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AIM COLLEGE-HISAR MC-101 Mob: 92533-50008

Management Concept! O"gan#at#ona$ %e&a'#o("

Q.1 Discuss and illustrate the meaning, definition and characteristics management in

modern organizations.

Ans. Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of man, which is an organised group

activity. It is considered as the indispensable institution in the modern social organization

marked by scientific thought and technological innovations. One or the other form ofmanagement is essential wherever human efforts are to be undertaken collectively to satisfy

wants through some productive activity, occupation or profession.

DEI!I"IO! O M#!#$EME!"

%eter . Drucker defines, &management is an organ' organs can be described and defined

only through their functions&.

#ccording to "erry, &Management is not people' it is an activity like walking, reading,

swimming or running. %eople who perform

Management can be designated as members, members of Management or e(ecutive leaders.&

)alph *. Davis has defined Management as, &Management is the function of e(ecutiv

leadership anywhere.&

*+#)#*"E)I"I* O M#!#$EME!"

Management is a distinct activity having the following salient features-

1) Economic Resource- Management is one of the factors of production together with

land, labour and capital. #s industrialization increases, the need for managers also

increases.

2) Goal Oriented : Management is a purposeful activity. It coordinates the efforts of

workers to achieve the goals of the organization. "he success of management is

measured by the e(tent to which the organizational goals are achieved.3) Distinct Process- Management is a distinct process consisting of such functions as

planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. "hese functions are so

interwoven that it is not possible to lay down e(actly the seuence of various

functions or their relative significance.

*) Integrative Force- "he essence of management is integration of human and other

resources to achieve the desired ob/ectives. #ll these resources are made available to

those who manage.

5) System of Authority : Management as a team of manager represents a system of

authority, a hierarchy of command and control. Managers at different levels possess

varying degree of authority.

+) Multidisci!linary Su"#ect : Management has grown as a field of study 0i.e.discipline1 taking the help of so many other disciplines such as engineering,

anthropology, sociology and psychology.

,) $niversal A!!lication - Management is universal in character. "he principles and

techniues of management are eually applicable in the fields of business, education,

military, government and hospital .+enri ayol suggested that principles of

management would apply more or less in every situation.

MA%AGEME%& F$%'&IO%S (PRO'ESS OF MA%AGEME%&

or our purpose, we shall designate the following si( as the functions of a

manager- planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling.

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1. Planning : %lanning is the most fundamental and the most pervasive of all

management functions. If people working in groups have to perform effectively,

they should know in advance what is to be done, what activities they have to

perform in order to do what is to be done, and when it is to be done. %lanning is

concerned with 2what2 ,2how, and 2when2 of performance.

2. Organi)ing - Organizing involves identification of activities reuired for theachievement of enterprise ob/ectives and implementation of plans' grouping of

activities into /obs' assignment of these /obs and activities to departments and

individuals' delegation of responsibility and authority for performance, and

provision for vertical and horizontal coordination of activities.

3. staffing : taffing is a continuous and vital function of management .#fter the

ob/ectives have been determined, strategies, policies ,programmes, procedures and

rules formulated for their achievement, activities for the implementation of

strategies, policies, programmes, etc. identified and grouped into /obs, the ne(t

logical step in the management process is to procure suitable personnel for

manning the /obs.

*+ Directing : Directing is the function of leading the employees to perform

efficiently, and contribute their optimum to the achievement of organizational

ob/ectives. 3obs assigned to subordinates have to be e(plained and clarified, they have

to be provided guidance in /ob performance and they are to be motivated to contribute

their optimum performance with zeal and enthusiasm. "he function of directing thus

involves the following sub4functions -

0a1 *ommunication

0b1 Motivation

0c1 5eadership

,+ 'oordination : *oordinating is the function of establish such

relationships among various parts of the organization that they all together pull in the

direction of organizational ob/ectives. It is thus the process of tying together all the

organizational decisions, operations, activities and efforts so as to achieve unity of

action for the accomplishment of organizational ob/ectives.

-+ 'ontrolling- *ontrolling is the function of ensuring that the divisional,

departmental, sectional and individual performances are consistent with the

predetermined ob/ectives and goals. Deviations from ob/ectives and plans have to be

identified and investigated, and correction action taken.

.+/ Define Management+ 0o1 does it differ from Administration2

#!. Management is the integrating force in all organized activity. 6henever two or more

people work together to attain a common ob/ective, they have to coordinate their activities.

"hey also have to organize and utilize their resources in such a way as to optimize the results.

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.+3 4hy is it im!ortant for every manager to understand the many different

management theories that have "een develo!2 Descri"e various School of

&houghts !revalent from time to time+ 4hich school of management thoughts

ma5es the most sense to you2 4hy2

#! Organized endeavours, directed by people, responsible for planning,

Organizing, leading and controlling activities have been in e(istence for thousands of

years .Management has been practiced in some form or the other since the dawn of

civilization. Ever since human beings started living together in groups, techniues of

organization and management were evolved.

# )#ME6O)7 O) "+E M#!#$EME!" "+O8$+"

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'lassical A!!roach

"he classical approach is also known as traditional approach, management

process approach or empirical approach. "he main features of this approach are as

follows- It laid emphasis on division of labour and specialization, structure, scalar and

functional processes and span of control. "hus, they concentrated on the anatomy of

formal organization.

Management is viewed as a systematic network 0process1 of interrelated functions.

"he nature and content of these functions, the mechanics by which each function is

performed and the interrelationship between these function is the core of the classical

approach.

It ignored the impact of e(ternal environment on the working of the organization. "hus, it

treated organization as closed system.

On the basis of e(perience of practicing managers, principles are developed "hese

principles are used as guidelines for the practicing e(ecutive.

unctions, principles and skills of management are considered universal. "hey can be

applied in different situations.

"he integration of the organization is achieved through the authority and control of the

central mechanism. "hus, it is based on centralization of authority.

ormal education and training is emphasized for developing managerial skills in would be

managers. *ase study method is often used for this purpose.

Emphasis is placed on economic efficiency and the formal organization structure.

%eople are motivated by economic gains. "herefore, organization controls economic

incentives.

"he *lassical approach was developed through three mainstreams4 "aylor9s

cientific Management, ayol9s #dministrative Management and 6eber9s Ideal

:ureaucracy. #ll the three concentrated on the structure of organization for

greater efficiency.

Scientific Management A!!roach

"he concept of scientific management was introduced by rederick 6inslow "aylor in 8#

in the beginning of ;

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Discipline- It implies respect for agreements designed to secure obedience. It must

prevail throughout an organization to ensure its smooth functioning. Discipline

reuires clear and fair agreements, good supervision and /udicious application of

penalties.

Unity of Command- Every employee should receive orders and instruction from

only one superior and a subordinate should be accountable to only one superior.

Unity of Direction- Each group of activities having one ob/ective should be unified

by having one plan and one head.

Subordination of Individual to General Interest- "he interest of any one employee

or group of employees should not take precedence over the interests of the

organization as a whole.

Remuneration of Personnel- "he amount of remuneration and the methods of

payment should be /ust and fair and should provide ma(imum possible satisfaction to

both employees and employers.

Centralisation- It refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in

decision making. 6hether decision making is centralized 0to management1 or

decentralized 0to subordinates1 is a uestion of proper proportion. "he task is to find

the optimum degree of centralization for each situation.

Scalar Chain:"he scalar chain is the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate

authority to the lowest ranks. *ommunication should follow this chain. +owever, if

following the chain creates delays, cross4communications can be followed if agreed to

by all parties and superiors are kept informed.

Order:It is a rational arrangement for things and people. ayol emphasized both

material order and human order. In material order, there should be a place for

everything and everything should be in its proper place. In human order, there shouldbe an appointed place for everyone and everyone should be in his and her appointed

place.

Equity:Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates. "he application of

euity reuires good sense, e(perience and humanistic attitude for soliciting loyalty

and devotion from subordinates.

Stability of enure- +igh employee turnover is inefficient. Management should

provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available to fill

vacancies.

Initiative- ubordinates should be provided with an opportunity to show their

initiative as a way to increase their skills and to inculcate a sense of participation. Espirit de Corps- 8nion is strength, and it comes from the harmony and mutual

understanding of the personnel.

0uman Relation A!!roach to Management

"he criticism of the cientific and #dministrative Management as advocated by

"aylor and ayol, respectively, gave birth to +uman )elation #pproach. "he

behavioural scientists criticized the early management approaches for their

insensitiveness to the human side of organization. "he behavioural scientists did

not view the employees mechanically in work situation, but tried to show that the

employees not only have economic needs but also social and psychological needslike need for recognition, achievement, social contact, freedom, and respect.

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"he basic hypotheses of this study as well as the basic propositions of the +uman

)elation

#pproach are the following-

"he business organization is a social system.

"he employees not only have economic needs but also psychological needs and

social needs, which are reuired to be served properly to motivate them.

Employees prefer self4control and self4direction.

Employee oriented democratic participative style of management is more effective

mechanistic task oriented management style.

"he informal group should be recognized and officially supported.

Employee oriented democratic participative style of management is more

effective than mechanistic task oriented management style.

"he informal group should be recognized and officially supported.

"he human relations approach is concerned with recognition of the importance ofhuman element in organizations. It revealed the importance f social and

psychological factors in determining worker9s productivity and satisfaction. It is

instrumental in creating a new image of man and the work place. +owever, this

approach also did not go without criticism. It was criticized that the approach laid

heavy emphasis on the human side as against the organizational needs. +owever,

the contribution of this approach lies in the fact that it advises managers to attach

importance to the human side of an organization.

+ Social System A!!roach to Management

It is developed during social science era, is closely related to +uman )elation

#pproach. It includes those researchers who look upon management as a social

system. *hester I. :arnard is called as the spiritual father of this approach. #ccording

to this approach, an organization is essentially a cultural system composed of people

who work in cooperation. "he ma/or features of this approach are as follows-

Organization is a social system, a system of cultural relationships.

)elationships e(ist among the e(ternal as well as internal environment of the

organization.

*ooperation among group members is necessary for the achievement oforganizational ob/ectives.

or effective management, efforts should be made for establishing harmony

between the goals of the organization and the various groups there in.

. Decision "heory #pproach to Management Decision "heory is the product of

management science era. "he decision theories emphasize on rational approach to

decisions, i.e. selecting from possible alternatives a course of action or an idea. Ma/or

contribution in this approach has come from imon. Other contributors are March,

*yert, orrester etc."he main features of this approach are-

> Management is essentially decision4making. "he members of the organization are

decision makers and problem solvers.

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> Organization can be treated as a combination of various decision centers. "he level

and importance of organizational members are determined on the basis of importance

of decisions which they make.

> #ll factors affecting decision making are sub/ect matter of the study of management.

"hus, it covers the entire range of human activities in organization as well as the

macro conditions within which the organization works.$. Management cience #pproach to Management Management science is an

approach to management that applies mathematical analysis to decision making. It

involves the use of highly sophisticated techniues, statistical tools and comple(

models. "he primary focus of this approach is the mathematical model. "he ma/or

features of this approach are-

Management is regarded as the problem4solving mechanism with the help of

mathematical tools and techniues.

Management problems can be described in terms of mathematical symbols

and data. "hus every managerial activity can be uantified.

"his approach covers decision making, system analysis and some aspect of

human behaviour.

Operations research, mathematical tools, simulation, model etc, are the basic

methodologies to solve managerial problems.

+ 0uman 6ehavioural A!!roach to Management

+uman :ehavioural approach is a modified version of +uman )elation approach.

+uman :ehavioural approach is devoid of any emotional content, which is the

core of +uman )elation #pproach."o sum up, many conclusions of the contributions

made by behaviouralists can presented as follows-

%eople do not dislike work. If they have helped to establish ob/ectives, they want to

achieve them. In fact, /ob itself is a source of motivation and satisfaction to

employees.

Most people can e(ercise a great deal of self4direction and self4control than are

reuired in their current /ob. "herefore, there remains untapped potential among them.

"he manager9s basic /ob is to use the untapped human potential in the service

organization.

"he managers should create a healthy environment wherein all the subordinates

contribute to the best of their capacity. "e environment should provide healthy, safe,

comfortable and convenient place to work.

"he manager should provide for self direction by subordinates and they must be

encouraged to participate fully in all important matters.

Operating efficiency can be improved by e(panding subordinate influence,

direction and self control.

6ork satisfaction may improve as a by product of subordinates making use of their

potential.

Social System A!!roach to Management

It is developed during social science era, is closely related to +uman )elation

#pproach. It includes those researchers who look upon management as a socialsystem. *hester I. :arnard is called as the spiritual father of this approach #ccording

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to this approach, an organization is essentially a cultural system composed of people

who work in cooperation."he ma/or features of this approach are as follows-

> Organization is a social system, a system of cultural relationships.

> )elationships e(ist among the e(ternal as well as internal environment of

the organization.

> *ooperation among group members is necessary for the achievement of organizational ob/ectives.

> or effective management, efforts should be made for establishing

harmony between the goals of the organization and the various groups

Decision &heory A!!roach to Management

Decision "heory is the product of management science era. "he decision theorists

emphasize on rational approach to decisions, i.e. selecting from possible alternatives a

course of action or an idea. Ma/or contribution in this approach has come from imon.

"he main

features of this approach are-

Management is essentially decision4making. "he members of the

organization are decision makers and problem solvers.

Organization can be treated as a combination of various decision centers.

"he level and importance of organizational members are determined on the

basis of importance of decisions which they make.

#ll factors affecting decision making are sub/ect matter of the study of

management. "hus, it covers the entire range of human activities in

organization as well as the macro conditions within which the organization

works.

Management Science A!!roach to ManagementManagement science is an approach to management that applies mathematical

analysis to decision making. It involves the use of highly sophisticated

techniues, statistical tools and comple( models. "he ma/or features of this approach

are-

Management is regarded as the problem4solving mechanism with the help of

mathematical tools and techniues.

Management problems can be described in terms of mathematical symbols

and data. "hus every managerial activity can be uantified.

"his approach covers decision making, system analysis and some aspect of

human behaviour. Operations research, mathematical tools, simulation, model etc, are the basic

methodologies to solve managerial problems.

0uman 6ehavioural A!!roach to Management

+uman :ehavioural approach is a modified version of +uman )elation approach.

+uman :ehavioural approach is devoid of any emotional content, which is the

core of +uman )elation #pproach.Douglas Mc$regor built on Maslow9s

work in e(plaining his ?"heory C9 and ?"heory 9. rederick +erzberg develops

a two factor theory of motivation. "o sum up, many conclusions of the

contributions made by behaviouralists can presented as follows-> %eople do not dislike work. If they have helped to establish ob/ectives, they

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want to achieve them. In fact, /ob itself is a source of motivation and

satisfaction to employ

Most people can e(ercise a great deal of self4direction and self4control than

are reuired in their current /ob. "herefore, there remains untapped potential

among them.

"he manager9s basic /ob is to use the untapped human potential in the service

organization.

"he managers should create a healthy environment wherein all the

subordinates contribute to the best of their capacity. "e environment should

provide healthy, safe, comfortable and convenient place to work.

"he manager should provide for self direction by subordinates and they must

be encouraged to participate fully in all important matters.ees.

Mathematics or .uantitative A!!roach to Management

It emphasizes that the organization or decision making is a logical process and itcan be e(pressed in terms of mathematical symbols and relationships, which can

"he main postulates of the uantitative approach are as follows-

> Management is a series of decision making. "he /ob of a manager is to secure

the best solution out of a series of interrelated variables.

> "hese variables can be presented in the form of a mathematical model. It consists of

a set of functional euation which set out the uantitative interrelationship of the

variable.

> If the model is properly formulated and the euations are correctly solved, one

can secure the best solution to the model.

> Organizations e(ist for the achievement of specific and measurable economic

goals.

System A!!roach to Management

In the @AB #n organization is a system consisting of several subsystems. or e(ample, in

a business enterprise production, sales and other departments re the subsystem

> "he position and function of each subsystem can be analyzed only in relation

to other subsystem and to the organization as a whole rather than in isolation.

> #n organization is a dynamic system because it is responsive or sensitive to

its environment. It is vulnerable to changes in its environment.

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'ontingency or Situational A!!roach to Management

#nother important approach which has arisen because of the inadeuacy of the

uantitative, :ehavioural and ystem #pproach to management is the *ontingency

#pproach. %igors and Myers propagated this approach in @AF< "he main

features of contingency approach are-

Management is entirely situational. "he application and effectiveness of any

techniues is contingent on the situation.

Management action is contingent on certain action outside the system or subsystem

as the case may be.

Management should, therefore, match or fit its approach to the reuirements of the

particular situation. "o be effective management policies and practices must respondto environmental changes.

Organizational action should be based on the behaviour of action outsidethe system

so that organization should be integrated with the environment.

Management should understand that there is no one hard way to manage.

"hey must not consider management principles and techniues universal.

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.+* 4hat are the functions of a manager2

#!.Management practice is as old as human civilization, when people startedliving together in groups, for every human group reuires management and

the history of human beings is full of organizational activities+

unctions of Management

%lanning

Organizing

taffing

Directing

*oordinating

*ontrolling

Planning

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"he planning function is the primary activity of management. %lanning is the

process of establishing goals and a suitable course of action for achieving those

goals. %lanning implies that managers think through their goals and actions in

advance and that their actions are based on some method, plan, or logic rather than on

a....... %lans give the organization its ob/ectives and set up the best procedures for

reaching them. "he organizing, leading and controlling functions all derived from theplanning unction.

Organi)ing

#fter managers develop ob/ectives and plans to achieve the ob/ectives, they

must design and develop an organization that will be able to accomplish the

ob/ectives. "hus the purpose of the organizing function is to create a structure of task

and authority relationships that serves this purpose.

Staffing

taffing is a continuous and vital function of management. #fter the ob/ectives

have been determined, strategies, policies, programmes, procedures and rulesformulated for their achievement, activities for the implementation of strategies,

policies, programmes, etc. identified and grouped into /obs, the ne(t logical step in the

management process is to procure suitable personnel for manning the /obs.

Directing

Directing is the function of leading the employees to perform efficiently,

and contribute their optimum to the achievement of organizational

ob/ectives."he function of directing thus involves the following sub functions-

0a1 *ommunication

0b1 Motivation

0c1 5eadership

'oordinating

*oordinating is the function of establishing such relationships among

various parts of the organization that they all together pull in the direction

of organizational ob/ectives. *oordination, as a management function, involves the

following sub4functions -

0a1 *lear definition of authority4responsibility relationships

0b1 8nity of direction

0c1 8nity of command

0d1 Effective communication0e1 Effective leadership

'ontrolling

inally, the manager must be sure that actions of the organizations members do in

fact move the organization towards its stated goals. "his is the controlling function of

management. "he controlling is the process of actual activities confirm to plan

activities. It involves four main elements -4

@. Establishing standards of performance

;. Measuring current performance

G. *omparing this performance to the established standards.

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3. Princi!le of !ervasiveness of !lanning : %lanning is found at all levels of

management. trategic planning or long4range planning is related to top

management, while intermediate and short4range planning is the concern of

middle and operative management respectively.

4. +Princi!le of navigational change : "his principle reuires that managersshould periodically check on events and redraw plans to maintain a course

towards a desired goa

5. +Princi!le of fle8i"ility : le(ibility should be built into organizational plans.

%ossibility of error in forecasting and decision making and future uncertainties is

the two common factors which call for fle(ibility in managerial planning

.ESSE%&IA7 S&EPS I% P7A%%I%G

%lanning is a process which embraces a number of steps to be taken. It is an

intellectual e(ercise and a conscious determination of courses of action.

"herefore, it reuires a serious thought on numerous factors necessary to beconsidered in making plans."he steps generally involved in planning are as follows -

1. Esta"lishing 9erifia"le Goals or Set of Goals to "e Achieved :"he first step in

planning is to determine the enterprise ob/ectives. "hese are most often set by upper level

or top managers, usually after a number of possible ob/ectives have been carefully

considered.

2. Esta"lishing Planning Premises- "he second step in planning is to establish planning

premises, i.e. certain assumptions about the future on the basis of which the plan will be

intimately formulated.3. Deciding the !lanning !eriod : Once upper4level managers have selected the basic long4

term goals and the planning premises, the ne(t task is to decide the period of the plan.

4. Findings Alternative 'ourses of Action : "he fourth step is planning is to search for

and e(amining alternative courses of action. or instance, technical know4how may be

secured by engaging a foreign technician or by training staff abroad

5. .Evaluating and Selecting a 'ourse of Action : +aving sought alternative courses, the

fifth step is to evaluate them in the light of the premises and goals and to select the best

course or courses of action.

6. -+Develo!ing Derivative !lans : Once the plan has been formulated ,its broad goals must

be translated into day4to4day operations of the organization. Middle and lower4level

managers must draw up the appropriate plans, programmes and budgets for their sub4units. "hese are described as derivative plans.

7. Measuring and 'ontrolling the Progress :Obviously, it is foolish to let a plan run its

course without monitoring its progress. +ence the process of controlling is a critical part

of any plan.

.B 4hat is decisionma5ing2 4hat are its "asic characteristics2Discuss and

E8!lain the scientific !rocess of decisionma5ing+

+

A%S+ Decision4making and problem4solving are basic ingredients of managerial

leadership. More than anything else, the ability to make sound, timely decisions

separates a successful manager from a non4successful.'0ARA'&ERIS&I'S OF DE'ISIO% MAI%G

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"he content theories have been developed to e(plain the nature of motivation in terms of

types of need that people e(perience. "hey attempt to focus on factors within a person that

initiate and direct a certain type of behaviour or check certain other type of behaviour.

MAS7O4?S MODE7

Maslow9s &needs hierarchy theory& is probably the most widely used theory of motivation in

organizations. #braham Maslow suggested that people have a comple( set of e(ceptionallystrong needs and the behaviour of individuals at a particular moment is usually determined by

their strongest need.

Physiological needs- "he physiological needs form the foundation of the hierarchy and tend

to have the highest strength in terms of motivation.

Security and Safety needs- Once the physiological needs are gratified, the safety andsecurity needP become predominant. "hese are the needs for self4preservation as against

physiological needs, which are for survival.

7ove and Social needs- #fter the needs of the body and security are satisfied, then a sense of

belonging and acceptance becomes prominent motivating behaviour.

Esteem needs- "his need for esteem is to attain recognition from others, which would induce

a feeling of self4worth and self4confidence in the Individual.

Selfactuali)ation needs:"his last need is the need to develop fully and to realize one2s

capacities and potentialities to the fullest e(tent possible whatever these capacities and

potentialities maybe. E)$ "+EO)

"he E)$ need theory, developed by *layton #lerter is a refinement of Maslow2s needs

hierarchy. Instead of Maslow2s five needs, E)$ theory condenses these five needs into three

needs. "hese three needs are those of E(istence, )elatedness and4 $rowth. "he E, )and $ is

the initials for these needs.

E8istence needs:"hese needs are roughly comparable to the physiological and safety needs

of Maslow2s model and are satisfied primarily by material incentives.

Relatedness needs: )elatedness needs roughly correspond to social and esteem needs in

Maslow2s hierarchy. "hese needs are satisfied by personal relationships and social interaction

with others

Gro1th needs: "hese are the needs to develop and grow and reach the full potential that a

person is capable of reaching. "hey are similar to Maslow2s self4actualization needs

Mc'7E77A%D?S &0EOR@ OF %EEDS

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Goal difficulty: Difficult but feasible goals provide more challenge than easy goals.

)eaching an easy target is not competitive and hence hardly e(citing.

.+C 4hat do you mean "y social res!onsi"ility of a "usiness2

A%S "he contemporary view of social responsibility of business is substantially broader and

benevolent than the classical one.#ccording to teiner and teiner, a reasonable approach tosocial responsibility is as follows.

@. Each business must take into account the situation in which it finds itself in meeting

stakeholder e(pectations.

;. :usiness is an economic entity and cannot /eopardize its profitability meeting social needs.

G. :usiness should recognize that in the long run, the general social good benefits everyone.

. "he social responsibility e(pected of a business is directly related to its social power to

influence outcomes.

F. ocial responsibility is related to the size of the company and to the industry it is in.

B. # business should fickle only those social problems in which it has competence.

Q. :usiness must assume its share of the social burden and be willing to absorb reasonable

social costs.SO'IA7 ORIE%&A&IO%S OF 6$SI%ESS

"he e(tent of social orientations of companies varies widely. urther, the social orientation or

the e(tent of social involvement of a company may change over time.

SO'IA7 RESPO%SI6I7I&@ MODE7S

"here are some models, which endeavour to describe the evolution and e(tent of social

orientation of companies.

EB&E%& OF SO'IA7 ORIE%&A&IO% A%D I%9O79EME%&

On the basis of the e(tent of social orientation and involvement of companies, this author

would classify them in to the following categories.

1. Antisocial- !ot only that these companies have no social orientation but also they

are unfair and unscrupulous in the conduct of the business.

2. Indifferent: "hese are companies, which have no social orientation beyond

discharging the legal as well as the economic responsibilities

3. Peri!heral: "hese companies are slightly a shade better than the indifferent

category. "hey have little bit of social orientation, often for the name sake.

4. Socially Oriented- *ompanies in this category have a high level of social orientationbut their real involvement is constrained by limitations of resource.

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Delegation as the Key: /e$egat#on # t&e e o" cont"o$ to tae p$ace beca(e

cont"o$ act#on can be taen on$ b t&e manage" &o a"e "epon#b$e o"

pe"o"mance b(t &o &a'e a(t&o"#t to get t&e tng 4one)

Action as the Essence: Cont"o$ ba#ca$$ emp&a#e &at act#on can be taen to

co""ect t&e 4e'#at#on t&at ma be o(n4 beteen tan4a"4 an4 act(a$ "e($t)

. Information as the !i"e: Cont"o$ act#on # g(#4e4 b a4e(ate #no"mat#on "om

beg#nn#ng to t&e en4) Management #no"mat#on an4 management cont"o$ tem

a"e c$oe$ #nte""e$ate46 t&e #no"mat#on tem # 4e#gne4 on t&e ba# o cont"o$

tem

3 I#$%&'A()E %* )%('&%+ 7&( cont"o$ # an #nteg"ate4 act#on o an

o"gan#at#on o" manage") It oe" &e$p #n t&e o$$o#ng 4#"ect#on

1.A",!stments in %-erations: A cont"o$ tem act a an a4(tment #n

o"gan#at#ona$ ope"at#on) E'e" o"gan#at#on &a ce"ta#n obect#'e to ace'e

c& become t&e ba# o" cont"o$)

2. $olicy erification: a"#o( po$#c#e on t&e o"gan#at#on gene"ate t&e nee4 o"

cont"o$)

3. #anagerial &es-onsi/ility: In e'e" o"gan#at#on manage"#a$ "epon#b#$#t #

c"eate4 t&"o(g& a#gnment o act#'#t#e to 'a"#o( #n4#'#4(a$)

4. $sychological $ress!re: Cont"o$ p"oce p(t a pc&o$og#ca$ p"e("e on t&e

#n4#'#4(a$ o" bette" pe"o"mance

5. )oor"ination inaction: 7&o(g& coo"4#nat#on # t&e eence o management an4 #

ace'e4 t&"o(g& t&e p"ope" pe"o"mance o a$$ manage"#a$ (nct#on cont"o$

aect t apect #gn##cant$)

6.%rganisat ional Efficiency an" Effecti0eness: "ope" cont"o$ en("e

o"gan#at#ona$ e#c#enc an4 eect#'ene) a"#o( acto" o cont"o$ name$

ma#ng manage" "epon#b$e mot#'at#ng t&em o" g&e" pe"o"mance an4ace'#ng coo"4#nat#on #n t&e#" pe"o"mance cont"o$ en("e t&at t&e o"gan#at#on

o" e#c#ent$)

'E$ I( )%('&%++I(

7&e 'a"#o( tep #n cont"o$$#ng ma b"oa4$ be c$a##e4 #nto o(" pa"t: ;#te"#t an4 tam#na an4 &a'e ome bea"#ng on pe"o"mance)

Intelligence: Inte$$#gence # p"#ma"#$ an #n&e"#te4 t"a#t e'en t&o(g& c$4"en o

ome 'e" #nte$$#gent pa"ent &a'e t("ne4 o(t to be $e #nte$$#gent an4 '#ce-'e"a

e: %e#ng a ma$e o" ema$e # genet#c #n nat("e an4 can be con#4e"e4 a an

#n&e"#te4 c&a"acte"#t#c) Hoe'e" #t # g&$ 4ebatab$e &et&e" be#ng a ma$e o" a

ema$e #n #te$ # #n4#cat#'e o an be&a'#o("a$ patte"n) Man # e>pecte4 to be to(g&

$e a oman # e>pecte4 to be gent$e

A ge: S#nce age # 4ete"m#ne4 b t&e 4ate o b#"t& #t # a #n4 o #n&e"#te4

c&a"acte"#t#c) 7&e age ma aect t&e be&a'#o(" #n po$og#ca$ a e$$ a

pc&o$og#ca$ a)

&eligion: Re$#g#on an4 "e$#g#o($ bae4 c($t("e p$a an #mpo"tant "o$e #n

4ete"m#n#ng ome apect o #n4#'#4(a$ be&a'#o(" epec#a$$ t&oe t&at conce"n

mo"a$ etc an4 a co4e o con4(ct

2 +earne" )haracteristics

Some o t&e be&a'#o("a$ c&a"acte"#t#c t&at acco(nt o" eno"mo( 4#'e"#t #n

&(man be&a'#o(" a"e a p"o4(ct o o(" e>po("e to 'a"#o( #t(at#on an4 t#m($#

bot& #tn t&e am#$ an4 t&e o(t#4e en'#"onment)

. $erce-tion: e"cept#on # t&e p"oce b c& #no"mat#on ente" o(" m#n4 an4

# #nte"p"ete4 #n o"4e" to g#'e ome en#b$e mean#ng to t&e o"$4 a"o(n4 () It #

t&e "e($t o a comp$e> #nte"act#on o 'a"#o( ene (c& a ee$#ng ee#ng &ea"#ng

etc

. Attit!"e: Att#t(4e # a pe"cept#on #t& a "ame o "ee"ence) It # a a o

o"gan#?#ng a pe"cept#on) In ot&e" o"4 #t # mo"e o" $e a tab$e ten4enc to ee$

tn pe"ce#'e an4 act #n a ce"ta#n manne" toa"4 an obect o" a #t(at#on)

$ersonality: @&en e 4ec"#be peop$e a (#et an4 pa#'e o" $o(4 an4 agg"e#'e

o" amb#t#o( e a"e po"t"a#ng an apect o t&e#" pe"ona$#t) e"ona$#t # a et o

t"a#t an4 c&a"acte"#t#c &ab#t patte"n an4 con4#t#one4 "epone to ce"ta#n

t#m($# t&at o"m($ate t&e #mp"e#on an #n4#'#4(a$ mae (pon ot&e"

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al!es: a$(e acco"4#ng to M#$ton Roeac& "ep"eent ba#c con'#ct#on t&at a

pec##c mo4e o con4(ct o" en4-tate o e>#tence # pe"ona$$ o" oc#a$$

p"ee"ab$e to an oppo#te o" con'e"e mo4e o con4(ct o" en4-tate o e>#tence)

Q13 Define -ersonality. =o -ersonality "oes relates to organi?ational

/eha0ior

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3) Type Theory: F7pe # #mp$ a c$a o #n4#'#4(a$ a#4 to &a"e common

co$$ect#on o c&a"acte"#t#c) 7pe app"oac& 4#c( t&e pe"ona$#t #n t&e

o$$o#ng a: a< 7pe on t&e ba# o bo4 b(#$4:

#) En"omor-h 2.: #esomor-h 3. Ectomor-h

Self-Concept Theory: 7 t&eo" # o"gan#?e4 a"o(n4 t&e concept t&at t&e

#n4#'#4(a$ me$ $a"ge$ 4ete"m#ne pe"ona$#t an4 be&a'#o("

elfImage : E'e" pe"on &a ce"ta#n be$#e abo(t &o o" &at &e #) 7&e be$#e o

t&e #n4#'#4(a$ a"e t&e p"oo o e$-#mage o" e$-#4ent#t)

I"eal elf: A 4#c(e4 ea"$#e" e$ #mage #n4#cate t&e "ea$#t#e o a pe"on a

pe"ce#'e4 b m b(t #4ea$ e$ #n4#cate t&e #4ea$ po#t#on a pe"ce#'e4 b m

+ooing glassself:7 # t&e a one tn peop$e pe"ce#'e abo(t m an4 not

t&e a peop$e act(a$$ ee m)

&eal elf: 7 # &at one act(a$$ #) An #n4#'#4(a$ e$-#mage # con#"me4 &en

ot&e" pe"on "epone to m #n4#cate t&e#" be$#e abo(t &o an4 &at &e

co""epon4 #t&

Social Learning Theory: 7 t&eo" be$#e'e t&at pe"ona$#t 4e'e$opment # a

"e($t o oc#a$ 'a"#ab$e) It emp&a#?e on conc#o( nee4 an4 ant o an

in"i0i"!al.

Q.14. Bhat is the conce-t of attit!"es =o "o attit!"es "iffer from o-inions

an" /eliefs =o "o attit!"es affect /eha0ior Bhat are the 0ario!s

theories of attit!"e formation an" change

AS)Att#t(4e ma be 4e#ne4 #n to a concept(a$ an4 ope"at#ona$) E'en t&e"e #

a (#te 4#e"ence #n t&e concept(a$ 4e#n#t#on o t&e te"m att#t(4e) 7&e te"m att#t(4e

#"t ente"e4 #n t&e #e$4 o oc#a$ p&enomenon #t a nat("a$ to conce#'e oatt#t(4e a a ten4enc et o" "ea4#ne to "epon4 to ome oc#a$ obect

1 A''I'>DE %$I(I%( A(D p"e#on o att#t(4e)

A''I'>DE A(D &

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Cp$a#n &o e>#t#ng att#t(4e p"o4(ce

4#to"t#on o att#t(4#na$$ "e$ate4 obect an4 &o t&ee (4gement me4#ate

att#t(4e c&ange)

* A ) ' % & A * * E ) ' I ( A ' ' I ' > D E * % & # A ' I % (

7&e att#t(4e a"e $ea"ne4) 7&o(g& t&e"e a"e 4#e"ent app"oac&e a &o $ea"n#ng

o" an4 # ac(#"e4 b #n4#'#4(a$ gene"a$$ #t # &e$4 t&at #n4#'#4(a$ $ea"n tng

"om t&e en'#"onment #n c& t&e #nte"act)

Ci ro!- *actors: 7&e #n$(ence o g"o(p on t&e att#t(4e o #n4#'#4(a$ #

#n'e"e$ p"opo"t#ona$ to t&e 4#tance o t&e g"o(p "om t&e #n4#'#4(a$) B"om t

po#nt o '#e t&"ee tpe o g"o(p &a'e 4#e"ent tpe o eect on t&e att#t(4e

o a pe"on)

Cii $ersonality *actors: e"ona$#t acto" a"e #mpo"tant #n att#t(4eo"mat#on)Hoe'e" man pe"ona$#t c&a"acte"#t#c t&eme$'e a"e 4ete"m#ne4 b g"o(p an4

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oc#a$ acto" a 4#c(e4 ea"$#e") e"ona$#t 4#e"ence beteen #n4#'#4(a$ a"e

'e" #mpo"tant Concom#tant o t&e 4#c(#on o att#t(4e)

)haracteristics of Attit!"es: In (n4e"tan4#ng att#t(4e c&ange t&e ana$# o

att#t(4e c&a"acte"#t#c # an #mpo"tant e$ement) 7&eo"#e att#t(4e (gget

n(me"o( tpe o t&e#" c&a"acte"#t#c) S(c& c&a"acte"#t#c ma be ;#< e>t"emene

o t&e att#t(4e ;##< m($t#p$e>#t ;###< con#tenc ;#'< #nte"connecte4ne ;'#t ;###< con#tenc ;#'< #nte"connecte4ne ;'t"#n#c "e#no"cement) 7&e en'#"onment #n t&e acto"

&e$p e>e"c#e e>t"#n#c "e#no"cement)

$rimary an" econ"ary &einforcement: "#ma" "e#no"cement 4#"ect$ #n$(encep"#ma" mot#'at#ona$ 4"#'e)

$!nishment an" Etinction: (n#&ment # a$o a met&o4 o $ea"n#ng a$t&o(g& #t #

'e" c"(4e an4 (n4e#"ab$e) It # gene"a$$ (e4 to mae t&e emp$oee $ea"n a

pa"t#c($a" tpe o be&a'#o(")

Q.16. Define conflict. Bhat are the factors res-onsi/le for conflict tate an" e-lain

"ifferent strategies for conflict management.

AS ) 7&e @ebte" /#ct#ona" 4e#ne con$#ct a Fa batt$e contet o oppo#ng o"ce

4#co"4 antagon#m e>#t#ng beteen p"#m#t#'e 4e#"e #nt#nct an4 mo"a$ "e$#g#o( o"

etca$ #4ea$) Con$#ct occ(" &en to o" mo"e peop$e o" o"gan#?at#on 4#ag"ee beca(e

t&e#" nee4 ant goa$ o" 'a$(e a"e 4#e"ent)

2 )%(*+I)' #A(AE#E('

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Con$#ct management # &at e"e 4o#ng &en e #4ent# an4 4ea$ #t& con$#ct #n a

"eaonab$e manne") 7o manage con$#ct t&e management G("( a t&at e m(t 4e'e$op

an4 (e #$$ $#e eect#'e comm(n#cat#on p"ob$em o$'#ng an4 negot#at#ng)) 7&e Oo

Comm##on on /#p(te Reo$(t#on an4 Con$#ct Management #n SA 4ec"#be #'e pop($a"

t$e)

'+E 1 )%++A

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'E$ 1: A(A+FE '=E )%(*+I)'

/ont be a"a#4 to a (et#on o e'e"one #n'o$'e4) 7ae #n ane" "om a 'a"#et

o o("ce an4 ga#n a m(c& #no"mat#on a o( can)

'E$ 2: DE'EI(E %>& #A(AE#E(' '&A'E @&en o( (n4e"tan4 t&e ba#

o t&e con$#ct an4 e'e"one #n'o$'e4 o( #$$ nee4 to 4e'e$op a p$an to manage t&e

con$#ct) 7&e"e a"e man p$an to

'E$ 3: $&E(E%'IA'I%(

Step m(t be taen o" 4#c(#on to beg#n) 7 to tn abo(t #nc$(4e:

Someone &a to ta"t t&e con'e"at#on I ne#t&e" pa"t # #$$#ng to 4o o b"#ng

#n an o(t#4e" &o #$$ "ema#n ne(t"a$ to beg#n 4#c(#on)

E'e"one m(t be "ea4 to come to t&e tab$e to o" toget&e" an4 "eo$'e t&e

#(e)

7&e g"o(p m(t ag"ee on "($e o" t&e 4#c(#on) Some #4ea o tng to #nc$(4e

a"e: a e$$ comm(n#cate an4 &o e$$ mae t&e #na$ 4ec##on)

J 'E$ 4: (E%'IA'I%(

egot#at#on &o($4 be 4#c(#on t&at #nc$(4e

Reaon nee4 conce"n an4 mot#'at#on o" 4#e"#ng po#t#on

C(""ent opt#on

E'a$(at#on o a$$ t&e c(""ent opt#on

@"#tten ag"eement t&at 4oc(ment &at e'e"one (n4e"tan4

E'e"one m(t be con#4ent t&at a$$ pa"t#e #$$ o$$o t&"o(g& #t&

t&e#" pa"t o t&e ag"eement) Mae ("e e'e"one # on t&e ame page

an4 (n4e"tan4 t&e e>pectat#on)

J 'E$ 5: $%'(E%'IA'I%(

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