Final Report Monitoring Kwn-final Draft-En

7/26/2019 Final Report Monitoring Kwn-final Draft-En

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CCoollllaabboorraattoorrss::

Chris CorbinNadia-Deen FergusonMarko TosicCoordination Uni of Caribean Envrinmental Progra

Jamaica.

Antonio Villasol Nez Jess Beltrn GonzlezMarln Prez Hernndez Ibis TorresRamn Rodrguez Flix SolarReinaldo Alvrez Reinaldo RegaderaLissi Lpez Lienna BellFernando Ruiz Mismel RuizYamiris Gmez Liseth GarcaCenter for Environmental Management of Bays and Coast

Areas

Victor Manuel MartnezNinoska ChowCentro para la Investigacin de Recursos Acuticos

Nicaragua (CIRA/UNAN)

William Senior Fabiola Lpez-MonroyArstide Mrquez Antonio BentezIvis Marina FermnUniversidad de Oriente, Venezuela

Jess Antonio Garay Tinoco Juan Pablo ParraLizbeth Janet Vivas-Aguas Betty Cadavid IbaezLuisa Fernanda Espinosa Silvia Narvez FlrezJulin Mauricio BetancourtInstituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras Jos Bent

Vives De Andris, Colombia.


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Commodore Anthony Franklin

Darryl BanjooAphtaab MohammedInstitute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad y Tobago

Delphina VernorChristopher CoxAvril IsaacCaribbean Environmental Health Institute, Santa Luca

Kapleton Hall Stacey MosesPamela Mkenzic Dion NellySean GreenNational Environmental and Planning Agency, Jamaica


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TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION. .............................................................................................................................................. - 1 -

BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................... -1-

GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF THE WIDER CARIBBEAN REGION

(WCR). ................................................................................................................................................................. - 3 -

METHODOLOGICAL GUIDELINES FOR SAMPLING .................... ........... ........... .......... ........... .............. - 5 -

WATER QUALITY MONITORING ................................................................................................................ - 8 -

LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS (NICARAGUA) ............................................................................................................ -8-POINT LISAS PORT,GULF OF PARIA (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO) ....................................................................... -17-BAHA DE LA HABANA,CUBA (CUBA) ............................................................................................................ -23-CINAGA GRANDE SANTA MARTA (COLOMBIA) ............................................................................................. -30-GOLFO DE CARIACO (VENEZUELA) ................................................................................................................. -41-KINGSTON HARBOUR (JAMAICA) .................................................................................................................... -47-

EVALUATION ABOUT THE QUALITY OF COASTAL WATER IN THE SMALL ISLANDS OF THE CARIBBEAN. ............ -56-

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................................................... - 58 -

RECOMENDACIONES ................................................................................................................................... - 59 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY. ............................................................................................................................................ - 60 -

TABLES INDEX

TABLE 1.WATER QUALITY INDICATORS APPROVED AT THE REGIONAL WORKSHOP ON QUALITY INDICATORS OFSEAWATER AND METHODOLOGIES FOR POLLUTING DISCHARGES IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN REGION.......... -5-

TABLE 2.NITROGENATED COMPOUNDS (MG.L-1)DETERMINED IN LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS (NICARAGUA). ...... -12-TABLE 3.TN:TPRATIO VALUES IN LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS .............................................................................. -14-TABLE 4.RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AND THE DUNCAN MULTIPLE RANGE TEST FOR ONE

WAY FOR THE NORTHERN ZONE AND THE SOUTHERN ZONE OF THE GULF OF CARIACO (P


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FIGURES INDEX

FIGURE 1.STATES AND TERRITORIES MAKING UP THE WIDER CARIBBEAN REGION. ............................................. - 4-FIGURE 2. HIGH RISK AREAS MONITORED DURING THE KNOW WHYNETWORKPROJECT. ................................. - 7-

FIGURE 3.NETWORK OF STATIONS FOR THE MONITORING OF THE QUALITY OF WATER AND SEDIMENTS IN LAGUNA DEBLUEFIELDS (NICARAGUA). ........................................................................................................................ -10-

FIGURE 4. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS SST(MG L-1)IN LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS (MAY 2008).-11-FIGURE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL PHOSPHORUS (MG L-1)IN LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS (MAY 2008).............. -13-FIGURE 6. RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION OF THE LARGE TAXONOMIC GROUPS OF PHYTOPLANKTON TO THE RICHNESS OF

THE SPECIES AND AMOUNT OF TAXA IDENTIFIED BY STATIONS IN THE LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS MONITORING.-15-

FIGURE 7.SEDIMENT FRAGMENTS IN LAGUNA DE BLUEFIELDS. ........................................................................... -16-FIGURE 8.DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC MATERIAL (%) ......................................................................................... -16-FIGURE 9.NETWORK OF STATIONS TO MONITOR WATER AND SEDIMENT QUALITY IN POINT LISAS,GULF OF PARIA

(TRINIDAD &TOBAGO). .............................................................................................................................. -18-FIGURE 10.DISSOLVED OXYGEN LEVELS AT POINT LISAS,GULF OF PARIA. ........................................................ -19-FIGURE 11. PHOSPHATE LEVELS IN THE GULF OF PARIA,TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. ............................................. -20-

FIGURE 12. AMMONIA NITROGEN LEVELS IN THE GULF OF PARIA (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO). ............................ -21-FIGURE 13.CHLOROPHYLL-A LEVELS IN THE GULF OF PARIA (TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO). ................................... -22-

FIGURE 14. DISSOLVED AND DISPERSED HYDROCARBON LEVELS (DDHP)IN THE GULF OF PARIA (TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO). ................................................................................................................................................... -22-

FIGURE 15.NETWORK OF STATIONS TO MONITOR THE WATER QUALITY IN HAVANA BAY (CUBA):1-ENTRANCECANAL,2-MARIMELENA INLET,3GUASABACOA INLET,4-ATARS INLET Y 5-CENTER OF THE BAY. ..... -24-

FIGURE 16. HISTORICAL TREND OF THE PRINCIPAL QUALITY INDICATORS OF THE WATERS IN HAVANA BAY...... -26-FIGURE 17.COMPARISON OF BOD5LEVELS BY YEARS IN THE BAYS SURFACE WATERS...................................... -27-FIGURE 18.TENDENCY OF HYDROCARBONS IN WATER IN HAVANA BAY. ............................................................ -28-FIGURE 19. FECAL COLIFORM CONCENTRATIONS IN THE HAVANA BAY WATERS DURING THE LAST THREE YEARS-28-FIGURE 20.DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL HYDROCARBONS BY YEARS IN RECENT SEDIMENTS IN HAVANA BAY......... -29-FIGURE 21.SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE CINAGA GRANDE DE SANTA MARTA LAGOON SYSTEM. THE COLORS

REPRESENT ESTABLISHED ZONES. ............................................................................................................... -32-FIGURE 22.SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF AVERAGE SALINITY OF SURFACE WATER BETWEEN FEBRUARY AND MAY

OF 2008(MONTHS REPRESENTED BY NUMBERS 2AND 5),IN THE SIX ZONES OF THE CGSMSAMPLING. THEBLACK BARS REPRESENT TYPICAL ERROR. .................................................................................................. -33-

FIGURE 23.SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF AVERAGE DISSOLVED OXYGEN (MG L-1)OF SURFACE WATER,BETWEENFEBRUARY AND MAY OF 2008(MONTHS REPRESENTED BY NUMBERS 2AND 5),IN THE SIX ZONES OF CGSMSAMPLING. .................................................................................................................................................. -34-

FIGURE 24.SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (MG/L)AVERAGE OF SURFACE WATER INFEBRUARY (2)AND APRIL (4)OF 2008IN THE SIX ZONES OF CGSMSAMPLING. ........................................ -35-

FIGURE 25. SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF CHLOROPHYLL-A CONCENTRATION (G/L) IN SURFACE WATER BETWEENFEBRUARY AND MAY 2008IN THE SIX CGSMSAMPLING ZONES. .............................................................. -36-

FIGURE 26.SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF NITRATESNO3(MOL L-1)IN THE SURFACE WATERS OF THE SIX CGSM

SAMPLING ZONES IN FEBRUARY (2)AND APRIL (4)2008. ........................................................................... -36-FIGURE 27.AVERAGE SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF AMMONIUMNH4(MOL L

-1)IN THE SURFACE WATER OF THE SIXCGSMSAMPLING ZONES IN FEBRUARY (2)AND APRIL (4)2008. ............................................................... -37-

FIGURE 28.AVERAGE SPACE AND TIME VARIATION OF ORTHOPHOSPHATES PO3-4 (MOL L-1)IN SURFACE WATER OFTHE SIX CGSMSAMPLING ZONES IN FEBRUARY (2)AND APRIL(4)2008. ................................................... -38-

FIGURE 29.SPACE AND TIME VARIATIONS OF TOTAL COLIFORM (NMP/100ML)MEASURED IN SURFACE WATER ANDADJACENT TO STILT-HOUSING AND CGSMCOASTAL SETTLEMENTS IN FEBRUARY (2)AND APRIL(2)2008.-38-

FIGURE 30. SPACE AND TIME VARIATIONS OF THERMO-TOLERANT COLIFORM (NMP/100ML)MEASURED IN SURFACEWATER AND ADJACENT TO STILT-HOUSING AND CGSMCOASTAL SETTLEMENTS IN FEBRUARY (2)AND APRIL (4)2008. .......................................................................................................................................................... -39-

FIGURE 31.NETWORK OF STATIONS FOR THE EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY IN THE GULF OF CARIACO. ....... -42-


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FIGURE 32. TEMPERATURE,SUSPENDED SOLID AND DISOLVED OXYGEN IN CARIACO GULF,SUCRE STATE,VENEZUELA,DURING MARCH OF 2008. ........................................................................................................................... -43-

FIGURE 33.CONCENTRATIONS OF TOTAL NITROGEN IN THE GULF OF CARIACO,SUCRE STATE,VENEZUELA,DURINGMARCH OF 2008. ........................................................................................................................................ -44-

FIGURE 34.CONCENTRATIONS OF AMMONIUM (A)AND PHOSPHATE (B)IN THE CARIACA GULF,SUCRE STATE,

VENEZUELA,DURING MARCH OF 2008. ...................................................................................................... -45-

FIGURE 35.CONCENTRATIONS OF SILICATE IN THE GULF OF CARIACO,SUCRE STATE,VENEZUELA,DURING MARCH OF2008. .......................................................................................................................................................... -45-

FIGURE 36.STATIONSNETWORK TO MONITORING WATER AND SEDIMENT QUALITY IN KINGSTON HARBOUR(JAMAICA). ................................................................................................................................................. -49-

FIGURE 37. LEVELS OF AMMONIA NITROGEN IN KINGSTON BAY,JAMAICA. ........................................................ -50-FIGURE 38.VALUES FOR HPDDCONCENTRATION IN THE STATIONS STUDIED. .................................................... - 51-FIGURE 39.ANALYSIS CLUSTER WITH SURFACE AVERAGE VALUES PER STATION OF ALL THE HYDRO-CHEMICAL

INDICATORS IN KINGSTON HARBOUR. ........................................................................................................ -53-FIGURE 40. CLASSIFICATION OF BAY SEDIMENTS ACCORDING TO CONCENTRATIONS OF ORGANIC CARBON OC(%)Y

ORGANICNITROGEN ON(%) ..................................................................................................................... -54-FIGURE 41.VALUES OF CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS CONCENTRATION AT THE DIFFERENT STATIONS SAMPLED IN

KINGSTON BAY .......................................................................................................................................... -55-


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ACRONIMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AMEP: Assessments and Management of Environmental PollutionCEHI: Caribbean Environmental Health Institute, St Lucia.

CEP: Caribbean Environmental Program

CGSM: Cinaga Grande de Santa Marta, Colombia

CIMAB: Center for Enviromental Management of Bays and Coastal Areas (Centro de Ingenieray Manejo Ambiental de Bahas y Costas), Cuba.

CIRA/UNAN: Centro para la Investigacin en Recursos Acuticos de la Universidad NacionalAutnoma de Nicaragua.

EPA: Environmental Agency Protection, USA

GEF: Global Environmental Facility

IMA: Institute of Marine Affaire, Trinidad & Tobago

INVEMAR: Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras Jos Benito Vives de Andris,Colombia.

LBS: Land Based Sources.

NEPA: National Environmental and Planning Agency, Jamaica

SIDA: Swedish International Development Agency

SIDS: Small Island Development State

UDO: Universidad de Oriente, Venezuela.

UNDP: United Nation Development Programme

UNEP: United Nation Environment Programme

UNEP-CAR/RCU: United Nation Environment Program - Caribbean Regional Coordination Unit

UNOPS: United Nations Office for Project Services

WCR: Wider Caribbean Region


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INTRODUCTION.

The Marine Sciences and Technologies Regional Project for the Wider Caribbean Region, known

as Know Why Network, came into being as part of the financial support provided by theSwedish Development Agency (SIDA) and is administered and directed by the AMEP sub-programme (Evaluation and Management of Marine Pollution) of the Caribbean EnvironmentalProgramme (CEP).

The general aim of this project is the exchange of capacities between countries with theobjectives of implementing the Pollution from Land-based Sources Protocol (LBS) andimproving knowledge about the environmental quality of the marine ecosystems and theirresources in the Wider Caribbean Region (WRC).

The specific objectives of the Know Why NetworkProject are:

1. To develop and strengthen the capacity of participating institutions with the aim of

establishing a regional network in order to implement the LBS Protocol.

2. To provide in situdata and information to establish an environmental baseline in high riskpollution areas of the Wider Caribbean Region.

3. To exchange technologies among the countries, for example Geographic InformationSystems (GIS), including the use of Remote Sensorsto map the pollution levels from thedischarges of Land-based Sources of Marine Pollution.

4. To develop methodological guidelines to classify waters as Class I and II according to theLBS Protocol.

In order to fulfil the second objective, the Monitoring Programme in High Risk Areas in the

Wider Caribbean Region was designed.The selected areas were: Baha de Bluefields (Nicaragua), Port of Point Lisas (Trinidad andTobago), Baha de La Habana (Cuba), Cienaga Grande Santa Marta (Colombia), Golfo deCariaco (Venezuela) and Kingston Harbour (Jamaica).

This report shows the monitoring results of the waters studied under the Regional MarineSciences and Technologies Network for the Wider Caribbean Know Why Network.

Background

The ninth meeting of the Supervisory Committee for the Caribbean Environmental Programme

(CEP) approved the Work Plan for 1992-1993 in June of 1991. One of the activities of theRegional Programme for Integrated Planning and Institutional Development (IPID) of CEP wasthe Regional Project for Environmental Planning and Management of Heavily Polluted Bays andCoastal Areas in the Wider Caribbean, which invited participation, through the CEP RegionalCoordination Unit (CEP-RCU), of Barbados, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guadalupe, Jamaica,Martinique, Nicaragua, Trinidad & Tobago, the Dominican Republic and Venezuela. Theobjectives of this project were:


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To assist the countries in the region with implementation and strengthening ofenvironmental actions along with actions dealing with institutional development.

To promote horizontal technical cooperation between institutions responsible for theenvironmental management of bays and coastal areas in the Wider Caribbean.

To implement studies in the case of severely polluted bays and coastal areas in order toassess the needs for assistance in the development of priority strategies to reduce andcontrol pollution.

To increase technical and scientific capacities of participating institutions with specialemphasis on the development of human resources.

To provide governments with the methodologies and recommendations needed to controland reduce pollution problems in bays and coastal areas.

The RCU/CEP-UNEP and the Centre for the Engineering and Environmental Management ofBays and Coasts (Cimab) of Cuba signed a Letter of Agreement for the realization of theaforementioned project. In that Letter of Agreement, Cimab took on the responsibility for theimplementation of the Regional Project, and the activities for the September 1992 to June 1993phase were defined.

One of the activities of the period was the evaluation and selection of the Case Studies, and ofthese, the following were selected: Baha de Cartagena in Colombia; Puerto Limn in CostaRica; Baha de La Habana in Cuba; Kingston Harbour in Jamaica; Baha de Bluefields inNicaragua; Point Lisas zone in Trinidad and Tobago; the Santo Domingo coastline in theDominican Republic and Baha de Pozuelos in Venezuela.

As a result of the work carried out in these countries and with the support of the information

obtained by the project in four countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba and Jamaica), a newproject with GEF (Global Environmental Facility) funds was approved in 1995, carried out by theUnited Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) and the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) under the name of Planning and Management of Heavily Polluted Baysand Coastal Areas, which lasted until May of 1998.

From 1995, the other countries, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad & Tobago andVenezuela, continued working with funding from the Swedish government through the SwedishDevelopment Agency (SIDA). Preliminary Assessment Studies were carried out to diagnose thepollution status in these areas, and guidelines were drafted for creating the EnvironmentalManagement Plan for each case study.

The main results obtained by the participating countries in both regional projects enabled theidentification of the principal source of pollution to the Caribbean Sea: pollution from land-based sources.

Carrying out the regional project contributed valuable information and broad experiences in thefollowing areas: land-based pollution sources, environmental management of coastal areas,


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marine pollution, existing and necessary institutional capacities, horizontal cooperation andcommunity participation.

The results obtained by both projects facilitated the determination of principal problems in thecoastal areas of the Wider Caribbean. These were:

Negative effects on the quality of water and sediments, including beach areas

Negative effects on natural communities

Inadequate handling of liquid and solid waste

Lack of the necessary oceanographic information

Lack of legal instruments and/or the necessary mechanisms so that these instrumentsmight be functional

Lack of qualified personnel to tackle the work related to the topic

Poor environmental education

Environmental problems detected in high risk coastal areas in the Wider Caribbean region in the1990s persist and have even increased in some instances. For that reason, the environmentalmonitoring component was included in the Know Why Network project with the aim ofupdating and improving knowledge about environmental quality of the marine ecosystems andtheir resources in the Wider Caribbean Region.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF THE WIDERCARIBBEAN REGION (WCR).

The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the WiderCaribbean Region defines the WCR as the marine environment including the Gulf of Mexico,the Caribbean Sea and the adjacent areas of the South Atlantic Ocean from 30o latitude north andwithin 200 nautical miles from the Atlantic coasts of the nations signing the Convention (figure1). The WCR is composed of 28 states and 12 territories that are dependent on 4 states.

The Wider Caribbean Region is made up of coastal countries in North America, Central America,South America and the Antilles.


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Colombia

Venezuela

Mxico

Estados Unidos de Amrica

Guyana

Honduras

Cuba

Surinam

Nicaragua

Guatemala

Panam

Haiti

GuyanaFrancesa

Costa Rica

Belice

RepblicaDominicana

Jamaica Puerto Rico

Las Bahamas

Trinidad & Tobago

Guadalupe

MartinicaSta. Luca

BarbadosGranada

Islas Caimn

Ant igua & B arbuda

Angui la

Turks & Caicos Is.

Dominica

San Kitts & Nevis

San Vincente & Las Granadinas

Montserrat

N

N

N

5N

N

5N

65W

95W

55W

70W

75W

80W

85W

90W

60W

0 500 1,000250 Km

Golfo de

Mxico

Mar Caribe

OcanoPacifico

Ocano

Atlantico

Figure 1. States and Territories making up the Wider Caribbean Region.

The Wider Caribbean Region inputs from three of the five most important water basins in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean: the Mississippi/Atchafalaya in the USA, the Magdalena River/Canal

del Dique in Colombia and the Orinoco River basin in Venezuela, which together contribute atotal of 60,038 m3.seg-1 freshwater and cover a drainage area of 4'442,795 km2. In the Antilles,rivers tend not to be very wide and have fairly short trajectories. In Central America, the longestrivers empty into the Caribbean, but the majority of rivers, including those that are smaller andwider, empty into the Pacific.

In the Caribbean Sea, the most important coastal and marine ecosystems are formed by the coralreefs, comparable to the tropical rainforests for their high productivity and biodiversity. TheSystem of Mesoamerican Reefs (SAM) on the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala andHonduras is more than 700 km long and constitutes the second largest barrier reef in the world.

The Wider Caribbean Region is a region of great cultural and economic diversity. In thecountries of this region, Latino, African, European, Asian, Indian and native cultures intermingle.It is a region having great natural beauty, great biodiversity and also great economic differencesbetween the countries that make it up. Furthermore, it is an important international touristdestination and one where fishing constitutes an important economic factor for the regionscountries.


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Besides fishing and tourism, the coastal areas of the WCR have other frequently coexistingsocioeconomic uses which, due to their overexploitation, have an impact on the naturalenvironment: the most important ones are:

Urban settlements

Industrial development

Maritime-port activity

Forest industry activity (cutting down coastal forests and mangroves)

Extraction of sand for the construction industry

Special attention must be given to the treatment of coastal areas due to the importance andnecessity for sustainable and sustained development in the areas of tourism and fishing,fundamental elements for the majority of the regions countries.

METHODOLOGICAL GUIDELINES FOR SAMPLING

The methodology followed in the Monitoring Programme took as its point of reference theconclusions and recommendations discussed and approved in the Regional Workshop on QualityIndicators of Seawater and Methodologies for Polluting Discharges in the Wider Caribbean

Region developed in Havana, Cuba between April 4 and 8, 2006.

The experts who came together at that workshop underlined the importance of environmentalmonitoring as the basis for evaluating the state of the marine-coastal environment of the WiderCaribbean Region and in the processes of identification of the discharging of pollutants, with the

aim of supporting integrated management of coastal areas.At the same time, experts suggested that in a Regional Monitoring Programme (RMP), whilebearing in mind the characteristics of each country, the indicators selected and approved in theaforementioned workshop should be applied (table 1).

Table 1. Water quality indicators approved at the Regional Workshop on quality indicatorsof seawater and methodologies for polluting discharges in the Wider Caribbean Region

WORKSHOPCONCLUSIONS

Basic Optional

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)Total Suspended Solids (TSS)Total Nitrogen Kjeldahl (TNK)Total Phosphorus (TP)


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Phosphate (P-PO4)Oils and GreaseChlorophyll-aTransparency

SalinityTemperaturepHDissolved and dispersed petroleumhydrocarbons (DDPH)

Fecal ColiformsEnterococcusE. coli

Ammonia Nitrogen (N-NH3)Nitrate Nitrogen (N-NO3)Nitrite Nitrogen (N-NO2)Silicate (Si-SiO3)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)PesticidesHeavy MetalsPolyaromatic hydrocarbonsPlanktonTurbidity

Experts participating in the workshop recommended that in order to establish monitoringprogramme in coastal areas the following steps should be considered:

i. Defining the marine problems and their indicatorsii. Building a network for monitoring and information exchange

iii. Ensuring the quality of pollution measurements

iv. Reviewing and evaluating RMP and studying marine pollution

v. Sending reports to Contracting Parties

Figure 2 shows the high risk coastal ecosystems monitored during this project.


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N

N

N

N

N

65W

95W

55W

50W

70W

75W

80W

85W

90W

60W

0 500 1,000250 Km

Red Regional en ciencias y tecnologas

marinas para el Caribe conocido como

Know-why Network

Nicaragua

ColombiaVenezuela

Cuba

Tobago

Jamaica

Lugares de monitoreo

Baha de

Bluefields

Baha de la

Habana

Kingston

Harbour

Point LisasGolfo deCariaco

Cienaga Grandede Santa Marta

Visin global

de calidad de

agua

recreacionales

en el Caribe

Oriental

N

N

N

N

N

65W

95W

55W

50W

70W

75W

80W

85W

90W

60W

0 500 1,000250 Km



Know-why Network

Nicaragua

ColombiaVenezuela

Cuba

Tobago

Jamaica


Baha de

Bluefields

Baha de la

Habana

Kingston

Harbour



Visin global

de calidad de

agua

recreacionales

en el Caribe

Oriental



Know-why Network

Nicaragua

ColombiaVenezuela

Cuba

Tobago

Jamaica


Baha de

Bluefields

Baha de la

Habana

Kingston

Harbour



Visin global

de calidad de

agua

recreacionales

en el Caribe

Oriental

Figure 2. High risk areas monitored during the Know Why Network Project.

Monitoring was carried out by a group of regional institutions with broad experience in qualitystudies of coastal area waters, such as:

Baha de Bluefields (Nicaragua). Monitoring carried out by the Aquatic ResourcesResearch Centre at the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (CIRA/UNAN), incollaboration with the Centre for Environmental Engineering and Management of Baysand Coasts of Cuba (CIMAB).

Baha de la Habana (Cuba). Monitoring carried out by the Centre for EnvironmentalEngineering and Management of Bays and Coasts of Cuba (CIMAB).

Cinaga Grande de Santa Marta (Colombia). Monitoring carried out by the JosBenito Vives de Andris Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR) ofColombia.

Golfo de Cariaco (Venezuela). Monitoring carried out by the Oceanographic Instituteattached to the Universidad de Oriente de Venezuela (UDO).


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Point Lisas, Gulf of Paria (Trinidad and Tobago). Monitoring carried out by theInstitute of Marine Affairs (IMA) of Trinidad and Tobago.

Kingston Bay (Jamaica). Monitoring carried out by the Environmental and PlanningAgency (NEPA) of Jamaica in collaboration with the Centre for Environmental

Engineering and Management of Bays of Cuba (CIMAB).

As part of this project, the Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI) carried out acompilation of information about the state of the quality of coastal waters in Small Island States.

All sampling was done during 2008, except for Kingston Harbour which was done at thebeginning of 2009.

WATER QUALITY MONITORING

A summary is presented of the monitoring results in the high risk zones selected in the WiderCaribbean Region, taken from the reports presented by the institutions that carried out themonitoring.

Laguna de Bluefields (Nicaragua)

Laguna de Bluefields is located on Nicaraguas Atlantic coast at 11 55' latitude north and 8345' longitude west, in the South Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAS); it has an area of 176 Km 2

and has an elongated shape with a north-south axis. It is approximately 30 Km long, and its widthvaries between 3 and 8 Km. Venado Island limits the waters joining the open sea and the waterscommunicate by two mouths: the northern mouth is of greater socio-economic importance and islocated in front of the town of Bluff. The other mouth is in the southern part of the lagoon,known as Honson, and is practically enclosed by the sand bar. The lagoon has an average depthof 1 m with the deepest parts found in the northern lobe, those coinciding with the route of acanal uniting Rio Escondido and the Bluff area. On the north and north-east shores there is asystem of lowlands and lakes (Laguna Grande and Laguna Ahumada) that merge in the outsidearea; its waters are shallow and there are depths of 10 m or more at a distance of 3 Km from thecoastline.

Quite a few short rivers drain towards the lagoon along with two important rivers that are veryimportant for their influence on the lagoons circulation pattern. Rio Escondido, which provides a

considerable amount of freshwater and suspended sediments (11,641 million m3

of annualsediments) for the lagoon, flows out in the northern part. The other important river is the Kukrawith its estuary in the southern part of the lagoon.

The city of Bluefields, which is the municipal and department capital of the South AtlanticAutonomous Region (RAAS), is perched on the side of the lagoon bearing its name. It has apopulation of 36,000, divided into 30,000 in the urban areas and 6,000 in the rural areas, and itrepresents 56% of the total population of the region. Productive activity of the city and the entire


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region (average level of industrial development) is linked to its basic natural resources: fishing,forestry and farming.

Fishing is the principal economic activities of coastal towns of Laguna de Bluefields.

Developed economical activity in the city of Bluefields and the shortage of an environmentaleducation programme have contributed to the increased risk of ecological problems for thelagoon, since this is the depository for waste generated by the main industrial and urbanactivities.

Figure 3 presents the network of stations used during this study for the monitoring of water andsediments.


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9

8

7

6

54

3

2

1

0 8 164

Kilometers

Figure 3. Network of stations for the monitoring of the quality of water and sediments inLaguna de Bluefields (Nicaragua).

Sampling in the Laguna de Bluefields took place in May of 2008.

Summary of the monitoring results

Concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) recorded during this study were optimal for aquaticbiotic life with values of between 6.20 mg L-1and 7.06 mg L-1.

The highest values of total suspended solids were obtained to the south of the city of Bluefields(30.76 mg.L-1) and to the south-west of Venado Island (30.81 mg L-1) (figure 4). The area closeto the city of Bluefields has high anthropogenic and dredging influences, and it is also veryshallow, approximately 1 m deep. In the second case (south-west of Venado Island), there isgreat evidence of wave action that might be responsible for the detected values.


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Figure 4. Distribution of Total Suspended Solids SST (mg L-1

) in Laguna de Bluefields(May 2008).

Values of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) were in the range between less than 1.0 mg.L-1

(north-east coast of Venado Island) and 3.34 mg.L-1 (south shore of the city of Bluefields). Thelatter result is to be expected due to the discharge of wastewaters that occurs in the area.

The greatest concentrations of nitrite nitrogen (N-NO2) were recorded in stations influenced bycontributions of the residual water discharged from the city of Bluefields and the town of Bluff.The presence of N-NO2, even though concentrations are low, indicates recent pollution,confirming that stations neighbouring these settlements correspond to areas that are most

influenced by urban dumping.The presence of ammonia nitrogen (N-NH3) at pH levels greater than 8.0 units is harmfuldetrimental to the life of fish; this did not happen during this monitoring.

In the case of total nitrogen (TN), a pattern of heterogeneous horizontal distribution was revealedwith extreme values fluctuating between 1.524 mg.L-1, at point 6 and 0.753 mg.L-1 at point 3.This last concentration could have been diluted by the great outflow of the Rio Escondido River.


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A summary of the nitrogenated compounds detected during this monitoring are shown in table 2.

Table 2. Nitrogenated Compounds (mg.L-1

) determined in Laguna de Bluefields(Nicaragua).

Stations/Indicators

Nitrate Nitrogen(N-NO3)

Nitrite Nitrogen(N-NO2)

AmmoniaNitrogen (N-NH3)

TotalNitrogen (TN)

1 < 0.22 0.043 0.075 0.8032 < 0.22 0.016 0.084 0.9763 0.341 0.092 0.115 0.7534 < 0.22 0.020 0.116 0.9695 < 0.22 0.036 0.104 1.0626 < 0.22 0.003 0.005 1.524

7 < 0.22 0.003 0.055 0.9048 0.310 0.007 0.106 0.8619 < 0.22 0.007 0.142 1.264

0.22 was the analytic detection limit for nitrate

Total phosphorus (TP) presented relatively high concentrations in most of the monitoringstations. The highest concentration was recorded in Station 3 located in the estuary of theEscondido River (figure 5). This result is probably due to the fact that phosphorus is a highlyreactive substance with particles in suspension. It was at this station that less transparency andhigher values of total suspended solids was found. In the experiments, it was observed that

sediments and suspended particles in estuaries and rivers can rapidly liberate phosphate from orbind it to the solution; this mechanism is known as the absorption of phosphates mechanism(Nez Ribn, 1999).


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Figure 5. Distribution of Total Phosphorus (mg L-1

) in Laguna de Bluefields (May 2008).The shallower lagoon systems exhibit this behaviour due to the intense contact between waterand sediment, due to turbulence provoked by the mechanical action of the winds, which ensures arapid return of the sedimented nutrients to the water column. This explains the resistance of theseecosystems to the naturally occurring reduction of phosphorus levels from its own dynamic as thesediment accumulates. This differs from what happens with nitrogen when the externalcontribution of nutrients is eliminated.

Considering the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus the TN:TP ratio was established; itsaverage quotient in this study was 6:1 (table 3). A TN:TP ratio of less than 5 is interpreted as alimitation of nitrogen; a ratio greater than 10 is considered to indicate limitation of phosphorus

(Contreras et al. 1995).


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Table 3. TN:TP ratio values in Laguna de Bluefields

Stations/ Nutrients TN(mg L-1) TP (mg L-1) TN:TP Ratio

1 0.803 0.047 17:1

2 0.976 0.067 15:13 0.753 0.525 1:14 0.969 0.131 7:15 1.062 0.127 8:16 1.524 0.146 10:17 0.904 0.127 7:18 0.861 0.127 9:19 1.264 0.141 9:1

Average 1.013 0.160 6:1

The results recorded in these studies demonstrate that it is not the nitrogen in this case that acts asthe limiting nutrient; in most of the stations this ratio is greater or equal to 7:1 except in Station 3(Escondido River estuary).

In some stations, (1, 2 and 6) this ratio was greater or equal to 10. This supports when Jrgensenand Vollenweider (1989) state that the NT:PT ratio in water coming from unpolluted sourcespresents much higher ratios, stating that often phosphorus is the limiting nutrient in lagoonsreceiving domestic sewage as in the case of Laguna de Bluefields.

The composition of phytoplankton was made up of a mixture of organisms from fresh and salt

waters belonging to five taxonomic groups: Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta,Euglenophyta and Dinophyta (Figure 6). The Bacillariophyta group stands out for its highcontribution (63%) to richness, and its presence is found in all monitored stations (Figure 6); thisis characteristic of coastal marine ecosystems. Similar results are reported in studies carried outby Dumailo (2003) in this bay.


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Dinophyta

11%

Euglenophyta

5%

Bacillariophyta

63%

Cyanophyta

16%

Chlorophyta

5%

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Puntos de Muestreo

No.

TaxaIdentificado

Figure 6. Relative contribution of the large taxonomic groups of phytoplankton to therichness of the species and amount of taxa identified by stations in the Laguna de Bluefields

monitoring.

Horizontal distribution of phytoplankton was heterogeneous. Low values of abundance andbiomass were registered in the northern part and an increase registered towards the southern lobe.This appears to be linked to the short time the water has remained there and the effect of thecurrents that come down in a southerly direction.

In all the stations, the texture of the sediment was of the lime type (figure7). Predominance ofthe lime characteristics in the sediments from Laguna de Bluefields is possibly due to the hightransport rate of materials by the river currents and the diffused erosion coming from the differentsub-basins of the lagoon and the coastal areas, brought about to a great degree by deforestationand changes in the use of the soil. Deforestation and changes in soil usage (farmlands or urbanzones created) are factors reinforcing erosion processes, and therefore, the accumulation ratesincrease (Machain y Ruz, 2007).


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0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%70%

80%

90%

100%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Estaciones de muestreos

Fracciones(%)

Fraccin

Limosa

Fraccin

Arenosa

Figure 7. Sediment fragments in Laguna de Bluefields.

Organic material (OM) in the sediments rangedbetween 7.79 y 2.08 %. In the eastern sector wherethe influence of the sea is greater (figure 8.), theaverage was 4.44% and the results were quitehomogenous.

In the southern sector, the results were quiteheterogeneous; the average was 4.10 %, and in thenorth, the results were irregular and the average was5.16%. In the sectors close to populated areas, theOM contents were, in some cases, scarce andirregular.

The lowest OM values determined in the Laguna deBluefields sediments at an average depth of 1.25 msurpassed 2%; this leads us to consider a high rate

of accumulation, low dilution by claeticos, apossible low rate of decomposition and a high rateof burial, therefore a high rate of preservation.

Figure 8. Distribution of organic material (%)in the Laguna de Bluefields sediments


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Values of total hydrocarbons in Laguna de Bluefields sediments fluctuated between 12.21 mg kg-1of sediment up to 51.22 mg kg-1, with an average of 32.82 mg kg-1. These concentrations arehigher than those in areas considered to be non-polluted such as areas in Patagonia, Argentinawith values fluctuating between 0.5 to 3.0 mg kg-1 and lower than those detected in sediments for

which port activities were a important contributor (an interval between 496 - 6.972 mg kg

-1

)(Guerra-Garca et al., 2003). Results recorded in this study were higher than those in 1995 whenresults between 6 and 49 mg kg-1 were reported and with a general average of 28.55 mg kg-1 forall points monitored.

Health conditions at Laguna de Bluefields were measured by verifying the microbiologicalindicator Clostridium perfrigens in the sediments; this is a micro-organism whose spores arepresent in the soil, sediments and areas subject to animal and human fecal pollution. Thisbiological indicator was only detected in Station 1 on the south side of the city of Bluefields in aconcentration of 1.3 x102NMP.g-1.

In the rest of the monitoring stations the values were less than 2 NMP.g-1. Compared to results inthe CIMAB study in this same lagoon in 1995 (between 102y 104NMP.g-1of sediment), a greatdecrease in this microbiological indicator is observed in this 2008 monitoring.

The decrease of values in the 2008 monitoring could be attributed to many factors, amongthem:

Installation of treatment lagoons

Sedimentation

Solar radiation

Elevated pH

Low CO2 levels

High concentrations of dissolved O2

Bactericidal action of toxins produced by algae

Presence of predators

Time of hydraulic retention.

Point Lisas Port, Gulf of Paria (Trinidad and Tobago)

The islands in the archipelago of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago are located off the north-eastern Venezuelan coast, with the coordinates of 11 2139 N - 60 3137 W (Harble Islandin Tobago), 10 0228 N - 61 5430 W (Cacos Point, Trinidad), 11 1739 N - 60 2940W (Little Tobago, Tobago), and 10 0327 N - 62 0133 W (Black Rock, Trinidad).

Trinidad and Tobago is a world leader in the export of methanol, ammonia and liquefied naturalgas to the US. In 2007, more than 60 % of the liquefied natural gas that the US imported came


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from Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad also plays an important part in the international steel marketas well as in the export of crude oil and refined petroleum products.

The study area (Point Lisas Port, Gulf of Paria) is located on Trinidads eastern coast close to theindustrial area (heavy industry) that includes steel smelting, a methanol factory, an ammonia

factory, a urea plant, two electrical generating plants and a large inverse osmosis desalinationplant.

Figure 9 shows the network of stations used during this study for the monitoring of water.

Figure 9. Network of stations to monitor water and sediment quality in Point Lisas, Gulf ofParia (Trinidad &Tobago).

Monitoring at Point Lisas was done through two samplings: one carried out in the rainy season of

2007 and the other in the dry season of 2008.

Summary of monitoring results

The quality of a body of water and, by extension, its ability to sustain aquatic life depends, inpart, on its pH. The pH level detected at all the stations during this study (7.7-8.2) was within theUSEPA (1995) limit in order to protect marine aquatic life. Higher values were obtained in the


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rainy season as compared to the dry season. pH values are naturally affected by salinity andalkalinity. The pH demonstrated the significant and positive correlation with dissolved oxygen,salinity and nitrites.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the most critical quality parameters required for aquatic life.Long periods of time with low DO values can cause the death of fish. DO levels found weregenerally within the USEPA limit (greater than 5.0 mg L-1for protection of aquatic life accordingto USEPA, 1995) with the exception of two sampling stations in the dry season.

Dissolved oxygen levels depend on environmental factors such as the temperature of the body ofwater, levels of pollution and the rate of natural aeration. The lowest oxygen levels, as comparedto exterior stations, were found in coastal areas at least 2 km from the coastline.

Dissolved oxygen in the rainy season was statistically higher than that in the dry season (figure10), and this might be explained by the greater dilution and dispersion of pollutants in the rainyseason as a result of the rainfall.

Figure 10. Average of Dissolved oxygen levels at Point Lisas, Gulf of Paria, by samplingpoints (A) and by seasons (B).

Salinity values found at Point Lisas, Gulf of Paria were representative of coastal ecosystems.

Salinity fluctuated from 19.5 to 26.8% in the rainy season and from 33.0 to 34.9% in the dryseason; this difference in values of salinity was statistically significant. This is the result of therebeing more runoff due to rain and also an increase in the outflow of the Orinoco River, thus thesalinity is lower.

Total suspended solid levels (TSS) were in the range of 7 - 38 mg L-1. From a spatialperspective, the highest suspended solid levels were generally found at the stations located


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closest to the coastline. Statistically, the highest TSS level was found in the sampling madeduring the dry season as compared to that in the rainy season.

Elevated concentrations of nutrients can cause eutrophication. Excessive growth of certainspecies of algae may liberate toxic compounds resulting in fish mortality. Due to the fact that in

Trinidad and Tobago there are no available water quality criteria for phosphates, nitrites andnitrates in marine waters, going above the basic or normal levels can be used as a guide toindicate pollution risks.

From the spatial point of view elevated levels of nutrients were detected (ammonia nitrogen,nitrite nitrogen and nitrate as well as phosphates) in the stations close to outflows as compared tostations located farther than 8 km towards the open sea in the Gulf of Paria.

The lowest phosphate level (P-PO4) was 0.46 mol L-1;it can be considered to be normal in the

gulf and this was found at Station 1, statistically higher levels were found in the dry season ascompared to the rainy season (figure 11).

Figure 11. Average of Phosphate levels in the Gulf of Paria, Trinidad and Tobago. bysampling points (A) and by seasons (B).

Levels of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen were more elevated in the rainy season as

compared to the dry season. Statistical differences were detected among sampling stations fornitrite nitrogen but not for ammonia nitrogen.

Ammonia nitrogen levels found in Stations 3, 5 and 7 were higher than the maximum permittedvalue of 1.43 mol L-1 according to USEPA (1986) and they were recorded during the rainyseason. The highest level for this indicator, 7.63 mol L-1, was found at approximately 1km fromthe Point Lisas industrial zone (figure12).


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Figure 12. Average of Ammonia nitrogen levels in the Gulf of Paria (Trinidad and Tobago)by sampling points (A) and by seasons (B).

Ammonia nitrogen values above 71.4 mol L-1are lethal for most fish species but under naturalconditions these levels are rarely attained (USEPA, 1986). Nevertheless values in this range canbe commonly found in seawater polluted by industrial sewage, as was recorded in the past atPoint Lisas in the industrial zone in 1981, where values between 1.6 y 71.1mol L-1 (IMA, 1982)were attained.

The lowest levels of ammonia nitrogen detected in this study were of 0.01 mol L -1at Stations 1(east coast of Trinidad), 8, 9 and 10 (all located in the outskirts of the Gulf of Paria) that could be

considered to be normal values. These stations are located outside of the pollution sources.According to spatial distribution, the tendency was such that greater values of nutrients(ammonium, nitrite, nitrates and phosphate) were found close to land-based pollution sources(Stations 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).

Chlorophyll-a, which is a common measurement of the biomass of total phytoplankton, wasbetween 2.4 y 31.8 g L-1during this study, with average values of 5.8 y 8.0 g L-1in the dryand rainy season respectively (figure 13).


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Figure 13. Average of Chlorophyll-a levels in the Gulf of Paria (Trinidad and Tobago) bysampling points (A) and by seasons (B).

The average value of chlorophyll-a found before this study was 3.2 g L-1as reported by Morreland Corredor (2001) in a sampling done in September 1995. Concentrations of chlorophyll-adetected in this study can be considered to be high and allow us to classify the coastal waters ofthe Gulf of Paria as eutrophic.

Levels of dissolved and dispersed hydrocarbons (DDHP) were in the range of 0.1 -1.0 g L-1inthe dry season and in the interval 0.7 - 23.5 g L -1 in the rainy season (figure 14). Statisticallyhigher levels of DDHP were found in the rainy season compared to the dry season; this isprobably the result of greater surface runoff.

Figure 14. Dissolved and Dispersed Hydrocarbon Petroleum (DDHP) in the Gulf of Paria(Trinidad and Tobago) by sampling points (A) and by seasons (B).


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.

DDHP levels were found to exceed normal value of 0.1 g L-1cited by Atwood et al. (1987a, band c) for ocean waters.

Even though in T&T, there are no quality standards for the comparison of DDHP concentrationsin coastal waters, values above the normal levels indicate entries of petroleum hydrocarbons.A better comparison could be made with coastal areas that have not suffered much impact ofpetroleum pollution, for example, the coastal areas outside of Tobago. Oil hydrocarbon levels inTobago coastal areas were between 0.1-1.6 g L-1 (Rajkumar et al., 1994) and were lower thanthe levels found on the eastern coast of Trinidad which were at 0.3 - 6.7 g L -1 (Normando,1983).

Data obtained in this study show high DDHP levels in the coastal waters of the Gulf of Paria.The elevated value found at Station 1 could be due to proximity of an abandoned well near thatstation.

Baha de La Habana, Cuba (Cuba)

Havana Bay is located on the north coast of Cuba, in the western part of the island. It is a typicalclosed bay located on an abrasive coast with coral terraces. It has an area of 5.2 km2, with anaverage depth of 9 m and a volume of 47 x 107m3.

Its interior shore is 18 km long. It is a comfortable and safe harbour. The bay has three inlets:Marimelena on the north-east, Guasabacoa on the south-east and Atars on the south-west.

The entrance canal, or fore-port as it could be called, is approximately 1,574 m long and 140 mwide. The canal was dredged to allow deep-hulled ships to enter and even though it is narrow, itis straight and so offers no obstacles to navigation.

Drainage towards the bay is formed by the hydrographic basins of the Luyan (28.1 km2), MartnPrez (12.2 km2) and Tadeo (2.2 km2) Rivers. Added to this, are the surface runoff waters fromthe Morro and Cabaa Heights and the areas served by rainfall drainage from the city of Havana,which directly empty their waters into the bay. The approximate amount of fresh water itreceives is around 330,000 m3. day-1;of this, 50.7 % and 14.1 % corresponds to principal andlesser rainfall drainage, respectively; 31.2% from the rivers and streams and 4% from theindustries located on the coast.

The bay is the site of the Port of Havana, the countrys main port, with land facilities for porttraffic occupying 5.34 km2. Besides its maritime-port usage, which is without a doubt of major

importance, the bay hosts other activities such as tourism, as the bay rests at the heart of thehistorical city of Havana, which was proclaimed to be a World Heritage Site at the end of the lastcentury, making it a tourist attraction. The industrial sector, with its different facilities located atthe periphery, use the bays water in its cooling systems and as the receptor for liquid waste withuntreated liquid waste coming from the citys urban-industrial activities discharged into the baydaily. This latter use, which historically the bay has had, is to a large extent, the factorresponsible for the degree of environmental deterioration presently seen in its ecosystem.


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Impact of industrial activity and use marine of the Havana Bay.

Figure 15 shows the network of facilities used to monitor the quality of water and sediments inHavana Bay.

1

25

4

3

0 1 20.5

Kilometros

Figure 15. Network of stations to monitor the water quality in Havana Bay (Cuba): 1 -Entrance Canal, 2- Marimelena inlet, 3 Guasabacoa inlet, 4- Atars inlet y 5-Center of the

bay.

During 2008, four samplings were taken for this project (April, July, October and November).


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Summary of Monitoring Results

The lowest values of dissolved oxygen (significantly lower from the statistical point of view) inthe three measuring levels (surface, middle and depths) were obtained once again in Atares Inlet,heavily influenced by the pollution of waste waters. The average values in the three levels werelower than 5 mg L-1, a value recommended as the minimal limit for good quality coastal waters(Friligos, 1989).

The value of this quality indicator in the rest of the bay at this stage was elevated to such a pointthat the general average of the surface and middle levels in the bay were above the criteriareferred to earlier.

As for salinity, the salinity stratification of the bays water table is maintained thus corroboratingagain, the influence of the contribution of fresh water.

The Biochemical Oxygen Demand values (BOD5) as representing the presence of organic matter

in the water were similar in the whole bay and slightly less in the bays entrance channel, asexpected, due to the lesser impact of polluting sources in this area and the processes of dilutionand mixing that are generated.. The unit and average values per station indicates that the highpresence of organic material in the waters of the bay, especially in Atares Inlet, is beingmaintained.

The permanent tendency in recent years of the absence of hydrogen sulphide in the water table ofthe bay has been maintained.

Distribution of sampling stations for nitrogenated compounds in the surface waters once againshowed more elevated concentrations in Atares Inlet, a situation that is much more marked in thecase of nitrogen ammonia (N-NH3). The result that has been obtained in recent years, ratifies thecriteria that contributions to the bay of nitrogenated compounds prevail in a reduced form (N-NH4) and are related to the untreated waste liquids going into the bay through land-based sourcesof pollution.

For the phosphorus compounds, stratification of the water table was obtained since the surfacevalues obtained for both parameters (total phosphorus and dissolved orthophosphate) weresignificantly higher than the middle and bottom levels. Atares Inlet presented the greater value atthe surface level 7.57 mol L-1. This value is in the interval of concentrations presented by thecove in the last two years: 6 - 8 mol L-1.

Total suspended solids (TSS) presented average annual concentrations all the levels and for allthe sampling months that were lower than 100 mg L-1, a criteria of good quality for coastalwaters.

Once again Atares Inlet is notably different form the others. It continues to be the most affectedwater, and in a very marked manner, from a physical-chemical quality point of view. Atarescontinues to present the lowest concentrations of dissolved oxygen and the highest values ofnutrient and organic matter during the entire year.


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Figure 16 shows the historical conduct of the principal hydro-chemical indicators that best definethe quality of waters in Havana Bay.

Havana City

Atars

Guasabacoa

Centro

Canal

Marimelena

Havana City

Atars

Guasabacoa

Centro

Canal

Marimelena Havana City

Atars

Guasabacoa

Centro

Canal

Marimelena

3 - 4

6 - 7

7 - 8

Dissolved Oxygen(mg/L)

Total suspended solid

(mg/L)

1 - 2

2 - 3

3 - 4

4 - 5

Amm oni acal Ni tro gen (N-NH3)(mol/L)

0 10.5 Km

0 10.5 Km

0 10.5 Km

65

70

75

80

85

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8

Years

mgL-1

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8

Years

molL-1

0 10.5 Km

Havana City

Atars

Guasabacoa

Centro

Canal

Marimelena

0.1 e3

3 e3

5 e3

7 e3

180 e3

Fecal Coliforms

(NMP/100 mL)

Historical Trend Historical Trend

Historical Trend

(Atars only)

0 10.5 Km

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

00 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8

Years

mgL-1

Historical Trend

0.0E+00

5.0E+05

1.0E+06

1.5E+06

2.0E+06

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Years

NMP/100mL

Figure 16. Historical trend of the principal quality indicators of the waters in Havana Bay

The tendency for an increase in dissolved oxygen is a sign that there are no reverses for thegreater oxygenation of the bays water an indicator of the state of good health of the aquaticsystem.

The ammonia nitrogen also presented a positive evolution during 2008: average values in thethree depth levels decreased. It is to be noted that, the average concentrations of this indicatorwere still higher than 3.57 mol L-1, which is the lower established limit when considering waterhaving doubtful quality, according to the Cuban Standard NC 25: 1999 for the evaluation of

water resources for fishing purposes (ONNa, 1999).The decrease sustained in a greater or lesser proportion in the last few years is the best proof ofthe positive impact of the decrease in the contributions of waste water flowing into the bay.

Concentrations of phosphorus compounds obtained during 2008 were slightly higher at thesurface in comparison to 2007. Since 2006, there has been a slight but gradual and regularincrease in the average concentrations of this indicator. This conduct must be followed with care


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since, if it continues, it would suggest that the polluting discharges bringing phosphorus(especially all waste from domestic sources and those related to industries producing detergentsand other cleaning products in general) have not decreased.

Figure 17 shows the conduct of BOD5 in surface waters in the last six years, as an expression of

organic matter.

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Aos

mgL-1

Canal

Atares

Guasabacoa

Marimelena

Centro

Figure 17. Comparison of BOD5levels by years in the bays surface waters

Atares and Guasabacoa Inlet have presented the greatest reduction in BOD5 in past years. Thesecoves have historically been the ones receiving the greatest impact from land-based sources ofpollution, and therefore, are the ones that have attained the most evident improvements in theirenvironmental quality with the measures of reduction and/or elimination of polluting sources thathave been carried out in recent years in the bay.

Contents of total hydrocarbons in the bays surface waters average yearly values between0.01 y 0.19 mg L-1, with a general average for the entire bay of 0.12 mg L-1, reflects howgenerally elevated values are still being maintained, classifying these waters, according tointernational evaluative criteria, as being highly affected by oil pollution (CARIPOL, 1987).

The historical trend of hydrocarbons (figure 18) shows the slowing tendency happening in thebays waters in terms of the degree of oil pollution, maintaining a balanced situation for thispollutant in the bay.


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0,0

0,5

1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

3,0

1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

mg

L-1

Media lineal Media movil

Figure 18. Tendency of hydrocarbons in water in Havana Bay.

From the point of view of bacteriological pollution present in surface waters, the result forconcentrations of fecal coliform shows how in the last three years the environmental deteriorationin the Havana Bay ecosystem has slowed down (Figure 19), remaining practically unchanged, butstill above the limit established by the Cuban Standard for indirect contact (1 000 NMP/100 mL).

1,E+00

1,E+01

1,E+02

1,E+03

1,E+04

1,E+05

1,E+06

1,E+07

B o ca M arim ele na C entro Ata r s Gua s aba co a NC 22: 1999

Estaciones de muestreo

ConcentracinLog

G(NMP/100mL)

2006

2007

2008

Figure 19. Fecal coliform concentrations in the Havana Bay waters during the last threeyears

Analysis of the biological indicators showed that the concentration of the phytoplankton mass inthe surface waters of the bay continued to be elevated, with average values between 4 and 6million cells per litre of seawater. Phytoplankton chlorophyll also reached high concentrationlevels.


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Phytoplankton was almost exclusively made up of brown algae (diatomeas) and noconcentrations of any interest were detected of potentially toxic organisms. According to bothindicators, (phytoplankton and chlorophyll-a), the waters of the bay continue to be classified aseutrophic.

Concentrations of organic carbon (OC), organic nitrogen (ON) and organic matter (OM) in thesurface sediments of the bay allow us to classify and show once again, that the sediments at allsampling stations in the bay are considered to be polluted by organic matter. Nevertheless, wemust point out that OM values detected during 2008 were lower both at the Atares Inlet and at thecentral station on the bay as compared to those obtained in 2002.

At Atares, the decrease was quite significant. Atares Inlet showed similar results with organiccarbon (OC) and organic nitrogen (ON). This result could be indicative of the positive effect onsediments of the clean-up measures in the bay, especially at the polluting sources flowing into thecove which has historically been more polluted any way you look at it.

High values of oil hydrocarbons were observed along with metallic elements in surface sediment,typical pollution indicators; these have been detected traditionally in this master:

Comparative analysis of the distribution and composition of total hydrocarbons in bay sedimentsin the period 1980-2008 are presented in figure 20.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

2001 2002 2004 2006 2008

AOS

mgkg

-1

Centro

Atar s

Guasabaco a

Marimelena

Valo r medio

Figure 20. Distribution of total hydrocarbons by years in recent sediments in Havana Bay

The total of values obtained for the bay in the annual 2008 cycle, remain roughly the same asthose detected in recent years and therefore we can declare that the process of sedimenthydrocarbon immobility persists.


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Regarding heavy metals, it is demonstrated, yet again, that the distribution of these heavy metalsin surface sediments in the bay continues. This is determined by the proximity of the samplingstations to the sites where urban-industrial discharge occurs.

Thus we can see the highest values of Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni and V concentrations in Marimelena

Inlet, as well as the highest values of Cu, Zn, and Pb at the central station and at Atares Inlet; thisconfirms the mixed urban-industrial pollution which has characterized this ecosystem.

A comparison of the concentration intervals obtained by this study in comparison to precedingstudies, shows that values continue to be presented as being typical of chronic heavy metalpollution. We can distinguish that these values remain similar to those of recent years,suggesting that the slow-down of the influence of these compounds in the bays sedimentscontinues and that it becomes necessary to keep on making efforts to implement measures thatwill reduce the chemical pollution level in the bay.

Cinaga Grande Santa Marta (Colombia)

The Cinaga Grande Santa Marta (CGSM) is located in northern Colombia between 1043 y1100 N y los 7416 y 74 38 W. This system is made up of the lagoon surface of 450 km 2;various smaller lagoons connected by canals, the so-called Cinaga Pajarales (120 km2); and asand barrier, Salamanca Island which separates the lagoon complex from the Caribbean Sea. Thebodies of water cover an approximate area of 1290 km2between the estuary system of coastallagoons, rivers and swamps that make up a total mass of 720 km2 of water having an averagedepth of approximately 1.5 m (Gnima et al. 1998; Lozano y Sierra-Correa, 2005).

The Cinaga Grande de Santa Marta (CGSM) is both Colombias largest coastal lagoon, formingpart of the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 2000, and one of the most important national parksdue to its role in the social and economic development of Colombia. CGSM is also part of thelagoon system of the Magdalena River, Colombias longest river (1540 km) that empties directlyinto the Caribbean (Restrepo and Kjerfve, 2000; Rivera-Monroy, et al. 2004).

The ecological, hydrological and geo-morphological characteristics of CGSM make this coastalecosystem one of the most productive ones in the neotropical latitudes (Botero and Salzwedel,1998; Rivera-Monroy et al. 2006), fulfilling important environmental functions and generatingglobal benefits such as a carbon drain, a refuge and a habitat for flora, fauna and migratoryspecies; the region benefits because it exports a column of vapour-transpiration connecting it tothe Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta; and there are local benefits due to the extraction of foods andraw materials, undervalued by handling conditions.

Its great biological productivity comes from the contributions of nutrients via the Sierra Nevadarivers, the Magdalena River, the Caribbean Sea and the mangroves which makes up a large partof its area and also provides food, habitat and protection for the young and the adults of manyspecies (Cancio et al., 2006).


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The historic past of CGSM reveals important environmental changes that form the origin of thelagoon system, but since the beginning of the twentieth century it has undergone anthropogenicchanges causing the environmental deterioration of the region. Some of these are:

Interrupted water exchange between the lagoon complex and the sea due to the

construction of the Cienaga-Barranquilla road (1956-1960) that did not foresee that thenatural water flow should be preserved.

Decreased inflow of freshwater coming from the Magdalena River to the complex,created by the construction of the Medialuna-Pivijay-Salamina and Palermo-Sitio Nuevohighways that interrupted the flow of freshwater to the complex.

Pollution of the water resource by untreated domestic waste water.

Deterioration of the hydrographic catchment areas of the rivers flowing into the Cinaga.

Inadequate handling of waste coming from agro-industrial activities developed in thebanana-growing area and the over-exploitation of water resources in the banana-growing

area leading to the rivers bringing lesser amounts of freshwater and greater amounts ofsediments.

Permanent pressure by the inhabitants of the eco region mainly through over-exploitationof the mangroves and the fishing resources.

All of these factors together impacted negatively on the systems environment, such as theincrease of salinity and bodies of water generating an approximate loss of 253.2 km2 ofmangroves (estimated up to 2005), as well as the decreased number of fish, molluscs andcrustaceans being caught, including losses in biodiversity.

Human establishments inside the water (palafitos) and around the coast of CGSM

The population of CGSM is what puts the most pressure on the ecosystem (Botero andSalzwedel, 1999). Its social and economic conditions have historically been characterized by the


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insufficiency of basic needs and services such as drinking water, aqueducts, sewage systems,health and education. Fishing, agriculture and the raising of cattle are the primary activities ofthe sub-regions economic structure, with fishing being the main source of income for the area,having the advantage of its geographic location facing the sea, and its multiple connections to the

Magdalena River and the rivers flowing down from the Sierra Nevada (Correa, 1999).Nevertheless, varieties of fish have been affected by the salinity of the water and the hydrologicaldisturbances in the lagoon system (Blanco et al., 2007).

Figure 21 shows the network of stations used to monitor the water quality in SGSM. Anetwork of 28 stations was designed, represented in six zones: Zone 0, Marina; Zone 1, influenceof the rivers of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM); Zone 2, water surface of the CinagaGrande de Santa Marta (CGSM); Zone 3, swamps of the Complejo Pajarales (CP); Zone 5,influence of the Magdalena River; and Zone6, swamps of western Salamanca (CSO).

Figure 21. Sampling stations in the Cinaga Grande de Santa Marta lagoon system. Thecolors represent established zones.

SGSM sampling occurred between February and May of 2008.


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Summary of the monitoring results

Salinity is perhaps the physical-chemical variable that historically best describes the hydrologicaldisturbances in the lagoon system and the coastal area (Blanco et al.,2006), since its increase ordecrease depends on the amount of fresh water entering and leaving the system.

Figure 22 shows the space and time variation in the average salinity of the surface water betweenFebruary and May of 2008 in the 6 sampling zones of the Cinaga Grande de Santa Marta. Zone0 had the highest salinity averages (35.0 0.8), because of the direct connection to theCaribbean Sea. The lowest salinity averages were found in Zones 5 and 6 (0.1 0 y 2.9 1.3, respectively).

If indeed Zone 1 is associated with the tributaries of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, weobserved a progressive monthly increase from February (dry season) to May (intermediateseason) that according to Blanco et al. (2006) could be due to a pattern of variations by thetributary rivers (Fundacin, Sevilla and Aracataca) which have their catchment areasgeographically close to the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta-Complejo Pajarales swamps where

the levels of the flow manifest rapidly in the salinity differences reached in the lagoon complex.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5

Zona 0 Zona 1 Zona 2 Zona 3 Zona 5 Zona 6

Meses y Zonas de Muestreo

Salinidad

Figure 22. Space and time variation of average salinity of surface water between Februaryand May of 2008 (months represented by numbers 2 and 5), in the six zones of the CGSM

sampling. The black bars represent typical error.

In Zones 2 and 3 higher levels of dissolved oxygen were observed, with average values higherthan 6.5 mg L-1and in Zones 1 and 5 they were lowest (figure 23).


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0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

4,0

5,0

6,0

7,0

8,0

9,0

10,0

2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5



Ox

geno

Disue

lto

(mg

/L)

Figure 23. Space and time variation of average dissolved oxygen (mg L-1

) of surface water,between February and May of 2008 (months represented by numbers 2 and 5), in the six

zones of CGSM sampling.

With the exception of Zone 0, the other zones showed variations between months, Zones 2 and 3with a tendency to increase between February and March as a consequence of the exchange withthe atmosphere and the northern trade winds that blow strongly at that time of year; and in Zones1, 5 and 6, influenced by the contributions of organic matter from the rivers, there was a decreasein conduct??. Despite these variations in all the zones and months of the sampling, dissolved

oxygen values were higher than 4 mg L-1

, considered to be the minimal value for the preservationof flora and fauna according to Colombian legislation (Decree 1594/84, Minagricultura, 1984).Only in Zone 1 in April the average value was slightly below the reference value.

In general, the pH values for all the zones during the four sampling months were slightly basic,except for Zone 5 during February where the pH average was lower (6.47 0.05). In terms ofresource quality for preserving flora and fauna according to Decree 1594 of Colombianlegislation (Minagricultura, 1984), the pH of surface water in the six zones during the entiresampling period was within acceptable levels (6.5 a 9.0).

Concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS) increased between February and April in allzones, except in Zone 0 (figure 24).


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0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4



SlidosSuspendidosTotale

s(mg/L)

Figure 24. Space and time variation of total suspended solids (mg/L) average of surfacewater in February (2) and April (4) of 2008 in the six zones of CGSM sampling.

In Zone 5, TSS averages were more than twice the averages in the rest of the zones because ofthe contributions of sediments from the Magdalena River. This parameter in CGSM hashistorically shown (1993-2007) obvious inter-annual variations, influenced by the El Nio and LaNia climatic events, as well as the reopening of the Clarn, Aguas Negras and Renegadochannels allowing for a greater amount of sediment to be brought in by the Magdalena River intothe lagoon complex (INVEMAR, 2007)

The greatest chlorophyll content was recorded in Zones 1, 2 and 3(figure 25) which are the zoneshaving clearly estuary characteristics. With the exception of Zone 0 (marine), the other zones

showed a decrease in the concentration of chlorophyll-a from February (dry season) to April(beginning of the first rains), especially in Zones 1 and 2 where the concentrations recorded inApril were close to being lower than the concentrations recorded in February. This parameterwas not measured in Zone 5 because of the great amount of solids in suspension that interferedwith measurements.


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0,0

5,0

10,0

15,0

20,0

25,0

30,0

35,0

40,0

45,0

2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

Zona 0 Zona 1 Zona 2 Zona 3 Zona 6


Clorofilaa(g/L)

Figure 25. Space and time variation of Chlorophyll-a concentration (g/L) in surfacewater between February and May 2008 in the six CGSM sampling zones.

The ranges in hydrological fluctuation presented in the lagoon system can cause effects on thedynamics of the nutrients playing an important role in the primary productivity and in thelocalized production processes and oxygen demand (INVEMAR, 2007).

Nitrates (NO3-1) in the lagoon system fluctuated in an average range of 5,44 0,36 in Zones 5

and 6, and 0,02 0,01 mol L-1in Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3 (figure 26). High concentrations of NO3-1

in Zones 5 and 6 relate to the inorganic nitrogen contributions into the lagoon system comingfrom Magdalena River through the interconnecting channels.

0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

4,0

5,0

6,0

7,0

2 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4



Nitra

tos

(mo

l/L)

Figure 26. Space and time variation of nitrates NO3(mol L-1) in the surface waters of the

six CGSM sampling zones in February (2) and April (4) 2008.


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On the other hand, greater chlorophyll-a concentration in Zones 1, 2 and 3 reveal a directindicator for the increase in primary production in these zones, the low levels of nitrates in thesethree zones are directly related to the consumption of NO3

-1 by the phytoplankton duringphotosynthesis (Libes, 1992).

Like the nitrates, highest average nitrite concentrations were observed in Zones 5 (0,12 0,09mol L-1) and 6 (0,09 0,03 mol L-1); these were directly influenced by the contributions of theMagdalena River; and the lesser concentrations in Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3.

The space and time variation of ammonium (NH4+1) in the surface waters of the six zones is

shown in figure 27. With the exception of Zones 2 and 3, the average concentration of NH4-1

presented a generally decreasing tendency from February to April.

0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

1,2

1,4

1,6

1,8

2,0

2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4



Amonio(mol/L)

Figure 27. Average space and time variation of ammonium NH4(mol L-1) in the surfacewater of the six CGSM sampling zones in February (2) and April (4) 2008.

Ammonium in CGSM has presented very contrasting oscillations: in 1996, 1998 and 2001 weobserved a strong decrease in all the zones and in 1999, 2004 and 2005 there was an importantincrease, especially in 1999, marked by a strong La Nia phenomenon where there weresignificant contributions of freshwater (INVEMAR, 2007).

Major concentrations of orthophosphates (PO4-2) in surface water (figure 28) were presented in

Zones 1 and 6: 0.64 0.51 mol/L (April) and 0.77 0.05 mol/L (February) respectively,which receive direct freshwater contributions through the SNSM (Zone 1) rivers and theMagdalena River (Zone 6), reinforcing the criteria that concentrations of this nutrient come from

the contributions of rivers.


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0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4



Orto

fos

fatos

(mo

l/L

)

Figure 28. Average space and time variation of Orthophosphates PO3-

4 (mol L-1

) insurface water of the six CGSM sampling zones in February (2) and April(4) 2008.

The microbiological indicators of the coliform group were measured to evaluate the sanitaryquality of waters adjacent to human settlements located in the stilt-houses (human settlements inthe waters of the swamp) and in the CGSM coastal towns. The greatest concentration of totalcoliform (TTC) was presented in the station close to the Trojas de Aracataca stilt-houses, withvalues of 17000 NMP/100 mL (Figure 29 ) which were more than three times above the referencevalue established by Colombian legislation for secondary contact activities such as fishing (5000NMP/ 100 mL; Minagricultura, 1984).

0

2500

5000

7500

10000

12500

15000

17500

20000

2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

Islas del Rosar io Trojas de Aracataca Tasajera Buenavista Nueva Venecia

Zona 0 Zona 1 Zona 2 Zona 3


ColiformesTotales(NMP/100mL)

Figure 29. Space and time variations of total coliform (NMP/100 mL) measured in surfacewater and adjacent to stilt-housing and CGSM coastal settlements in February (2) and

April (2 ) 2008.


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To evaluate fecal contamination, we measured thermo-tolerant coliform (CTE) through itsassociation with bacteria causing gastro-intestinal diseases due to the characteristics of thehousing and the type of daily activities being carried out in direct contact with the water (primary

contact). Levels of thermo-tolerant coliform in general were higher in April (Figure 30),attaining values of 460 NMP/100 mL in Nueva Venecia, 450 NMP/100 mL in Trojas deAracataca and 330 NMP/100 mL in Islas del Rosario.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

Islas del Rosario Tro jas de Aracataca Tasajera Buenavista Nueva Venec ia

Zona 0 Zona 1 Zona 2 Zona 3

Meses, poblaciones y zonas d e Muestreo

Coliformestermotolerantes(NMP/100mL)

Figure 30. Space and time variations of thermo-tolerant coliform (NMP/100 mL) measuredin surface water and adjacent to stilt-housing and CGSM coastal settlements in February

(2) and April (4) 2008.

In these three towns the CTE values amply surpassed the permissible limit for primary contactactivities (200 NMP/100 mL; established in Decree 1594 of 1984 in Colombian legislature(Minagricultura, 1984).

The results obtained show that in the study zones there are physical-chemical characteristics thatdifferentiate among themselves; these are determined by the intensity of the mixture of

continental and marine waters, depending on their geographical location and the time of year.

Zone 0 has purely marine characteristics, with average salinity that is very near the normalsalinity of seawater except in March when the salinity decreases. This is due to thehydrodynamics of the system and the contribution of freshwater during that time of year. The


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trade winds begin to decrease their intensity and there is an increase of freshwater flowing on thesurface towards these through the Boca de la Barra, mixing together as it travels along.

Likewise, in this zone we obtained pH values within the normal range for marine waters (7,5 to8,4, Chester, 1990); low concentrations of chlorophyll-a as compared to the other zones, and this

indicates a lesser primary production; and lesser concentrations of dissolved inorganic nutrients,a normal condition when one compares with other zones having clearly estuary characteristics.

Zones 2 and3have estuary characteristics, with salinity increases from February until May, theproduct of changes in the circulation of water in the CGSM triangle (the water surface) withwhich the proportions of the freshwater-saltwater mix changes. pH values in these two zoneswere generally more basic as compared to other zones. They presented elevated values ofchlorophyll-a, even higher than those reported in highly productive areas such as the emergingzones (5 g L-1; Falkowski et al., 1998) and high concentrations of dissolved oxygen, nutrients,especially nitrates, with much lower levels than those found in the other sampling zones. Thisindicates that in these two zones there is an elevated primary production (Falkowski et al., 1998),perhaps generated by micro-phytoplankton, since these organisms consume nitrates more thanammonia as a source of nitrogen in its photosynthetic processes (Contreras and Zabalegui, 1991).

Zone 1 is made up of freshwater stations (at 500 m waters above the mouths of the rivers) and ina mixture zone in the CGSM triangle. For this reason it has estuary characteristics even thoughthe average salinity and the average pH values are lower than in Zones 2 and 3. We observedhigh concentrations of chlorophyll-a and low concentrations of nitrates, indicating high primaryproduction; nevertheless, the oxygen levels were lower than those in Zones 2 and 3.Concentrations of nitrites, ammonium and especially orthophosphates are greater due to thecontributions of river nutrients that flow down from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.

Zones 5 and 6 also have estuary characteristics. Despite the conduct of the variables, this isdifferent from that in Zones 1, 2 and 3 due to the fact that hydro-dynamically they are more

regulated by the contributions of the Magdalena River. In the dry season (February)contributions of freshwater are lesser in these zones, salinity is greater and it diminishes towardsMay when the rainy season is beginning in the hinterland thus increasing the flow of theMagdalena River. Especially in Zone 5, the influence of the river waters is shown by the lowercontent of dissolved oxygen and higher values of nitrates, nitrites an

Documents

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