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CHAPTER 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C

CHAPTER 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C

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Page 1: CHAPTER 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C

CHAPTER 19THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION:

INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C 

Page 2: CHAPTER 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C

Focus Question

• What were the basic features of the new industrial system created by the industrial revolution?

• What effects did the new system have on urban life, social classes, family life and standards of living?

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The Beginnings of Modernization

• Industrial production. – Coal and steam replaced wind and water as new 

sources of energy – New machines.  – new ways of organizing human labor – factories replaced workshops and home 

workrooms 

• Shift from agriculture  & handicraft based  economy  to manufacturing

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Impact of Industrialization

• Migration from rural living into urban centers• Creation of wealthy industrial middle class• Huge working industrial class• Altered how people related to nature• Created an environmental crisis that in the 

20th C was finally recognized as a danger to human existence

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Industrial Revolution: Factors• Factors that contributed to Great Britain’s Industrial 

revolution, 1750• Food Supply & population boom

– Improvements in agricultural practices/production• Labor supply

•  pool of surplus (exploitable) labor• Capital investment

• ready supply of capital to invest in machines and factories• Profits gained from trade and the cottage industry

• Effective central bank• Well developed flexible credit facilities

• Values and Ideology • Profit motive by individuals

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Industrial Revolution: Factors

• Ample supply of mineral  resources:•  coal and iron ore needed in the manufacturing 

process• Government  support

• Parliament contributed to the favorable business climate 

• passed laws that protected private property• Wealth and markets generated from colonies or 

Common Wealth• British exports quadrupled between 1660 and 1760

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The Steam Engine, Steve Watt (1760)•Technological advances transformed industries & Ushered in factory system

© Oxford Science Archive/HIP/Art Resource, NY

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Railroad Line from Liverpool to Manchester

© Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

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The Industrial Factory

• The Factory created a new labor system– Laborers worked regular hours and in shifts to 

keep the machines producing at a steady rate

• Created a system of work discipline– Employees became accustomed to working 

regular hours and overtime • work load increased compared to their rural agricultural life style

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British Cotton Factory, 1851

•new system of discipline that forced them to work regular hours under close supervision. 

© CORBIS

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The Spread of Industrialization: on the Continent

• IN 1815 Belgium, France and German States were still largely agrarian. 

• Obstacles to Industrialization–  lack of good roads – problems with river transit– customs barriers along state boundaries increased in costs and 

prices of goods–  lack of technical knowledge 

• Borrowed British techniques and practices• Gradually the continent achieved technological independence 

as local people learned all the skills their British teachers  had to offer

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The Industrialization of Europe by 1850

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The Spread of IndustrializationUnited States

1815-1860

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Focus Questions

• What marked the increasing industrialization in the United States economy between

1815 – 1860?

• How and why did inequalities increase among the rich, the middle class and the working class?

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Identifications

• Transportation, Market & Industrial Revolutions• Immigration and Scapegoat• Status of artisan• Rhode Island and Waltham System• Cult of Domesticity• Purity Crusade• Universal White Male suffrage• 2nd Great Awakening

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American Demography

• 1800 America– 6 of 7 workers were farmers– No city exceeded 100,000 people

• 1860 America– Population sextupled to 30 million people– 9 cities exceeded 100,000 people– 50% of American workers were farmers

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Changes that allowed for the Industrial Revolution

• Transportation Revolution– Improvements in transportation made that transformation 

possible• Federal, state and corporate investments in transportation 

improvements • Roads, Canals, Railroads 

• Market Revolution– Transition from domestic markets to for distant markets

• Industrial Revolution– Domestic hand labor to machine and factory output

• Immigration – Cheap and exploitable labor

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Immigration

• Political turmoil and Famine brought Massive immigration 

– Irish Potato Famine 1845-1846• 2.5 Million (30% of Ireland’s population)

– German immigration 1840-60• 4.2 Million

• Provided Cheap/Exploitable Labor• Used to scapegoat political, economic & social issues

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“The Bog Trotters”

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The Poor House from Galway

“The Irish fill our prisons, our poor houses, scratch a convict or a pauper, and the chances are that you tickle the skin of an Irish Catholic. Putting them on a boat and sending them home would end crime in this country”

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The Great Fear of the PeriodThat Uncle Sam is Swallowed by 

Foreigners

The Problem Solved

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Thomas Nast Cartoon, 1870Expresses the worry that the Irish Catholics threatened American Freedom

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Early Industry

• The northeast led Americans industrial revolution

– Household and small workshop production– Putting-out system

• Local merchants furnished or put out raw materials to rural households and paid at a piece rate for the labor that converted those raw materials into manufacture products. The supplying merchant then marketed and sold these goods.

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Artisan Status

• Status of Artisan:– Owned tools of production– Owned shops– Managed time and produce

– skilled workers– Independence– prestige

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Shoe Makers

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Industrial Espionage

• Slater’s Rhode Island System – Water powered spinning machine– Richard Arkwright  -1769  (inventor)– Samuel Slater  -  1790 Imported the plans  to 

Patuxet, Rhode Island – The Rhode Island System

• The countryside factory towns• Labor of Farmer’s daughters• Mill Villages

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Waltham System

• Lowell’s Waltham System • Machines that turned raw cotton into finished cloth• Francis Cabot Lowell Toured factories in England in 1811

– Boston Associates Co. 1813• Fully mechanized• By the 1830s - Unskilled, female labor

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Mill Girl

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Middlesex Company Woolen Mills 1848

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Urban Industry

• Industrial Revolution and the Widening gap between the rich and the poor– By 1835 cities were serving commercial 

agriculture and factory towns that produced for largely rural domestic market. 

• Creation of the Urban working class– In the cities there was little concern for creating a 

classless industrial society.

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Stratification of Class Hierarchy• The richest men 

– importers and exporters and took control of banks and insurance companies and made great fortunes in urban real estate

• Growing middle class

– Commercial Class• Wholesale and retail merchants, •  lawyers, salesmen, auctioneers, bookkeepers and accountants • clerks on the bottom creating a white-collar class to cater to the new 

emerging consumer society.

Page 32: CHAPTER 19 THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERNIZATION: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND NATIONALISM IN THE 19th C

Middle Class Ideal

Consumer goodsSymbols of their middle class status

Notions of gentility distinction between manual and non manual work

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“The Hands”

•  Producers of consumer goods • The “hands”• Growth in Demand• Growth in Working class

– Shoemaking, tailoring and the building trade were divided into skilled and semiskilled segments and farmed out to subcontractors who could turn a profit by cutting labor costs

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Rising Standard of Living• After 1815 

– per capita income doubled– living standards rose– Houses: larger, better furnished, heated. – Food: more plentiful and varied 

• The cost:– Half of all adult white males without land– wealth had become more concentrated. 

• In 1800 the richest 10 percent of Americans owned 40-50% of the national wealth, by the 1850s they owned 70%. In the cities they owned over 80%. 

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Evangelical Crusades• Early 19th C ministers bolstered doctrine of separate 

spheres– Clerical endorsement of female moral superiority in 

exchange for women’s activism• Decline of clerical authority in society

• Opposed forces that seemed to act against women’s interests– Materialism– Intemperance– Licentiousness

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Redefinition of female character

• Appropriate to elevated status– Home idealized as bastion of feminine values– Piety, morality, affection, self-sacrifice– Iconography  of Motherhood– Elevated importance & significance of the home

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Cult of DomesticitySeperation of “work” and “home”

Biological differenceA construct that determined separate social roles for men and women. 

–Men: • strong, aggressive and 

ambitious, intelligent• Place in  business and 

politics. –Women:

• Kind, pure, emotional, moral • Place  to preserve religion 

and morality in the home and family

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Purity Crusade

• Traditionally: both men and women wee sexual beings, women weaker willed, lustful and licentious and insatiable

• Purity Crusade: women lacked sexual feeling, lust and carnality became a part of men’s sphere– Etiquette manuals counseled to deter male 

advances

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Professional Medicine & Women’s Sexuality

• Women were Asexual beings– Defined by their sex & sexual roles, yet did not desire it– Dr Alcott, “Women, as is well known, in a natural state…

seldom if ever makes any of those advances, which clearly indicates sexual desire and for this very plain reason, she does not feel them.”

– Only “low” women suffered from the indignity of sexual desire

• Long periods of abstinence proper• Masturbation damaged future offspring, and caused 

“mania” and “idiocy” on the guilty party

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Lowered Standard of Living

• First Slums appeared in the mid 1800s – Huge influx of immigrants and creation of 

exploitable labor force– Overcrowded Housing– Contaminated water supplies– Lack of Sewage– Disease and high mortality rates 

• Cholera and Typhus

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Five Points District

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Limiting the Spread of Industrialization to the Rest of the

World• Deliberate policy of preventing the growth of 

mechanized industry. – India : one of the worlds greatest exporters of 

cotton cloth produced by hand labor.• under the control of the British East Indian Company.• British textiles displaced thousands of Indian Spinners and handloom weavers

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Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

• Population Growth and Urbanization• Rapid population growth

• 1850 European population 266 million• Rapid urbanization

• 50% of British population lived in cities• Miserable living conditions• Tenement housing, 5 or 6 to a bed• Lack of sewage or sanitation• Coal blackened towns and cities

• Deaths outnumbered births

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Social Impact: Industrial Middle Class

• People who constructed factories, purchased machines, established markets– Profit incentive– Value in the accumulation of surplus of wealth

• Sought to reduce disparity between themselves and the landed elite

• Separate themselves from the laboring classes below them

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Industrial Working Class

• Proletariat – the factory workers and majority of the working class• Wretched working conditions

• 12 – 16 hour work week/ 6 days a week• ½ hour for lunch and dinner• No job security• No minimum wage• Hot, dirty, dusty and unhealthy conditions

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Women and Children in the Mines

•Men dug coal, while women and children hauled coal carts on rails to the lift•Cave –ins, explosions, gas fumes•Cramped tunnels, 4 ft high•Ruined lungs and overall health

© SSPL/The Image Works

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Women and Children in the Mines

•Child Labor: exploited in textile mills and coals mines•Paid 1/6 to 1/3 the wage of a man•Women paid half that of a man or les

© SSPL/The Image Works

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Socialism

• Early 1800’s conditions of the slums, mines and factories – gave rise to social movements that demanded an 

improvement in workers conditions

• Early Socialism (Utopian Socialists)– product of intellectuals who believed in the equity 

of all people– Wanted to replace competition with cooperation 

in industry

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Utopian Socialist

• Robert Owen, A British Cotton Manufacturer– believed that humans would show their true 

natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. 

• New Lanark, Scotland, he transformed a squalid factory town into a flourishing healthy community

• New Harmony, Indiana, USA (1820s) , failed

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Trade Unions

• An organized movement for change– Goals 

• to improve working conditions• Gain decent wages

• Associations were formed by skilled workers  • Some conducted strikes to win gains for 

workers– Iron works– Coal miners

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National Trade Union

• 1820s and 1830s: Movement to create a national trade union

• The Amalgamated Society of Engineers (1851)– Britain– Won generous unemployment benefits in return 

for small weekly payment

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The Growth of Industrial Prosperity

• Focus Questions: What was the Second industrial revolution, and what effects did it have on economic and social life? What were he main ideas of Karl Marx, and what role did they play in politics and the union movement in the late 19th C ad early twentieth centuries? 

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An Age of Progress          1837  - 1897•‘‘The most striking . . . evidence of progress during the reign is the ever increasing speed which the discoveries of physical science have forced into everyday life. •Steam and electricity have conquered time and space to a greater extent during the last sixty years than all the preceding six hundred years witnessed.’’

Photo courtesy private collection

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New Products after 1870

• After 1870 the western world experienced a dynamic boom in material prosperity. – New industries– New sources of energy– The new goods of the second industrial revolution

• All this led people to believe that their material progress reflected human progress. 

• The Second Industrial Revolution led many Europeans to believe that most human problems would be solved through scientific achievements. 

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New Industry• transformed American 

from Agrarian nation to Industrial power– Technology

– Steam engines– Electricity– Edison’s light bulb– Radio– streetcars and subways– Conveyor belts, cranes, 

machines, 

– Modern Corporations– Industrial labor– Exploitation– Unionization

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Kitty Hawk, (1903) brothers Orville ad Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a fixed wing airplane1919 first passenger air service established

s

11

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Technology• Advancements in:

– Railroads– Steel Mills– Telephone– Electricity: light & generator– Typewriter– Elevators and skyscrapers– Entertainment: phonographs and 

motion picture– Household items: refrigerators, 

washing machines– Internal Combustion engine leads to 

automobiles and first flight (Wright Brothers)

(c) 2003 Wadsworth Group All rights reserved

6

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New Patterns

• Germany replaced Britain as the industrial leader of Europe. 

• 1900 Europe divided into 2 economic zones– Advanced industrial core with high standard of 

living• Great Britain, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Many Western part of Austro-Hungarian Empire, Northern Italy

– Little industrialized• Southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Balkan Kingdoms and Russia

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The Industrial Regions of Europe at the End of the Nineteenth Century

•steelmaking, electricity, petroleum, and chemicals

• spurred substantial economic growth and prosperity in western and central Europe

•sparked economic and political competition between Great Britain and Germany.

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Spread of Industrialization

• Governments of Russia and Japan fostered industrialization– Russia, 1890s, Sergei Whitte, Minister of Finance

• Rail road construction• Modern steel and coal industry

– 1900 4th largest producer of steel• Half of the worlds oil production

– Japan• Financed industries, built RR, Universal education system 

based on science• Key industries of tea, silk, armaments shipbuilding

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Women and Work: New Job Opportunities

• Reality vs. Rhetoric of Ideal family and expectations of womanhood– Myth of domestic spheres– Reality of women needing employment to support 

families• Only opportunity available was low wage work of labor part time in sweat shops

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Women and Work: New Job Opportunities

• 2nd industrial revolution opened the door to new jobs for women. – Service, white collar job the new stratified 

commercial class. – Increased demand for white collar workers at 

relatively low wages coupled with a shortage of male workers led employers to hire women

• Big Businesses, retail shops: Clerks, secretaries, file clerks, sales clerks

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Women and Work: New Job Opportunities

• New opportunities – Expansion of Government services 

• secretaries and telephone operators •  health and social services

– Compulsory education • necessitated more teachers

– Development of modern hospital services opened the way for an increase in nurses

• Women remained limited in what careers they could pursue – lack of equal education

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Organizing working classes

• After 1870 people began to organize– Conditions of labor class– Socialist political parties– Socialist labor unions

• 1848, Karl Marx & Fredreich Engels had developed a theory that explained social struggle, Communist Manifesto.

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Marxism

• Marxist theory: – argued that history is a history of class struggle 

between the working people who depended on others the means of production, and the oppressors who owned the means of production and thus had the power to control government and society

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Marxism• The Bourgeoisie and the proletariat

– predicted that eventually the two groups would break into open revolution

• For a while the proletariat would form a dictatorship in order to organized the means of production

– the end result would be a classless society since classes themselves arose from economic difference that have been abolished. 

• The state which he perceived as an instrument of bourgeois interests would whither away

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‘‘Proletarians of the World, Unite’’

• To improve their working and living conditions, many industrial workers, inspired by the ideas of Karl Marx, joined working-class or socialist parties. 

• Pictured here is a socialist-sponsored poster that proclaims in German the closing words of The Communist Manifesto: ‘‘Proletarians of the World, Unite!’’

© Photo courtesy private collection

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Socialist Parties

• Working class leaders after 1870 began to pick up on Marx’s theory. – The German Social Democratic Party, 1875 

• espoused revolutionary Marxist Rhetoric we organizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the Reichstag or lower house of parliament. 

• By 1912 it became the largest party in Germany due to its work to improve conditions for the working class

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Socialist Parties

• The Second International was an association of national socialist groups that would fight against capitalism world wide: – May Day or May 1st

–  International labor holiday due to the associations coordinated actions

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Revisionism & Trade Unions• Marxist partied divided over the issue of 

revisionism. – Pure Marxist’s : believed in the imminent collapse of 

capitalism ad the need for socialist ownership of the means of production. 

– Revisionists: rejected revolutionary socialism and argued that workers must organize mass political parties and work together with other progressive elements to gain reform. 

• With suffrage, could achieve their aims through democratic channels

– Revolution through democratic means, not by revolution would achieve the desired goal o socialism

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Reaction and Revolution: The Growth of Nationalism 

• Focus Question:– What were the major ideas associated with 

conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism– What role did each ideology play in Europe 

between 1800 and 1870? – What were the causes of the revolutions of 1848, 

and why did these revolutions fail? 

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A meeting of the Congress of Vienna

1814

© Scala/Art Resource, NY

•After the defeat of Napoleon European rulers moved to restore much of the old order.

•Goal of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia

•final peace settlement after the Napoleonic wars.

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Conservative Order

• The leader of the congress, Austrian Prime Minister Prince Klemen’s von Metternich claimed he was guided by the principle of legitimacy. – To reestablish peace and stability in Europe he 

considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs ho would preserve traditional institutions. 

• Had already been done in France

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Conservative Order• Conservatism:

–  favored obedience to political authority, – believed that organized religion was crucial to 

social order,–  hated revolutionary upheavals, – unwilling to accept either liberal demands for civil 

liberties and representative of governments or the nationalistic  aspirations generated by the French Revolutionary era. 

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Conservative Backlash• The peace arrangements were the beginning of 

a conservative reaction determined to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution.

• This political philosophy of Conservatism– supported by hereditary monarchs, – government bureaucracies, – landowning aristocracies, – revived churches

• forces were dominant after 1815

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Concert of Europe

• Method used by the great powers to maintain the new status quo 

•  Concert of Europe–  Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and later 

France • agreed to meet periodically in conference to take steps that would maintain the peace in Europe.  

• adopted the principle of intervention,–  asserting the right to send armies into countries where there 

were revolutions to restore the legitimate monarchs to their throne. 

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Europe After the Congress of Vienna, 1815

• Monarchs were restored in France, Spain, and other states recently under Napoleon’s control, and much territory changed hands, often at the expense of small and weak states.

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Forces for Change: Liberalism

• Liberalism – people should be from as much restraint as 

possible• owed much to the enlightenment of the 18th C. and the American and French revolutions 

• Common set of beliefs: – protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of 

the people, should be guaranteed b a written document

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Civil Liberties• Equality before the law• Freedom of assembly, speech and press• Freedom from arbitrary arrest• Religious toleration for all• Separation of church and state• Demanded the right of peaceful opposition of 

government in and out of parliament • making of laws by a representative assembly 

or legislature elected by qualified voters

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Liberalism• Many believed in a constitutional monarchy or 

constitutional state with limits on the powers of government – to prevent despotism and in written constitutions that 

would guaranteed these rights

• Liberals were not democrats: – they thought that the right to vote  and hold office should 

be open only to men who owned property– Adopted by middle class men, Industrial bourgeoisie who 

favored voting rights for themselves • share power with the land owning societies

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Forces for Change: Nationalism

• Arose out an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs. 

•  This community is called a nation, and the primary political loyalty of individuals would be a nation. – become a popular force for change following the 

French Revolution.  – believed that each nationality should have its own 

government. 

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Nationalism

• German’s who were not united, wanted national unity in a German nation state with one central government.

•  Subject peoples such as Hungarians wanted the right to establish their own autonomy rather than be subject to a German minority in the multinational Austrian empire.

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Nationalism

• Threat to the existing political order. – A united Germany for example would upset the 

balance of power established at Vienna in 1815– An independent Hungarian state would mean the 

breakup of the Austrian empire. 

• European states were multinational,– conservatives tried to repress the radical threat of 

nationalism.

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Revolution and Reform, 1832-1848

• Forces of Liberalism, nationalism and the second industrial revolution coalesced, in 1830 France–  Bourbon Monarch Overthrown– created a limited constitutional  monarchy under 

Louis Philippe• Great Britain avoided upheaval by passing a 

Reform Bill 1832 –  increased the numbers of male voters, primarily 

benefitting the upper middle class who favored liberal ideas

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Revolution and Reform 1848

• Nationalism was the crucial force in 3 other revolutions– Belgium: had been annexed to the Dutch Republic 

in 1815 to create a larger state to act as a barrier against French Aggression, 

– rebelled against the Dutch and established an independent constitutional monarch

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Revolution and Reform

• 2 other revolutions failed: – Russian forces crushed the Poles attempt to 

liberate themselves from foreign domination,–  Austrian troops intervened in Italy to uphold 

reactionary governments in a number of Italian states. 

• Liberalism and Nationalism continued to grow• Sparked new revolution

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Revolutions of 1848

• Revolution in Central Europe– Revolution in France was the spark for revolts in 

other countries– Internal problems provided kindling:  industrial 

and agricultural  depression, – refusal to extend suffrage

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Central Europe

• Government of King Louis-Philippe refused to respond to needs of people– opposition grew and finally overthrew the 

monarchy of Feb 24, 1848. 

• A group of moderate and radical republicans established a provisional  government and called for the election by universal male suffrage of a “constitutional assembly” and would draw up a new constitution. 

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Constitutional Assembly

• New constitution was ratified on November 4, 1848 

• established the 2nd Republic with a single legislature elected  to 3 year terms  by universal male suffrage to a 4 yr term. – In the elections for the presidency held in 

December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of original, won and within 4 years would establish an authoritarian regime