraces found in the study area.

Economic Geology

Limestone quarrying and phosphate mining have played a majorrole in the economy of central Florida since the latter part of thepast century. The occurrence of limestone and dolomite bedrock at or

35

Table 12.--Terraces of central Florida (modified from Stringfield, 1966)

Present Quaternaryaltitude geologic-of shore- climate

Marine line classifi-terrace (feet) cation Oscillations of sea level

Nebraskan Emergence caused by the accumulationGlaciation of continental ice.

Hazlehurst 270 Aftonian Submergence to an altitude of 270Interglacia- feet caused by the melting oftion continental ice.

Kansan Emergence caused by the accumulationGlaciation of continental ice, permitting the

formation of sinks in rock nowstanding at at an altitude of150 feet.

Coharie 215 Yarmouth Submergence to an altitude of 215Sunderland 170 Interglacia- feet caused by the melting ofOkefenokee 150 tion continental ice, followed byWicomico 100 intermittent emergence of atPenholoway 70 least 170 feet caused by down-Talbot 42 warping of oceanic basins.

Illinoian Emergence caused by the accumulationGlaciation of continental ice.

Pamlico 25 Sangamon Submergence to an altitude of 25 feetInterglacia- caused by the melting of continentaltion ice.

Early Emergence caused by the accumulationWisconsin of continental iceGlaciation

Silver Bluff 6 Middle Submergence to an altitude of 6 feetWisconsin probably caused by the partialGlaciation melting of the Wisconsin ice sheet.

Late Emergence caused by the accumulationWisconsin of continental ice.Glaciation

Holocene 0 Submergence to the present sea levelprobably caused by the melting ofcontinental ice.

36

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near the land surface due to the Ocala Uplift facilitated the growth ofthe quarrying industry in all the counties within the study area.Limestone, dolomite, and phosphate are used as building material, roadbase, and as a soil developer. Abandoned quarries and pits are quitenumerous and easy to find. Much of the geology of Florida was decipheredthrough these pits and quarries.

Phosphate mining, by open pit methods, once flourished within thestudy area (Vernon, 1951, p. 224), but is now largely centered to thesouth in Polk County. Phosphate is found within the Hawthorn and AlachuaFormations. The areal distribution of these formations delineatespotential areas for phosphate mining. Vernon (1951, p. 197) suggeststhat phosphate originated and was concentrated in the sediments throughbiologic processes, including, curiously, an assumed abundance of birdguano at the time of deposition.

Sand and gravel occurs within the clastic sediments and terracedeposits. To a small extent this has been mined within the study areafor fill and aggregate.

GROUND-WATER RESOURCES

Ground water in the area occurs in three distinct aquifers and inintervening less permeable confining beds that restrict the movement ofwater from one aquifer to another. The uppermost of these aquifers hasbeen referred to by various investigators as the shallow aquifer, theclastic, aquifer, the nonartesian aquifer, the surf icial aquifer, and thewater-table aquifer. In this report it is designated as the surficial

aquifer. The common characteristics attributed to the aquifer by theseinvestigators are that the aquifer is comprised of unconsolidated (clastic)sediments and that it contains the water table.

Below the surficial aquifer, and interbedded with unconsolidatedpoorly permeable deposits in some parts of the area, are aquiferscomposed of beds of shell, sand, gravel, and limestone commonly referredto as secondary artesian aquifers. These aquifers are perennially fullof water under greater than atmospheric pressure. The poorly permeabledeposits are referred to as confining beds when they resist the verticalflow of ground water allowing a buildup of artesian pressure in theaquifer below.

The lowermost and principal aquifer in the area is the Floridanaquifer. The Floridan is composed of a thick sequence of interbeddedsoft, porous limestone and hard, dense limestone and dolomite. In muchof the area, the Floridan is perennially full and in overlain and confinedby the less permeable deposits of clastic materials. In some parts ofthe area, however, the Floridan is unconfined, and contains the watertable for the area.

38

The Surficial Aquifer

Occurrence

The surficial aquifer is present throughout the area except wherethe limestone of the Floridan is at the land surface. In places wherethe water table fluctuates in the limestone below the clastic rocks thesurficial deposits are unsaturated.

Characteristics

Composition.--The surficial aquifer is composed of undifferentiatedclastic deposits of fine- to coarse-grained quartz sand with varyingamounts of intermixed clay, hardpan, and shell.

Thickness.--The surficial aquifer is more than 300 feet thick eastof the Oklawaha River in Marion County (Faulkner, 1973b; Wolansky,Spechler, and Buono, 1979). At some places east of the Oklawaha Riverwhere the intervening Hawthorn is absent or very thin, the surficialaquifer is contiguous or nearly so with the Floridan. Figure 14 showsthe thickness of the surficial deposits above the confining bed.

Hydraulic characteristics.--The hydraulic characteristics of thesurficial aquifer were investigated at six sites in Hernando and CitrusCounties (Cherry and others, 1970). Undisturbed sediments from depthsranging from 1 to 9 feet were tested for specific retention, porosity,specific yield, and permeability. The specific yield varied from 3.9percent to 36.9 percent, and the hydraulic conductivity varied from0.001 (gal/d)/ ft (0.0001 ft/d), to 200 (gal/day)/ft2 (30 ft/d). Nodata are available on surficial aquifer characteristics elsewhere in thearea.

Water in the surficial aquifer.--Water occurs in the surficialaquifer under water-table conditions. The depth to the water tableranges from land surface to several tens of feet below land surface. Nowater-table maps of the area have been prepared. However, figure 15prepared by Ross, Saarinen, Bolton, and Wilder (1978), shows a general-ized delineation of areas in which the water table is either less thanor more than 5 feet below land surface. Water-level data for thesurficial aquifer have been collected routinely in only three wells inthe area. These wells, Green Swamp wells L11MS and LlIKS near Dade Cityand L12BS near Bay Lake, all located in Sumter County, have shown arange in water levels of about 7 feet since 1973 (U.S. Geological Survey,1978b, p. 319-321).

Wells in the surficial aquifer are most frequently used in easternMarion County, mostly for domestic use where only small supplies areneeded. However, wells in some areas may yield large quantities ofwater (Faulkner, 1973b).

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Water in the surficial aquifer is generally less mineralized than

that in the Floridan aquifer because of the lower solubility of the

rocks that make up the nonartesian aquifer. Water in the surficialaquifer often contains excessive dissolved iron, especially near pondsand lakes, and color is frequently present. Clay in suspension issometimes a problem.

Secondary Artesian Aquifers

The secondary artesian aquifer in the area has not been documented

in any report. However, in areas where more than 50 feet of the Alachua

and Hawthorn Formations overlie the Floridan, secondary artesian aquifersmay exist in sand interlayered with less permeable clay.

Confining Beds

The relatively impermeable deposits lying between the surficial and

Floridan aquifers generally act as confining beds. In areas where thepotentiometric surface of the Floridan is above the bottom of the con-

fining beds, the water in the Floridan is confined at greater thanatmospheric pressure by the beds. In much of the area, however, the

water level in the Floridan aquifer is nonartesian and in such areas,the beds permit a perched water table in the surficial aquifer. Figure16 is a generalized map showing the thickness of the confining beds inthe area (Buono and others, 1979).

The Floridan Aquifer

Character and Distribution

The name "Floridan aquifer" is commonly applied in Florida to the

principal artesian aquifer of the southeastern United States. The

aquifer consists mostly of limestones and dolomites, generally middle

Eocene to middle Miocene in age, which act more or less as a single

hydrologic unit in most of Florida, in southeastern Georgia, and in

parts of Alabama and South Carolina. The aquifer is, however, of

variable porosity and permeability and consists in many places of well

developed cavernous intervals separated by zones of low permeability

that act as confining layers. Thus, the Floridan aquifer may in places

be thought of as a compound aquifer consisting of several subaquifers.

It is one of the most extensive limestone aquifers in the United States(Stringfield, 1966, p. 95).

Parker and others (1955, p. 189), who first applied the name

"Floridan," defined the Floridan aquifer in Florida as being limited to

the following sequence: Lake City and Avon Park Limestones of middleEocene age, Ocala Limestone of late Eocene age, Suwannee Limestone of

Oligocene age, Tampa Limestone of Miocene age, and permeable parts of

the Hawthorn Formation of Miocene age that are in hydraulic contact with

the rest of the aquifer.

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The Floridan aquifer is as much as 1,500 feet thick in some areasand is thinnest along the crest of the Ocala uplift (Stringfield, 1966,p. 97). Figures 17 and 18, which show the altitude of the top (Buonoand Rutledge, 1979) and bottom (Wolansky, Barr, and Spechler, 1979) ofthe Floridan, indicate that the Floridan is probably more than 1,500feet thick in north-central Marion County.

The transmissivity cf the Floridan has been investigated at severalplaces in the area. At Weekiwachee, Sinclair (1978) calculated thetransmissivity at Weekiwachee Spring to be about 2.1xlO 6 ft2/d andabout 1 mile upgradient, 1.2x10 6 ft2/d. Cherry and others (1970) calcu-lated the transmissivity along a section from just north of CrystalRiver to the Citrus-Hernando line to be 2.OxlO ft2/d. Along an 18-milesection from the Citrus-Hernando county line to south of Weekiwachee,Cherry and others (1970) calculated the transmissivity to be about 5(Mgal/d)/ft (0.67xi06 ft2 /d). Near Silver Springs, Faulkner (1973b)determined the transmissivity to range from 10,700 to 25.5x,0 6 ft2/dand to average about 2.0x10 ft2/d. Pride and others (1966) estimatedthe transmissivity in their northwest area which includes parts ofSumter and Hernando Counties, to be 500,000 (gal/d)/ft (0.67x105 ft7/d).

Storage

A confined aquifer has storage capability through the compress-ibility of the water and the aquifer skeleton as well as in the volumeof void spaces. An unconfined aquifer, however, has storage capabilityonly in the void spaces. Generally the storage coefficient, the dimen-sionless number used to quantify storage capacity, for confined aquiferranges from 10- 3 to 10- 4 . The storage coefficient of an unconfinedaquifer is generally equivalent to its specific storage, usually between0.1 and 0.3.

The storage capacity of the Floridan aquifer has not been system-atically investigated in the area. However, the amount of water storedin the aquifer is probably greatest where the saturated thickness of theaquifer is greatest. The thickness of the potable water zone in theFloridan was delineated by Causey and Leve (1976) as shown by figure 19.

Leakance

Confining beds of artesian aquifers are rarely, if ever, completelyimpermeable. Ground-water flow will occur through a confining bed,although at a magnitude much less than in the aquifer itself. Flowwithin the confining bed is usually simplified to a vertical leakageinto or out of an aquifer. Leakage through a confining bed is quanti-fied as leakance, with units of (gal/d)/ft3 or i/d (a simplification of(ft3/d)/ft3 ). A highly generalized map of selected leakance values ofthe Floridan aquifer's confining bed is shown in figure 20 (Ross, Saarinen,Bolton, and Wilder, 1978).

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The direction of leakage is determined by the head differential ofthe aquifers on either side of the confining bed. Recharge to theFloridan aquifer can, therefore, only occur when the head in the surficialaquifer is higher. Development of the Floridan, through pumpage, caneither capture leakage out of the aquifer or induce additional rechargeby changing the existing head differential.

Potentiometric Surface

The potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer is shown infigure 21. The map is based on water levels measured during May 1979(Laughlin and others, 1980; and Wolansky, Mills, Woodham, and Laughlin,1979). Artesian flow from springs causes a lowering of the potentiometricsurface nearby (Rosenau and others, 1977).

The fluctuation of the potentiometric surface is small near thecoast and ranges up to about 10 feet at U.S. Geological Survey observationwell CE31 at Ocala (U.S. Geological Survey, 1978a, p. 497) and up toabout 20 feet at the overpass well near Trilacoochee (U.S. GeologicalSurvey, 1978b, p. 247) in southeast Hernando County. The average levelof the potentiometric surface in the area has not changed significantlysince water levels were first recorded in the 1930's.

Estimated Well Yields

The Floridan aquifer is capable of yielding usable quantities offreshwater to wells throughout the area with the exception of easternMarion County where water in the aquifer is salty. However, well yieldsvary both locally and regionally. Figure 22, which indicates the yieldthat might be expected from 12-inch wells (Pascale, 1975), shows thatthe highest yields, at least 2,000 gal/min, can be expected in centralMarion County and that yields tend to decrease coastward.

Water Quality

The quality of water from the Floridan aquifer is excellent through-out the basin except in a narrow band along the Gulf coast and in extremeeastern Marion County where salt in the water is a problem. The areaalong the Gulf coast delineated in figure 23 has been intruded by Gulfwater as a result of canal construction, pumped withdrawals, and deficientrainfall according to Mills and Ryder (1977).

Iron is sometimes a problem, as is hydrogen sulfide. However,

these problems can sometimes be avoided by proper well design. Whenthey cannot be avoided, iron and hydrogen sulfide can be removed byaeration of the water.

As indicated by figure 24, the concentration of sulfate in theFloridan throughout the area (Shampine, 1965a, revised 1975) is less

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than 250 milligrams per liter (mg/L), which the Proposed SecondaryDrinking Water Regulations (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977)recommends should not be exceeded.

Dissolved-solids concentrations in the Flo~ridan are less than 250mg/L throughout much of the area (Shampine, 1965b, revised 1975). Inmost of the area where dissolved solids exceed 250 mg/L (fig. 25), thepredominant constituents are calcium and bicarbonate. However along thecoast and in eastern Marion County, the predominant constituents aresodium and chloride. Water in the Floridan is, in general, hard to veryhard (fig. 26) (Shampine, 1965c, revised 1975).

Well Record

A record f wells for the study area containing over 1,000 wells islisted in table 13. The record includes all wells for which data havebeen entered in the computer files of the U.S. Geological Survey.Included are the location, characteristics, and owner of the well, theprimary use made of the well water, and the aquifer tapped by the well.The locations of the wells are plotted in figure 27.

The well-numbering system used to catalog wells in this report isthat of the U.S. Geological Survey. It is based on the location ofwells within a 1-second grid of parallels of latitude and meridians oflongitude.

The number used to catalog wells is a 15-digit number that definesthe latitude and longitude of the southeast corner of a 1-second quadranglein which the well is located. The first six digits of the well numbergive the degrees, minutes, and seconds of latitude, in that order. Thefollowing seven digits give the degrees, minutes, and seconds of longitude.The last two digita are assigned sequentially to identify wells inventoriedwithin a 1-second quadrangle.

Ground-Water Modeling

Ground-water modeling within the study area has been confined to ananalysis by Grubb and Rutledge (1979) of the long-term water supplypotential of the Green Swamp. The Green Swamp lies in eastern Hernandoand Pasco Counties, southern Sumter and Lake Counties, and northern PolkCounty (f ig. 2).

Major components of the hydrologic system of the area were character-ized and quantified. Estimates of principal water budget items were 52.10inches of rainfall, less than 0.5 inch of ground-water inflow, 10 inchesof surface-water runoff, 2 inches of ground-water outflow, and 40 inchesof evapotranspiration per year.

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78

Water supply would be developed through pumping the Floridan aquiferwhich would divert water from ground-water outflow and surface-waterrunoff. The evaluation of the water supply potential was undertakenusing a two dimensional, finite difference, steady state ground waterflow model. Pride and others (1966) reported the transmissivity in thegiven swamp area to range from about 2,900 to 94,000 ft2 /d. Initialestimates of transmissivity for the simulation ranged from 26,750 to160,430 ft2 /d. Initial upper confining bed vertical hydraulic conduc-tivity ranged from 8.6x10- 6 to 4.3x10- 3 ft/d. Several nodes had zerovertical hydraulic conductivity. The two dimensional model was calibratedto the May 1977 potentiometric surface. Calibration required thefollowing adjustments to the model: (1) Reducing initial estimatedaquifer transmissivity by at least 60 percent over about 70 percent ofthe model area, and (2) increasing the initial estimated values of upperconfining bed hydraulic conductivity from 6 to 100 times over about one-third of the model area. The average error per node on the calibratedmodel was 0.68 foot. The maximum node error was 3.39 feet. A sensitivityanalysis of the aquifer parameters was performed on the calibrated model.It was found that a I percent change in surficial aquifer head, a 50percent change in the confining bed vertical hydraulic conductivity and a50 percent change in the Floridan transmissivity create about the sameerror in calibration. Several development schemes were simulated withthe calibrated model. Six pumping centers yielding 91 Mgal/d resultedin a 1 foot or more drawdown over approximately 100 m12 with a maximumdrawdown of 32 feet at one pumping center. This development is equiva-lent to approximately 2 feet of drawdown over the entire area.

Twelve pumping centers yielding 182 Mgal/d resulted in a 1 foot ormore drawdown over approximately 500 mi2 with a maximum drawdown of 34feet at one pumping node. The equivalent drawdown over the entire areawas approximately 4 feet.

Eighteen pumping centers yielding 274 Mgal/d resulted in a 1 footor more drawdown over approximately 700 mi2 with a maximum drawdown of38 feet at one pumping node. The equivalent drawdown over the entirearea was approximately 6 feet. A flood detention area inducing additionalrecharge reduced the maximum drawdown from 38 to 32 feet and reduced theaverage drawdown over the entire area from 6 to 5 feet.

It was not the intention of Grubb and Rutledge (1979) to choose anoptimal development scheme. They did suggest, however, that furtherstudy should give priority to improving estimates of vertical hydraulicconductivity of the confining bed and should involve a multilayer, threedimensional simulation.

At present, the U.S. Geological Survey is undertaking a largescale, regional study of the Floridan aquifer (Johnston, 1978). Itspurpose is to simulate the multilayer Floridan aquifer and surficialaquifer to better define their characteristics and interrelations. Athree dimensional, finite difference ground-water flow model of the

79

Florida peninsula will be involved. This study, when completed, willprovide a basis for determining boundary conditions and areal differencesof the aquifer characteristics for small scale, problem oriented simula-

tion studies such as the one by Grubb and Rutledge (1979).

SURFACE-WATER RESOURCES

This section includes data and information relating to the surface-water resources of the study area, namely streams, lakes, and springs.Although treated in this report as surface-water features it must be

recognized that they are in some instances intimately associated withground-water features because of the geohydrology of the area.

IStreams

Drainage Basins

The study area includes parts of six drainage basins as delineatedby Kenner and others (1967). The basins are shown in figure 28 andinclude:

Suwannee RiverCoastal area between Withlacoochee River and Suwannee RiverOklawaha RiverSt. Johns River above Oklawaha RiverWithlacoochee RiverCoastal area south and west of Withlacoochee River

Runoff

Areal variations in runoff are caused by several factors, includingregional differences in rainfall, differences in slope and infiltrationcharacteristics of the land surface, evaporation from land and watersurfaces, transpiration by plants, and man's activities (diversion,storage by dams, and drainage by canals).

The average annual runoffs for the basins in the study area areshown in figure 28 (from Hughes, 1978). The Withlacoochee River andcoastal area basins in Levy County have an average annual runoff between5 and 10 inches, the Oklawaha River, St. Johns River and Suwannee Riverbasins between 10 and 15 inches, and the coastal area of Citrus andHernando Counties between 25 and 30 inches. The unusually high runoffof the coastal area of Citrus and Hernando Counties is attributed to

substantial subsurface inflow from the Withlacoochee River basin (Hughes,1978; Cherry and others, 1970). The gross, area-weighted average ofannual runoff for the study area is 13 inches.

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Station Record

Gaging stations located in the study area are listed in table 14.Included are continuous-record stations presently (1980) operating andstations which have been discontinued. The station locations are plottedin figure 29. The inventory includes station name and number, latitudeand longitude of the station, drainage area, gage datum, and statisticsof stage and discharge. The statistics are minimum, mean, and maximumdaily average values. For those stations affected by tides, some statisticsare instantaneous values rather than daily average values.

Seasonal Variation of Discharge

Mean monthly discharges for all stations in the study area havingmore than 10 years of record are listed in table 15. Mean monthlydischarges for August and September are generally larger than for othermonths because of the seasonal rainfall.

According to Kenner (1969) month to month variation in averagestreamflow is relatively small because of: (1) the relatively high rateof evapotranspiration in the summer which tends to offset larger amountsof rainfall during the summer, (2) the large volume of natural storagein Florida's numerous lakes which tends to smooth out changes in stream-f low, and (3) the large and relatively stable inflow of ground water tostreams from extensive limestone aquifer systems.

Flow Duration

Flow-duration data based on daily discharges for screamf low-gagingstations having more than 10 years of record are listed in table 16.These data are the discharges, in cubic feet per second, that wereexceeded for the indicated percentages of time.

When the data in table 16 are plotted (discharge against percent oftime) a flow-duration curve is produced. A flow duration curve showsthe integrated effect of the various factors that affect runoff, such asclimate, topography, and geology. According to Searcy (1959) a curvewith a steep slope throughout denotes a stream whose flow is highlyvariable and largely from direct runoff, whereas a curve with a flatslope reveals the presence of surface- or ground-water storage, whichtends to attentuate flood flows and sustain low flows. The slope of thelower end of the duration curve shows the characteristics of the perennialstorage in the drainage basin--a flat slope indicates a large amount ofstorage; a steep slope indicates a negligible amount.

Quality of Surface Water

Quality of water is a generalized expression which encompasses the

concentrations and measurements of many constituents and physical

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characteristics associated with the chemistry of water. Presented inthis section are generalizations concerning the concentrations, physicalcharacteristics, and loads found in streams within the study area.

Chemical type. --The chemical type of water is based on the predominantcations and anions found in the vater when expressed in milliequivalentsper liter. In the study area three chemical types are found (Kaufman,1972), fig. 30: calcium and magnesium bicarbonate type, sodium chloridetype, and mixed type (no predominant cation or anion). Two other chemicaltypes commonly found in Florida, but not in the study area, are sodiumbicarbonate and chloride type, and calcium and magnesium sulf ate type.

Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate type water is associated withTertiary carbonate terranes constituting the Floridan aquifer in thestudy area. Water of the sodium chloride type is associated with salinewater in the low-lying coastal areas and saline water that has movedupward from the Floridan aquifer along fracture or fault traces, forexample, along the east boundary of Marion County. Water containing nopredominant cation or anion is considered to be a mixed type, and isusually associated with noncarbonate terranes such as natural swamplandareas. Water of the mixed type may also result from the mixing ofcalcium and magnesium bicarbonate water and sodium chloride water.

The predominant chemical type of streams in the study area iscalcium and magnesium bicarbonate. The sodium chloride type is presentin the coastal area of Levy and Citrus Counties and along part of theeast boundary of Marion County near the St. Johns River. The mixed typeis found in the extreme southern tip of Sumter County and along thenorthern boundary of Marion County.

The above generalizations are for low-flow conditions, or baseflow. During high-flow conditions the chemical composition of thestorimiater fraction may be dominant enough to change the chemical typeof the water.

Dissolved solids.--Material transported by streams is either in adissolved or suspended state. Dysart and Goolsby (1977), estimated thatfor Florida streams the dissolved-solids load slightly exceeds thesuspended-solids load. Little data, however, exist for suspended solidsin Florida streams.

The concentration of dissolved solids is a measure of the amount ofinorganic and organic material in solution. In the study area thedissolved solids consist mainly of bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfatesof calcium, magnesium, sodium, and, in lesser amounts, potassium.

The average concentrations of dissolved solids for the study area,estimated from specific conductance data, are shown in figure 31. Thecentral part of the study area has concentrations of less than 100 mg/L.Most of the area, including the western part and eastern part, has con-centrations between 100 and 200 mg/L. A small band in northeast Marion

89

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County, along the Oklawaha River, has concentrations between 200 and 350mg/L, and along the coast where streams are influenced by tidal actionconcentrations are greater than 500 mg/L.

The load of a particular constituent is the amount, or weight, ofthat constituent transported by the stream water. It is computed asthe product of the constituent concentration (mg/L), discharge (ft3/s),and 0.0027, a conversion factor.

Load, in tons per square mile per year, of dissolved solids for thevarious basins have been estimated as follows (Dysart and Goolsby,1977):

Dissolved-solids load, in tons

River per square mile per year

Suwannee 126St. Johns 614Withlacoochee 104

The estimated total loads of dissolved solids per year is 1.40million tons for the Suwannee River, 0.27 million tons for the Withla-coochee River, and 5.60 million tons for the St. Johns River.

Conductance.--The distribution of the maximum-observed specificconductance for Florida is presented by Slack and Kaufman (1973, revised1975). The distribution for the study area is shown in figure 32. Thehighest values are along the coast in Citrus County, in south-centralLevy County along the downstream reaches of Waccasassa River, and alongthe northeast boundary of Marion County along the St. Johns River.These areas coincide with areas having a chemical type of sodium chloride.In most of the study area conductance values range from 250 to 750micromhos per centimeter.

Nutrients.--The primary nutrients are principally nitrogen andphosphorus. Other essential nutrients include carbon and sulfur alongwith several minor constituents. These constituents are essential inthe growth of both terrestrial and aquatic plants.

The generalized distribution of average total nitrogen concentra-tions--the sum of organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate concen-trations-is presented by Slack and Goolsby (1976). The distribution oftotal nitrogen for the study area is presented in figure 33. The majorityof the area has total nitrogen concentrations of less than 1.2 mg/L.

Annual nitrogen loads for major streams in the study area arecalculated as follows:

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Orthophosphate is one of three chemical types of phosphate, theother two being acid-hydrolyzable and organic. Orthophosphate is anycompound containing the trivalent group P04 , and is most commonly foundin fertilizers.

The distribution of maximum orthophosphate concentrations for thestudy area, shown in figure 34, was taken from Kaufman (1969b, revised1975). Orthophosphate concentrations as P04 are less than 0.5 mg/L formost of the study area. Three areas, lower Withlacoochee River basin inwestern Levy and Citrus Counties, south Sumter County, and along thenorthern boundary of Marion and Levy Counties, have concentrations inexcess of 0.5 mg/L. The latter area has concentrations in the 1.0 to5.0 mg/L range.

The orthophosphate load for streams in the study area is estimatedto be less than 2.0 pounds per square mile per day.

Color.--The color of water is due to charged colloidal particlescontained within the water. The particles are of mineral and organicorigin, such as decaying vegetation, tannins, peat, and iron and manganesecompounds.

The general distribution of the maximum color of water in the studyarea, shown in figure 35, was taken from Kaufman (1969a). The color ofthe surface water from the larger part of the study area is between 200and 300 platinum-cobalt units. It is less along the coastal areas ofCitrus and Hernando Counties. The highest values of color, 300 to 400units, are found in streams along the southwest and north boundary ofMarion County and southeast Sumter County.

Color values vary due to fluctuations in runoff. In general, increasedcolor is observed immediately following rainfall due to the initial flushof decayed organic matter into the stream. Dilution occurs with increaseddischarge following the initial flush.

pH.--The pH of a solution is a measure of the hydrogen-ion activityand is expressed as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the effectivehydrogen-ion concentration. The pH controls, to a great degree, chemicalprocesses such as solubility, hydroxide precipitation, degree of complex-

ation, and sorption of solutes by particulate matter.

In streams draining natural environments, the pH ranges mostly from4 to 9 units. In an organic-rich environment, under aerobic conditions,

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the pt of the stream water would be about 4 units; a little lower in thepresence of decaying vegetation. In limstone areas the carbonate adbicarbonate ions may control the pH of the stream water, causing it tovary from 5 to 9 units, depending on amount of influence of the ions.

The distribution of Iinimus pH in the study area is shown in figure36 (Kaufmn,1970). For the large part of the area the pit is 6.0 to 7.0units or greater. These values reflect the presence of areas wherelimestone crops out or where significant alkaline ground-water inflowoccurs. The southern tip of Sumter County and a mall part of thenorthern area of Marion County have values in the 5.0 to 6.0 unit range,indicating drainage from swamps.

Temperature. -A map of the average annual stream temperature ofsurface waters is presented by Anderson (1971). For met stream in thestudy area the average annual temperature varies from 680 to 72*F. Onlya very mall part of southeast Marion County has average annual stramtemperatures in the 72* to 76' range.

Lakeo

Lakes Record

The Gazetteer of Florida lakes (Florida Board of Conservation,1969) lists 803 lakes for the study area. Included are all freshwaterlakes named on topographic maps of the U.S. Geological Survey and allunnamed lakes which are 10 acres or more in size. Many of the lakes inthe study area are unnamed and few have water-level data.

Listed in table 17 are data for 21 lake stations in the study areawhere continuous-stage data have been collected. The listing includesthe name, ntuber, and location of the station, and the minimum, mean,and mazin observed stages. The locations of the" stations are shownin figure 37. Five of the Lake-stage stations are on Teals Apopka Lake,parts of which are regulated at different levels.

Stage Fluctuations

The fluct.ations of lake stages, or lake levels, are caused by thenet effect of hydrologic factors, such as rainfall, evaporation, andsurface and subsurface flows, and of man-induced factors, such as pumMpeand regulation.

Rainfall in a localized area such as a lake is quite variable and,along with the resulting storluster runoff, may cause a substantial risein the lake level. Although the annual evaporation lo from lakes isquite large in the study area it is fairly constant with tim and space.Tius the effect of annual evaporation on lake level fluctuations isabout the same for all lakes in the genral area. Seasonal lake evaporation

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is not nearly as constant as annual lake evaporation due to varyinghydrologic factors, such as wind speed, temperature, and humidity,throughout the year.

Surface outflow from a nonregulated lake is normally a function ofthe lake's water level and the size and location of the outlet opening.More water is discharged when lake levels are high and the outlet openingis large. Conversely, both low lake levels and small outlet openingscause less flow to be discharged.

One of the important causes of lake level fluctuations is theinterchange of water between lakes and aquifers. This process iscontrolled by the permeability of the materials in the aquifer systemthrough which the water travels and the difference between the level ofthe lake and the level of the water in the aquifer system.

Hughes (1974) presents a frequency curve of maximum lake levelfluctuations for 110 lakes in Florida having greater than 10 years ofrecords. The curve shows that about 1 percent of the lakes had a maxi-mum fluctuation greater than 25 feet, about 25 percent greater than 10feet, and 50 percent greater than 8 feet. All lakes studied had amaximum fluctuation greater than about 2 feet.

Stage-duration data for seven lakes having more than 10 years ofrecord are listed in table 18. These data are based on period of recordfor each station. The range of stage between the 90 and 10 perrantexceedance stages are:

Feet

Lake Kerr 4.5Lake Weir 2.4Lake Panasoffkee 2.2Tsala Apopka Lake at Floral City 2.9Tsala Apopka Lake at Inverness 2.6Tsala Apopka Lake at Hernando 2.8

Water Quality

Water-quality data are available for about 50 lakes in the studyarea. However, for many lakes only one or two grab samples were collected,thereby making the data unsuitable for statistical evaluation. Water-quality data for 12 lakes where analyses for selected constituents andphysical characteristics are available from five or more samples arelisted in table 19. Three of the lakes listed have more than one samplingsite. Only Lakes Kerr, Weir, Panasoffkee, and Rousseau have completedata for all of the selected constituents and characteristics.

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Specific Lake Studies

Detailed studies have been completed for five lakes in the studyarea (fig. 2). These include Lake Rousseau, Tsala Apopka Lake, and LakePanasoffkee in the Withlacoochee River basin; Lake Kerr in northeastMarion County; and Lake Ocklawaha on the Oklawaha River in north MarionCounty.

Lake Rousseau. -Lake Rousseau is on the Withlacoochee River, westof Dunnellon, on the boundaries of Levy, Citrus, and Marion Counties.It is an impoundment formed by the Inglis dam that was completed in1909. The lake is about 11 miles long and has a surface area of 6.3mi2. It contains many floating and rooted plant species and appears tobe in a state of advanced eutrophication. According to German (1978)the average flow through the dam for the period 1971-76 was about 1,400ft3/s.

Inflow to the lake is made up of the flows of the WithlacoocheeRiver above Holder and of Blue Run, a tributary, which originates atRainbow Springs. Flow-duration curves for inflows to the lake, BlueRun, and Withlacoochee River near Holder are shown in figure 38. Duringhigh-flow periods most of the inflow to Lake Rousseau is from theWithlacoochee River; however during periods of low flow most of theinflow is from Blue Run.

4 Waters in Lake Rousseau, Blue Run, and Withlacoochee River arecalcium bicarbonate type. German (1978) showed that specific conductancefor 90 percent of the water samples collected upstream of the lock andthe dam were within the range of 190 to 320 umho/cm at 250C. Saltwaterfrom the Gulf of Mexico is present in the canal below the lock.

Lamonds and Merritt (1976) computed the following nutrient budgetfor Lake Rousseau for 1975:

Nitrogen, Phosphorus,in tons in tons

Withlacoochee River 285 15

Blue Run 281 22Rainfall 22 1.2

Total inflow 588 38.2

Total outflow 504 41.8

Excess inflow 84 -3.6

They concluded that the net retention of nitrogen in the lake was probablydue to uptake by the prolific aquatic plant community and that the gainin phosphorus in the lake may indicate the existence of an unmeasuredsource such as ground-water seepage into the east part of the lake, or

L07

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more likely, release of phosphorus from the thick layer of organicdebris on the lake bottom. They further indicated that concentrationsof constituents such as toxic metals and pesticides in Lake Rousseau arelow enough that no problems related to these substances exist.

Tsala Apopka Lake.--Tsala Apopka Lake is in eastern Citrus County,near the Withlacoochee River. The lake is not a continuous expanse ofopen water, but a series of shallow, interconnected lakes, ponds, andmarshes. Flow is not channelized sufficiently to permit measuring.Therefore, an accounting of the surface flow is not feasible.

According to Rutledge (1977) the specific conductance of water inthe lake decreases northward. The 10-year average specific conductanceis i91 pmho/cm at 25*C at Floral City, 150 pmho/cm at 250C at Inverness,and 139 Pmho/cm at 25*C at Hernando.

Lake Panasoffkee.--Lake Panasoffkee is in Sumter County, east ofthe Withlacoochee River. The lake is about 6 miles long, about 1.5miles wide at its widest point. ind has a surface area of 7.5 m12 . Thedrainage basin area is 420 mi2 , but because of karstic terrane only 60m12 contribute surface runoff.

The stage-duration curve presented by Taylor (1977) based on datacollected from 1966 through 1973, after the Wysong Dam was built downstreamof the lake, shows that the 10 percent exceedance altitude is about 41.7feet, the 50 percent exceedance altitude is 40.95 feet, and the 90percent exceedance altitude is about 40.4 feet.

According to Taylor (1977) an estimate of the annual water balance

is:

Cubic feet per second

Rainfall onto the lake 29Surface-water inflow 44Net ground-water inflow 160

Total 233

Surface-water outflow 207Evaporation from lake 26

Total 233

Taylor (1977) also states that the quality of the lake water doesnot exceed standards recommended for public supplies by the NationalAcademy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering (1973). Thewater is moderately hard and slightly colored from tannins. Dissolvedsolids concentrations are less than 200 mg/L, hardness concentrationsless than 12.5 mg/L, and chloride concentrations 10 mg/L or less.

109

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Lake Ocklawaha.--A study was completed by an Interagency FederalTask Force and private consultants (Gardner and others, 1972) whichassessed the environmental impacts of continuous flooding on the forestof the Oklawaha River floodplain. Little hydrologic data were presentedand analyzed.

Lake Kerr.--Lake Kerr is in northeast Marion County. It has asurface area of about 4 Mi2 and a drainage area of about 60 mi2 . Thelake, which has no surface-water outflow, occupies an irregularly shapeddepression that probably was formed by subsidence of the land surfaceresulting from dissolution of limestone below the surface.

An annual water balance analysis for the lake was calculated byHughes (1974) for the period 1962-69. Annual rainfall averaged 54inches while annual lake evaporation was estimated to average about 46inches. The net ground-water flow was calculated to be 12 inches out ofthe lake. Therefore the surface-water inflow required to maintain thebalance was 4 inches per year.

Springs

Springs Record

The study area has several springs whose average discharge exceeds100 ft3/s. These include: Chassahowitzka, Crystal River, and HomosassaSprings in Citrus County; Weekiwachee Springs in Hernando County; Fanninand Manatee Springs in Levy County; and Rainbow, Silver Glen, and Silver

*. Springs in Marion County.

All known springs in the study area having average discharge greaterthan I ft3/s are listed in table 20. Also included are selected water-quality data and discharges. Locations of these springs and identifyingnumbers are shown on the map in figure 39. The data for table 20 weretaken from Rosenau and others (1977).

Twenty-seven of the springs are located along the coast of Citrusand Hernando Counties; the remaining 19 springs are scattered across

Levy, Marion, Sumter, and eastern Citrus Counties.

Discharge

Two springs in the study area have had maximum discharges whichexceeded 1,000 ft3 /s--Silver Spriags with a maximum of 1,290 ft3/s andRainbow Springs with a maximum of 1,230 ft3/s. Both are located inMarion County. Ten springs have had a maximum discharge between 100 and1,000 ft3/s, two in Citrus County, three in Hernando, three in LevyCounty, and two in Marion County.

Continuous data are available for Silver Springs and Rainbow Springs.The range of discharges for both is quite small, 539 to 1,290 ft3/s for

110

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Silver Springs and 487 to 1,230 ft3/S for Rainbow Springs. Flow durationdate are listed in table 16 for both springs. For Silver Springs thedifference between the 10 percent exceedance and 90 percent exceedancevalues is only 350 WO/o. For Rainbow Springs the difference is 280ft/s. The median discharge for Silver Springs is 790 ft 3ls, and forRainbow Springs, 700 W/Ol.

Quality

The predominant chemical type of spring waters in the study area iscalcium and magnesium bicarbonate, due to the dissolution process of thecarbonate rocks (limestones and dolomites). Springs of this chemicaltype are found in all the counties (Slack and Rosenau, 1979). Springs inear the coast and St.* Johns River are of the sodium chloride typebecause of saltwater intrusion or saline residues from earlier invasionsof the sea. Some mixed type springs (spring water which lacks a prev-alent constituent) are present in coastal Citrus and Hernando Counties(Slack and Rosenau, 1979).

The water quality of springs in the study area is relatively constantwith respect to time. However, a few saline springs have concentrationsof chloride that fluctuate widely because of the variations in themixing of freshwater and saline water that contribute to the springs.

Spring waters are usually free of color and turbidity because ofthe filtering and absorbing action of the soil and aquifer materialsthat the water passes through. Some springs may have turbid or organicbrown-colored water due to the recharging of the aquifer by turbid,brown "swamp" water in proximity of the spring. Springs with relativelyhigh concentrations of dissolved solids may have a whitish, cloudyappearance, possibly the result of the precipitation of calcium carbonatefrom rapid pressure or temperature changes. The bluish appearance ofsome springs is characteristic of water in large volumes and is notnecessarily caused by impurities.

Surface-Water Modeling

There have been two studies involving surface-water modeling, oneon estuarine water quality (Seaburn and others, 1979) and one on riverinewaste-assimilative capacity (Lamonds and Merritt, 1976).

The estuarine model was developed for two-dimensional, steady-state, intertidal conditions to simulate longitudinal and lateral varia-tions in concentrations of both conservative and nonconservative substances.The basis of the model is the general equations that express the law ofconservation of mass. Simulated concentrations of substances are averagesover one-half of a mixed tide cycle.

114

Time-averaged input data of all types are required because of thesteady-state nature of the model. The model assumes cross-sectionaluniformity of flow and velocity data. The use of average concentrationvalues in the model for each reach requires water-quality measurementsto be averaged not only in cross section but also along the length ofeach reach.

Two estuaries in the study area were modeled, Crystal River andHomosassa River, both in Citrus County. Constituents simulated weredissolved oxygen, carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand, total Kejldahlnitrogen, and chloride.

The model was calibrated for each estuary, but because of limitedresources and because the study was designed for evaluation purposes,the calibration parameters were not verified. Sensitivity analysesinvolving model parameters, such as dispersion coefficient, decay rates,photosynthesis, and respiration were made. Caution should be used in

utilizing this model as the model was designed for use with a diurnal tide,not a mixed tide such as occurs in the Gulf of Mexico adjacent to CitrusCounty.

The second study, pertaining to the waste-assimilation capacity ofriverine environments, modeled the downstream reaches of both theWithlacoochee and Oklawaha Rivers.

The model is based primarily on the Streeter-Phelps oxygen-sagequation. It is a steady-state model, utilizing a one-dimensionalsystem with constant streamflow. The input parameters are constantaverage values for each reach, and include BOD decay rate, backgroundBOD, net productivity, reaeration rate, channel width and depth, tempera-

- 4, ture, and velocity of flow.

Two sets of data were used to calibrate the Oklawaha River model

and one data set was used to calibrate the Withlacoochee River model. Nomention is made of verifying the model, even though two data sets wereavailable for the Oklawaha River. Sensitivity analyses were performedby calculating the change in dissolved oxygen caused by changes in BODconcentrations, net productivity, and reaeration rate.

Results of the modeling indicated that in the natural, high-velocityreaches of the rivers, the factor having the greatest influence ondissolved oxygen concentration is reaeration. In the slow-moving reachesof the rivers, such as in the Oklawaha River near Moss Bluff and inLakes Ocklawaha and Rousseau, reaeration and productivity are major

factors controlling dissolved oxygen concentration.

115

AREAS OF TECHNICAL NEEDS

Water Use

Analysis of Recent Water-Use Data

The accuracy of water-use data has improved in recent years,reflecting a ref inement in the sampling and data collection process.Therefore, the data presented for 1977 by Leach and Healy (1980) may beupgraded with more complete and more accurate 1978 and 1979 data currentlybeing assembled for publication.

Ground-Water Source Delineation

Ground-water sources account for 97 percent of freshwater with-drawals in the region. Therefore, it would augment the usefulness ofthe water-use estimates if ground-water withdrawals were subdivided intosurf icial (water table) aquifer and artesian (Floridan) aquifer sources.This delineation would indicate the dependence on each source of water.

Irrigation Application Rates

Irrigation is a significant use of freshwater in the region. Presentirrigation water-use figures would be more useful if they showed ratesof application by crop type and irrigation method. This would providethe data needed to evaluate the effect on water use of crop rotation,change in total crop acreages, and changes in the type of irrigationsystem utilized.

Limerock-Mining Water Use

Self-supplied industrial water use, and specifically water use forlimerock mining, has been shown to be singularly the most significantfreshwater use in the Withlacoochee River region. A more detailed regional

assessment of this type of water use would improve the accuracy of thetotal freshwater use figures.

Industrial Water-Use Rates

Because industrial water use is a major use of freshwater in theregion, it would be beneficial to delineate industrial water use by amore detailed breakdown of industrial use categories, such as the StandardIndustrial Classification product codes (Florida Chamber of Commerce). Thenwater-use rates could be derived for items produced or services rendered.For instance, water use for food products could be further delineated asdairy products, or more specifically, as a creamery butter product withwater use presented per pound of butter produced. Water-use figures inthis form would be more usable for predicting the impact of industryexpansion in the region.

116

Water Consumption

To fully determine the impact of water withdrawals, the dispositionof the withdrawn water needs to be known. This consists of determiningquantities returned to the source, quantities recharged to anotherusable source, and quantities actually consumed. A pilot project couldbe developed to estimate these quantities for a specific segment of ause category. This estimate could then be extrapolated to predict thedisposition of water withdrawn for the total use category.

Ground-water Resources

Hydraulic Characteristics of the Floridan Aquifer

Few transmissivity, storage, and leakance values for the Floridanaquifer have been documented in the literature. Some effort should bedirected into properly designing, performing, and analyzing multi-wellaquifer tests. These data would be very useful if detailed digitalmodeling is attempted for the area.

Evaluation of the Surficial and Secondary Artesian Aquifers

Probably the most needed work concerning the ground-water resourcesof the area is an evaluation of the surficial and secondary artesianaquifers. Needs include: delineation of where the aquifers occur;description of their lithology; determination of their hydraulic propertiessuch as transmissivity, storage coefficient, vertical hydraulic conduc-tivity, and connection with the underlying Floridan aquifer; water-levelfluctuations; and the quality of their waters.

Analysis of Water-Rich Areas

The Withlacoochee River region has several water-rich areas includingRainbow Springs, Silver Springs, and Tsala Apopka Lake. An appraisalwould be useful concerning the effects of heavy withdrawals, both groundwater and surface water, on these areas. If the relation between withdrawaland effects on these resources are not linear, then some optimum developmentmight be determined.

Effects of Mining on the Water Resources

Limerock mining uses large amounts of self-supplied water in Hernandoand Sumter Counties (table 7). Little is known about the effects thatmining is having on the ground-water and surface-water resources, andperhaps most important, on water quality.

117

Surface-water Resources

Time of Travel

No data were found pertaining to the traveltime of water in thestreams of the Withlacoochee River region. Although discharge measure-ments have an associated mean velocity, it may not relate to traveltimebecause discharge measurements are often made at contracted channelsections such as bridges. Dye studies can be used to determine traveltimes at various frequences of discharge. Results of time-of-travelstudies would allow estimating when accidental or detrimental spillswould appear at various points along the course of a stream. Theresults are also needed if water-quality modeling of the streams is to bedone.

Flow Routing

Step-backwater analyses have been made on the lower WithlacoocheeRiver from the Marion County-Sumter County line downstream to LakeRousseau. Flow routing, or flood routing, has not been studied for thestreams of the Withlacoochee River region. Such a study would determinethe effects of flooding and areas of inundation.

Quality Modeling

Only one report on riverine modeling was found (Lamonds and Merritt,1976). It covered the lower Withlacoochee and lower Oklawaha Rivers,utilizing a dissolved oxygen steady-state model. Modeling the fullcourses of the two rivers, especially the Withlacoochee River, would leadto better understanding of the movement of conservative substances underflood conditions and the waste-assimilative capacity under base-flowconditions.

Water-quality Data Pertaining to Public Supplies

Nearly all of the water-quality data collected in the WithlacoocheeRiver region are of the major-ion type. Little data, if any, have beencollected concerning pesticides (insecticides and herbicides), phenoliccompounds, polychlorinated biphenyls, and heavy metals. A program foranalyzing these constituents in the water and the sediments would delineatethe areal extent and concentrations of these compounds.

Effects on Surface-Water Resources Due to Ground-Water Pumpage

Concentrated, heavy pumpage of ground water can affect the surface-water resources, such as by lowering lake levels, reducing spring discharges,and reducing streamflow. In many places, such as Silver Springs andTsala Apopka Lake, the lakes and springs have economic, recreational,

118

A

and hydrologic connotations. In places of expected large withdrawals,an analysis of pumping effects on surface water would alert the user topossible undesirable impacts.

Stage Data for Lakes

Relatively few lakes have data available on stage. Most availabledata are either continuous (daily interval) or periodic. Althoughcontinuous records offer the most precise and the largest amount ofdata, such meaningful data could be assembled through a program ofmaximum and minimum, or range of stage, collection. The program mightconsist of establishing gages which record maximum stage and minimumstage at numerous lakes either in a study area or political area.Several years of such data collection would be needed before analysessuch as frequency or correlation could be attempted. But the avail-ability of this type of data would be most valuable.

Relation Between Lake and Aquifer Water Levels

Some work has been completed on the relation, or response, betweenlake water levels and aquifer water levels in the State, but none in thestudy area. A study of this sort would indicate the connection betweenthe ground water (artesian and surf icial aquifers) and the lake body.This information would also help to evaluate the effect of large ground-water withdrawals on lakes.

Quality of Water in Lakes

Little water-quality data other than major ions are available forlakes. A systematic program of collecting water-quality data relatingto eutrophication and effects of man's activities would provide informa-tion on the stage of eutrophication of the lakes, and as data are collectedthrough time, trends or changes in water quality.

Precise Inventory of Lakes

An inventory of lakes has been assembled but the collection ofadditional information, such as mean depth, discharge, water-surfaceelevation, and water-quality characteristics, as well as descriptionsand photographs would provide data valuable in studies of water qualityand surface water-ground water relations.

Water Quality of Springs

A compilation of springs has been completed that includes theirlocation, description, discharge, and one or more analyses of waterquality. No attempt has been made to determine the range of concentra-tions of various constituents. A detailed study of the range of waterquality constituents in spring flow would be useful in a study of surfacewater-ground water quality relations.

119

Discharge of Springs

The discharge of a spring is a function of the gradient of thepotentiometric surface near the spring. Analytical calculations made torelate spring discharges to the gradient could be used to estimatespring discharges at ungaged sites.

SUMMARY

Information on the water resources of the Withlacoochee Riverregion, the counties of Levy, Marion, Citrus, Sumter, and Hernando, havebeen summarized in this report. All known reports on the water resourceswere consulted and are referenced in the bibliography. No new data werecollected, but computer files were searched and their data summarized.

Daily water use in the Withlacoochee River region averaged 2,005Mgal/d in 1977. Of this total, 94 percent was saline-surface water usedin thermoelectric power-generation cooling.

Most freshwater withdrawn, 73 percent, is used for industrial andirrigation purposes. Other uses of freshwater include rural domestic,

public supply, livestock, and thermoelectric power generation.

Hernando County is the largest user of freshwater, 43.4 Mgal/d,followed by Marion County with 34.2 Mgal/d. The largest per capita userof freshwater is also Hernando County, using more than 1,300 gallons perperson per day. Second in per capita use is Sumter County with morethan 1,000 gallons per person per day.

The ground-water system is comprised of up to three differentaquifers--the surficial, the secondary artesian occurring within theconfining beds, and the Floridan.

The surficial aquifer is composed of undifferentiated clasticdeposits of fine-to-coarse quartz sand and varying amounts of clay andshell. Its thickness is as much as 300 feet. Little information isknown about the hydraulic characteristics, water levels, or water qualitywithin the surficial aquifer.

The secondary artesian aquifer has not been documented, but mayexist within the confining bed that separates the surficial and Floridanaquifers in areas where the bed is more than 50 feet thick.

The Floridan aquifer consists mostly of limestones and dolomitesand is as much as 1,500 feet thick in some localities. Transmissivitieshave been documented to be as high as 25 million ft2/d. Yields from 12-inch wells can exceed 2,000 gal/mn.

The potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer responds tohydrologic variables such as rainfall and evaporation, hydraulic

120

characteristics of the aquifer, and physiographic features. The fluctua-tion of the surface is small near the coast and ranges up to about 10feet near Ocala, and up to about 20 feet in southern Hernando County.The average level of the potentiometric surface has not changed signifi-cantly in the area since the 1930's when data were first collected.

The quality of water from the Floridan aquifer within the studyarea is excellent except near the gulf coast and in northeast MarionCounty where salty water is a problem. Iron and hydrogen sulfide areproblems in places but can be solved through proper well design andaeration of the water.

A summary of wells lists more than 1,000 wells in the five countyarea. Included in the listing are location, characteristics, ownerof the well, primary use of the water, and the aquifer tapped by thewell.

A summary of continuous-record streamflow-gaging stations was alsomade. The inventory includes 43 stations, some presently discontinued.Statistics on stage and discharge are part of the inventory.

Monthly mean and flow duration discharges were calculated andtabulated for all stations in the study area having more than 10 yearsof discharge record.

The predominant chemical type for streams in the study area iscalcium and magnesium bicarbonate resulting from the relation betweenthe water and the carbonate terranes of the Floridan aquifer. Sodiumchloride type water is present along the coastal areas of Levy andCitrus Counties and along part of the east boundary of Marion Countynear the St. Johns River.

Most of the streams in the area have dissolved-solids concentra-

tions of between 100 and 200 mg/L, specific conductance between 250 and750 pmho/cm, and total nitrogen concentrations of less than 1.2 mg/L.

A summary of 21 lakes having continuous stage data was made. Stage

duration tables for six lakes, those having more than 10 years of data,show that the range of stage between the 90 and 10 percent exceedancestages is as great as 4.5 feet and as little as 2.2 feet.

Water-quality data are available for about 50 lakes in the studyarea. But only four lakes have five or more analyses for the importantconstituents of biochemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen, total phos-phorus, and total carbon.

Forty-six springs whose average discharge was greater than1 ft3/s were also recorded. Spring discharge has been gaged for Silver

Springs and Rainbow Springs. The flow-duration data show a differencebetween the 10 percent exceedance and 90 percent exceedance values ofonly 350 ft3 /s for Silver Springs, and only 280 ft3/s for Rainbow Springs.

121

.. 4. .

The water quality of springs is relatively constant with time.

The predominant chemical type is calcium and magnesium bicarbonate due to

the dissolution of the carbonate rocks.

4.

122

E.. . . -. ___ .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, Warren, 1971, Temperature of Florida streams: Florida Bureau of

Geology Map Series 43, 1 sheet.

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Buono, Anthony, Spechler, R. M., Barr, G. L., and Wolansky, R. M., 1979,Generalized thickness of the confining bed overlying the Floridanaquifer, Southwest Florida Water Management District: U.S. Geolog-ical Survey Water-Resources Investigations Open-File Report 79-1171,

1 sheet.

Buono, Anthony, and Rutledge, A. T., 1979, Configuration of the top ofthe Floridan aquifer, Southwest Florida Water Management Districtand adjacent areas: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Inves-tigations Open-File Report 78-34, 1 sheet.

Bush, P. W., 1973, Salt-water movement in the lower Withlacoochee River,

Cross-Florida Barge Canal complex: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations 72-5, 32 p.

Carr, W. J., and Alverson, D. C., 1959, Stratigraphy of Middle Tertiaryrocks in part of west-central Florida: U.S. Geological Survey

Bulletin 1092, 111 p.

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Chen, C. S., 1965, The regional lithostratigraphic analysis ofPaleocene and Eocene rocks of Florida: Florida Bureau of GeologyBulletin 45, 105 p.

Cherry, R. N., Stewart, J. W., and Mann, J. A., 1970, General hydrologyof the middle Gulf area, Florida: Florida Department of NaturalResources, Bureau of Geology Report of Investigations56, 96 p.

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Dysart, J. E., and Goolsby, D. A., 1977, Dissolved-solids concentra-tions and loads in Florida surface waters: Florida Bureau ofGeology Map Series 77, 1 sheet.

Ehrlich, G. C., Godsy, E. M., Pascale, C. A., and Vecchioli, John,1979, Chemical changes in an industrial waste liquid during post-injection movement in a limestone aquifer, Pensacola, Florida:Ground Water, v. 17, no. 6, p. 562-573.

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Faulkner, C. L., 1973a, Ground-water conditions in the lower Withla-coochee River - Cross-Florida Barge Canal Complex area: U.S.Geological Survey Water-Resoures Investigations 4-72, 31 p.

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Gardner, G. M., Thompson, D. 0., Lugo, A. E., and Pool, D. S., 1972,An environmental assessment of Lake Ocklawaha - Rodman Reservoir;a report to the President's Council on Environmental Quality andthe Secretary of the Army, 44 p.

German, E. R., 1978, The hydrology of Lake Rousseau, west-centralFlorida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources InvestigationsOpen-File Report 77-126, 1 sheet.

Grubb, H. F., 1978, Potential for downward leakage to the Floridanaquifer, Green Swamp area, central Florida: U.S. Geological SurveyWater-Resources Investigations Open-File Report 77-71, 1 sheet.

Grubb, H. F., and Rutledge, A. T., 1979, Long-term water supply potential,Green Swamp area, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Water-ResourcesInvestigations 78-99, 76 p.

Healy, H. G., 1975, Terraces and shorelines of Florida: Florida Bureauof Geology Map Series 71, 1 sheet.

1976, Water levels in artesian and nonartesian aquifers ofFlorida, 1973-74: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investi-gations 76-101, 115 p.

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,A' " '

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* gations Open-File Report 76-80, 1 sheet.

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127

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128

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129

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Wolansky, R. M., Barr, G. L., and Spechler, R. M., 1979, Generalizedconfiguration of the bottom of the Floridan aquifer, ;outhwstFlorida Water Management District: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Open-File Report 79-1490, 1 sheet.

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130 *u.$ QOvVMW4t WPrMN OPM lU21-74.IM1