Natural Resources of Sri Lanka

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NATURAL RESOURCES OFSRI LANKA

Conditions and Trends

A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE NATURAL RESOURCES, ENERGY AND SCIENCE AUTHORITY OF SRI LANKA. 1991

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Editorial Committee

Prof. B A . Abeywickrama

Mr. Malcolm F. Baldwin

Mr. Malcolm A.B. Jansen

Prof. CM. Madduma Bandara

Mr. L.C.A. deS. Wijesinghe

Major Contributors

Prof. B A . Abeywickrama

Dr. B.K. Basnayake

Ms. N.D. de Zoysa

Mr. S. Dimantha

Prof. C.B. Dissanayake

Prof. H.P.M. Gunasena

Mr. Malcolm A.B. Jansen

Mr. R.B.M. Korale

Prof. CM. Madduma Bandara

Mr. ICA.L. Premaralne

Ms D.H. Sadacharan

Dr. L.R. Sally

Dr. M . U A Tennekoon

Mr. M. Watson

Dr. S. Wickramaratne

Mr. L.CA. de S. Wijesinghe

Other Contributors

Prof.P. Abeygunawardene

Dr. A.T.P.L. Abeykoon

Prof. P. Ashton

Mr. G.B.A. Fernando

Mr. P. lllangovan

Dr. R.C. Kumarasuriya

Mr. V. Nandakumar

Dr.R.H. Wickramasinghe

Dr. KristinWulfsberg

Editor

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NATURAL RESOURCES OFSRI LANKA

Conditions and Trends

A REPORT PREPARED FOR THE NATURAL RESOURCES, ENERGY AND SCIENCE AUTHORITY OF SRI LANKA. 1991

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Acknowledgements

This report was prepared under the auspices of theNatural Resources, Energy, and Science Authority ofSri Lanka, Ministry of Industries, Science and Technol-ogy. Special thanks from the Editorial Committee aredue to Dr. R. P. Jayewardene, Director-General ofNARESA and members of NARESA's NaturalResources Working Committee for project encourage-ment and guidance. Support for this project wasprovided by the United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment The Committee is grateful to Mr. Den-nis Zvinakis, USAID Projects Director, during whosetenure this report was conceived and developed, andhis successor Mr. William Jeffers.

Many experts provided invaluable technical assis-tance in drafting this report. Refinement of papers wasassisted by Mr. Godfrey Gunatilleke, Prof. K.K.Y.W.Perera, Dr. Gamani Corea, Mr. Lalanath de Silva,

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Mr.V.R. Nanayakkara, Mr. M.S. Wijeratne, and Mr.B.P. Sepalage, at the workshop held by NARESA toreview preliminary project findings. Thanks are due forthe critical technical review of documents by MsDianne Tsitsos, Dr. Ulrich Ernst, Dr. Glenn Anders,and Mr. Daniel Jenkins of USAID, and for the techni-cal design contributions of Mr. Daniel Tunstall of theWorld Resources Institute. The Editorial Committeeis grateful to Keells Business Systems for the carefulwork of its staff in preparing the computer graphics,and to Ms Neela D. de Zoysa for her help with thereport's design and selection of photographs.

Finally, appreciation must be given to the countlessSri Lankan scientists and concerned citizens whoseactions have shaped the content of this report andwhose informed energies will be so important to thefuture environment of Sri Lanka.

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« . IContents I

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Introduction 1

Research Team II

Acknowledgements III

Contents IV

list of Boxes XI

NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT OF SRI LANKA 2

Geographical Setting 2Physical Features 2 tmGeology 3 J ,Climate 3Hydrology 4 amPeople 5 |The Economy 6Constitutional and Administrative Structure 7 MLegal Structure Affecting Natural Resource Management 7 gKey Issues in Natural Resource Management 8

Heritage in Natural Resource Management 11Hydraulic Civilization 11 flCollapse of the Rajarata Civilization 16 mThe Kandyan Kingdom 16The Colonial Period 16 •

Population Profile __ 21 •POPULATION GROWTH 21 •

Changes in Fertility 21Mortality 22 IInternational Migration 24Projected Population 24 _

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION 25 |Population Density 25Urban-Rural Distribution 28 MTrends- 28 I

FAMILY SIZE AND HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION 3 0

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Growth of Households and Family FormationsSize of HouseholdsForecast of Households

HOUSING

Growth of Housing StockQuality of Housing UnitsMaterials of ConstructionAge of Housing StockOccupancy and OvercrowdingType of LightingMain Sources of Drinking WaterToilet Facilities

POPULATION AND DOMESTIC FOOD PRODUCTIONLABOR SUPPLY

Population of Working AgeEmployment by Industry SectorOccupational DistributionEmployment Growth Required to Match Labor Supply

Economic Conditions and TrendsHISTORICAL BACKGROUNDRESOURCE AVAILABILITY AND PERFORMANCE IN THE ECONOMY

Gross Domestic ProductSectoral Contribution: AgricultureIndustryServices and ConstructionImports

RESOURCE UTILIZATION

Trends in Consumption and InvestmentExports

MICRO-ECONOMIC UMITATIONS AND PRESSURES

UnemploymentIncome Distribution and PovertyMalnutrition

POUCY IMPACT

Environmental Degradation and Economic Development

Energy ResourcesELECTRICITY DEMAND

ROLE OF HYDROPOWER

Thermal Generation OptionsEconomic and Social Costs of Hydropower

PETROLEUM SUPPLY AND DEMAND

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303032323232323235353535404444454545

5353555555586060606062646466666767

717174757677

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Biomas Fuel 88

IIIISupply and Processing 77

Sources of Demand 77BIOMASSFUEL 81 •

Consumption 81 •Future Demand Trends 81Source of Biomass Fuel 83 MFuture Trends in Supplies 83 •Economic and Social Costs of Fuelwood 85Other Biofuel Resources 85 M

MAIN ISSUES AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 87 •Electricity 87Conservation 87 •

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Land" Resources 97PARTI-LAND RESOURCES AND USE 1956 TO PRESENT 99 IPRESENT USE 100 P

Plantation Agriculture — Focus on Tea 100Cultivation — Focus on Paddy . 107 IGrasslands 108Forest Gardens 108

ALLOCATION FOR SUITABILITY AND SUSTAINABIUTY 108Soils of Sri Lanka 108Suitability analysis 108Lands use Allocation Problems and needs 111

POUCIES AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 111Land Ownership 111Major Land Tenure Laws 112Government Responsibilities 115Findings of the Land Commission 116

PART II - LAND DEGRADATION 119Soil Erosion 119Landslides and Related Phenomena 123Coastal Erosion 127Salinity and Waterlogging 128

EVALUATING IMPACTS AND PRIORITIES 129 •INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 131 •

Allocation of Authority 131Long-term Planning 131 •Providing Resources 132 *Inter-agency Coordination 132

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Water Resources 137PART I - WATER RESOURCES AND USE 137GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 137PRECIPITATION AND WATER AVAILABILITY 141

Average Rainfall 141Wet and Dry Zones 141Evapo-transpiration 142Inter-annual Variability 142Extremes: Floods and Droughts 142Rainfall Probability 142Surface Water 142Ground Water 146

WATER USES AND REQUIREMENTS 146WATER RESOURCES CONDITIONS AND TRENDS 148

Local Rainfall Decreases 148Increased Runoff - 148Ground Water Exploitation 150

DEVELOPMENT POUCIES AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 150Institutional Authority • 151Water Resources Legislation 151

PART II-WATER POLLUTION 157SOURCES OF POLLUTION 157

Urban Wastes 157Industrial Waste 160Rural Sanitation 163Agricultural Wastes 163Natural Factors 164Oil Discharges 164

TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY 165

KelaniGanga 166Mahaweli Ganga 166Other Rivers» Waterways and Water Bodies 167Ground Water 169Estuaries and Lagoons 170Other Forms of Water Degradation 171

IMPACTS 171LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE 171

KEY ISSUES 174Domestic Waste Management ' 174Industrial Waste Management 176Agricultural Waste Management 176Ground Water Management 176Research- and Data Generation 176Surface Water Quality Monitoring and Control 177Waste Reduction Technologies; 178

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Forest Resources 197

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8 Mineral Resources 181GEMSTONES

Gem MiningThe Gem Industry X84 IEmerging Market Trends Ig4 •Geuda to Sapphire - The Addition of ValueEnvironmental Impacts 186 SRegulation and Controls 188 •>

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Environmental Impacts 190 •GRAPHITE 190 •ROCK PHOSPHATE 191CERAMICS 192 IMINERAL SANDS 193

Environmental Impacts 193 «CEMENT 194 |

Environmental Impacts 193FUTURE MINERAL PROSPECTS 194 m

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Forest Cover Today 197NATURAL FORESTS 198 m

Forest Ownership 201 f§Timber Yields from Natural Forests 204

FOREST PLANTATIONS 208 •Historical Development 208 mTimber and Fuelwood Production 208Ecological Considerations 209

TIMBER AND FUELWOOD DEMAND AND SUPPLY 209Industrial Wood - Past Trends 209Industrial Wood - Future Trends 209 •Fuelwood - Past Trends 210 •Fuelwood - Future Trends 211

KEY ISSUES 211 •Minimum Area Under Forest 211 *Timber and Fuelwood Supplies 212Forest Plantations 213 ISocial Forestry 213Research 213

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10 Biological Diversity 215Importance of Biological Diversity 216

SRI LANKA'S BIODIVERSITY 216

Wild Resources 216Cultivated Resources 222

STATUS AND TRENDS 226Loss of Ecosystem Diversity 226

. Loss of Genetic Diversity 227TRENDS OF PROTECTED AREA MANAGEMENT 229INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND NEEDS 232

Knowledge Base and Analytical Capability 232Providing Economic Incentives 233Expanding Awareness : 233Promotion of Cross-sectoral Collaboration 233Strengthening Protected area Management 234Policy Shifts 234Incorporating values into Economic Planning 234

11 Coastal And Marine Resources 237ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE 238PRESENT CONDITIONS 239

Marine Fishery Resources 242Large Pelagics 246Small Pelagics 245Crustaceans . 246Coral Reefs 248Coastal Wetlands 249Beaches and Dunes 252

MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE COASTAL ZONE 252INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES AND NEEDS 254

12 Inland Aquatic Resources 257AQUATIC HABITATS OF SRI LANKA 257

River and Streams (Riverine) 257Werlands (Palustrine System) 259Floodplains Associated with Rivers 259Floodplains Isolated from River 260Wet Montane Grasslands 260Swamp Forests 260Village Tanks and Ponds . 261Rice Paddies 261Deepwater Habitats 261

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IFUNCTION AND VALUES 261 |

Flood Storage and Conveyance 261Fishery Production 262Wildlife Habitat 264Livestock and Grazing 264Water Supply 264 •

IMPACTS AND TRENDS 264 •Impoundments and Diversions 265Sedimentation 265 MConversion to Alternate Uses 265 ™Pollution 267

INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND RECOMMENDED RESPONSES 267 •Establish Responsibility for Management and Research 267Set Priorities for Improved Legal Enforcement 268Establish Incentives for Conservation 268 •Incorporate Benefits into Projects and Markets 268Establish Public Dialogue Over Cultural Barriers 268 _Identify and Redress Key Information Gaps 268 I

13 Toward Sustainable Development 271 ITrend is Not Destiny 271Sustainable Development Initiatives 271 I

CAUSES OF NATURAL RESOURCES USE AND MISUSE 271 *Significant Global Forces on the Environment 271Poverty Cycle 271 IDomestic Economic Policies 272Population Growth and Demographic Shifts 272 _

CONSTRAINTS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 272 JLand Degradation 272Watershed Degradation 273 amBiological Resource Degradation 273 gContamination of Ground and Surface water 274Degradation of the urban environment 275 m

POLICY RESPONSES 275 |Integrating Biological Resources into Development and Planning 275Correcting Institutional Constraints 276Efficient Environmental Management Cooperation 277Private Responsibilities and Incentives 277Improving Information Gathering, Analysis, and Use 278 •Integrating Environmental Impacts 279 m

VISION OF THE FUTURE 279

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III' List of BoxesIII

Rapid Urbanization in Sri Lanka: Implications and Challenges 42

• Price of Pollution 57

i Energy Efficiency-- Sri Lanka's Cheapest Energy Resource 84

• Air Pollution 89

i Sources and Effects of Air Pollution 91

JÊ Whither Chena 101

[ } Forest Gardens 113

W Chena Cultivation With a Difference 130

! Profile of Water Pollution 158

• Beira Lake Pollution - Causes and Remedies 165

! Ground Water Pollution in Jaffna 173

Forest Plantation for Shelter 207

The Forestry Development Program 210

Sinharaja 230: Significance of the Coastal Region 238

f Coral Mining 247

' Muthurajawela Marshes - Negombo Lagoon: Preparing a Master Plan 266

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1 INTRODUCTION

Can Sri Lanka achieve a future of environmentallysustainable development? What, in fact, constitutes"sustainable" development, and what are the environ-mental conditions essential to achieve it? Should pres-ent policies and programs change? Answers dependon how well we understand the conditions of SriLanka's natural resources and the dynamic changesthat affect them.

This profile describes these conditions and trendsat a critical time. A tropical island in the Indian Ocean,smaller than Scotland or Tasmania and half the size ofthe State of New York, Sri Lanka nonetheless possessesinfinite variety, rich scenic beauty, unusual water, min-eral, and biotic resources, and an ancient cultural her-itage. These attributes exist today with a population ofsome 17 million people, which places Sri Lanka secondafter Bangladesh in population density among develop-ing countries.

Unmistakable signs of environmental stress in SriLanka are now cause for serious concern. They includeloss of natural forest cover, contamination of waters,degradation of rural lands, and rising levels of air,water, and solid waste pollution. A projected popula-tion of 25 million by 2040 will create unprecedenteddemands for food, fiber, energy, developable land andother natural resources. Without prompt managementactions, these demands will aggravate the negativetrends.

Sri Lanka might respond by enhancing the socialbenefits that can be sustained from natural systems ofland, water, wetlands, and their biological resources. Itcan increase its wealth by avoiding costly environmentalabuse. Significant new laws and programs have begunto shift in this direction. Actual results will depend inpart on how well planners, decision makers, and citi-zens apply what they know about Sri Lanka's naturalresources.

This profile will provide concerned citizens in andout of government with the best available informationon significant natural resource conditions and trends inSri Lanka; It builds on findings of the National Conser-vation Strategy and fills gaps in other recent studies onthe environmental and economic dimensions of devel-opment. It should help government and private sectorinstitutions identify and rank national priorities foraction when they face a dauntingly vast number ofenvironmental problems, demands, and choices.

For practical reasons.this conditions and trendsassessment is considered in discrete pieces, but trueperspective and sound policy also require understand-ing of complex interactions among ecological, and so-cial systems over time and space. This introductionfollows with an overview of Sri Lanka's setting and therelationships of her resources to her people. The sub-sequent chapters, with their tables and graphics, de-scribe important conditions and trends in detail.Chapter 2 describes the ancient heritage of Sri Lanka— a history of irrigated agriculture and forest use thatstrongly affects Sri Lankans' present political, social,and environmental perspectives. Three subsequentchapters describe the dynamic factors of population,economics, and energy use that most strongly affectnatural resources. Subsequent chapters then focus onnatural resource conditions and trends affecting phys-ical and biological resources, and the environmentalpollutants that threaten productive and sustainableresource use. Each chapter addresses institutional re-sponses and experiences. The concluding chapter de-scribes the environmental stresses likely to affect SriLanka in the future and the opportunities and paths forachieving sustainable development.

To supplement these chapters, topical "boxes" in-terspersed throughout the profile give readers a moreintegrated perspective on many significant conditionsand trends discussed in the chapters.

Introduction

This profile is only a beginning. The contributionsof more than a score of Sri Lanka's best scientists andexperts to this profile indicate deficiencies in informa-tion and analysis that need prompt attention. Wiseeconomic, social, and environmental decisions will re-quire long-term efforts to refine and enlarge SriLanka's body of practical environmental informationand analysis. Fortunately Sri Lanka's growing commu-nity of environmentally concerned citizens and profes-sionals .have the capacity to fill these gaps.

NATURAL RESOURCES ANDTHE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT

OF SRI LANKA

Geographical Setting

Sri Lanka's location, astride the sea routes betweenthe east and'the west, exposed it to wide cultural andpolitical influence throughout its history. The islandwas well known to travellers of many nationalities fromancient'times and its reputation for precious stones,spices, elephants and scenic beauty is documented inthe tales of Greeks, Romans, Arabs and Chinese. His-torically Sri Lanka's dose proximity to the sub-conti-nent brought it under the cultural, religious, linguisticand political influence of India.

From the middle of the first millennium B.C. to well -after the first millennium A.D. Sri Lanka sustained anadvanced hydraulic civilization centered around villagetanks and irrigation schemes, described in Chapter 2.The island was dominated by successive European seapowers beginning with Portugal from the early six-teenth century to the mid-seventeenth, followed by theNetherlands until the end of the eighteenth century,and finally Britain until Independence. The last Sinhal-ese king reigned until 1815, and Sri Lanka was notindependent again until 1948.

Physical Features

Sri Lanka's development has been largely deter-mined by the natural and economic attributes of itsphysical features. Based on elevation and nature of theterrain five geomorphic regions can be identified: thecoastal fringe, the central highlands,, the southwest

country, the east and southeast, and the north centrallowlands.

The chapter on coastal resources describes acoastal fringe consisting of estuaries, peninsulas,beaches, and offshore islands that support 90 percentof the fisheries, most of the tourism and industry, agri-culture, and human settlements. The length of thecoastline open to the sea, including that of the bays andthe shores of the offshore islands, is. about 1,600 kilo-meters. Koddiyar Bay (Trincomalee) is one of thefinest natural harbors in the world, but Colombo itselfhas become an important commercial port. The conti-nental shelf skirting the bland forms a narrow ledge ofapproximately 20 kilometers along the western, south-ern and eastern coasts, while to the northwest it iscontinuous with that of peninsular India.

The central massif from which headwaters of all SriLanka's major rivers originate, as described in thechapter on water resources, is a compact physiographicunit bounded on the south by a high mountain wall withprecipices offering magnificent views toward the seafrom World's End. Sri Lanka's highest point is over2^24 meters at Piduruthalagala Peak. The HortonPlains, now an important national park, is the bestknown of several high-plain surfaces in the island.Until the coming of nineteenth century plantation agri-culture, natural forests and grasslands covered thisregion. Today these areas are covered largely by rub-ber, eucalyptus, or pine; natural forests are small andscattered. Evidence of upland soil erosion and overuseof pesticides and fertilizers creates potentially seriousbut still poorly understood problems for downstreamland and water use, including water for drinking, irriga-tion, and hydroelectric generation. Major-aspects ofthese conditions and trends are described in chapterson land, water, forestry, and inland aquatic resources.

Topography of the southwest - the other part ofSri Lanka's Wet Zone - is characterized by long paral-lel ridges cut by the rivers beginning in the hill country.This is the most densely populated region. The ForestResources chapter describes its rapid deforestation;natural forests now cover only 8 percent of the wet,intermediate and montane zones. The 47,370-hectaregroup of Sinharaja forests is the last remnant of theonce-vast southwestern rain forests. The chapter on


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biological diversity describes the rich flora and fauna ofthis region.

Rolling hills, undulating plains, and isolated resid-ual hills characterize Sri Lanka's eastern and southeast-ern lowlands. The coastal fringe has importantfisheries and the region contains large parks and wild-life refuges that are home for wild elephants. Togetherwith the north central lowlands it contains an estimated2 5 million hectares of land that are considered capableof development for forestry, agriculture or human set-tlement.

The north central lowlands are somewhat similarto those in the east, with massive residual rocks such asSigiriya, adorned by its monuments of fifth centurycivilization. Here Sri Lanka's hydraulic civilizationflourished, and continues to be a center of archaeolog-ical and tourist interest. The Mahaweli Ganga, whichdrains about 16 percent of the island, has its floodplainin this region, one of Sri Lanka's most important wild-life and agricultural attributes.

Sri Lanka is endowed with lands that can be highly,productive so long as they have adequate water. Overtwo-thirds of the land area is flat or undulating withgentle slopes; extremely steep lands with slopes over 60degrees gradient comprise only 1 percent of the land.About one-third of Sri Lanka is put to agricultural use.Forests and wildlife use another third, and the rest isunder transportation, human settlements, and a varietyof other uses.

Most gently sloping lands are within the agricultur-ally rich areas of the Dry Zone, but agriculture is alsoimportant in the central hill country where slopes rangefrom 30-60 percent. Plantation agriculture has flour-ished there since the beginning of the British colonialera. Sections of the Land Resources chapter focusparticularly on rice paddy and tea plantation agricul-ture in these two regions; the Economics chapter de-scribes their importance to the nation's economy.Impacts of Sri Lanka's oldest form of agriculture —shifting (chena) cultivation — are also significant, how-ever. About 18 percent of the island, including landson steep slopes, is devoted to chena cultivation, which,as now practised, contributes to significant soil erosionand most of the apparently increasing symptoms of land

degradation. Chena problems and prospects are de-scribed in the chapter on land and in several topicalboxes.

Geology

Beneath Sri Lanka's landscape lie some importantminerals, most notably its world-famous gems, andother minerals as yet only modestly exploited. No oilor coal can be found under the land mass, althoughpetroleum may exist offshore.

Sri Lanka, like the Indian peninsula and Antarc-tica, formed part of Gondwanaland in the distant geo-logical past, and it was never fully submerged by the sea.The only major marine transgression was in Tertiarytimes when Miocene sediments were laid down in thenorthwestern belt of the island, including the JaffnaPeninsula. As a result, nearly 90 percent of the area ofthe island is not covered by any sedimentary rocks.Precambrian rocks consist-predominantly of a sedi-mentary succession of a variety of metamorphosed sed-imentary rocks that are conventionally divided into twogroups on the basis of their lithology and structure —the Highland Series and the Vijayan Series. Mioceneformations cover large areas in the northwest and in theJaffna Peninsula. They are important aquifers usedextensively in the north for irrigation.

- Among the superficial deposits of recent origin inmany parts of the country are alluvium on the riverfloodplains and loose unconsolidated sands infthecoastal belt. As the Mineral Resources chapter-de-scribes, these superficial deposits are economically im-portant not only as grass lands and agricultural landsbut as sources of gems, heavy mineral sands, and indus-trial clays.

Climate

As tourists come to know, Sri Lanka's tropicallocation ensures uniformly high temperatures through-out the year, but influence of the sea makes the islandfree from the temperature extremes experienced bycontinental interiors. Although mean annual tempera-tures in the lowlands are around 27°C, with a mean dailyrange of about 6°C, ground frost can sometimes appearin Nuwara Eliya in the central highlands, where themean annual temperature is 15°C. In most parts of the

Introduction

country daily temperature ranges are more significantthan the seasonal change.

Unlike conditions in mid-latitudes of the globe,seasons in Sri Lanka bring almost unnoticeable temper-ature fluctuations. Seasonality primarily results fromvariations in the rainfall rhythm, but because Sri Lankais a predominantly agricultural country rainfall distri-bution over time and space is of great concern.

Climatologjsts divide Sri Lanka's climatic year intofive seasons:

» The convectional-convergence period (March tomid-April), when the island comes under the influ-ence of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone.This is a constant daily weather sequence withbright clear mornings that induce convectional ac-tivity leading to the formation of rain clouds byearly afternoon and thunderstorms in the late af-ternoon.

» Tliepre-monsoonalperiod (mid-April to late May),has transitional weather patterns. During this timeconvectional weather is gradually suppressed bysurges of the southwest monsoon.

•- The southwest monsoon period(late May to lateSeptember), which brings the largest amount ofrainfall to the southwestern lowlands and

• windward slopes of the central highlands, wheresome places receive over 5,000 millimeters annu-ally. The southwestern monsoon blows across thenorthern, north central, and southeastern lowlandsas a dry, desiccating wind.

• Vie convectional cyclonic period (late Septemberto late November), which begins to appear with theweakening of the southwest monsoon. Unlike theconvectional weather in March-April, this periodcan include cyclones. When combined with con-vectional weather, cyclones occasionally produceperiods of heavy rainfall causing widespread floodsand landslides.

• Tlie northeast monsoon (November to February),has a weak and dry wind compared with that of thesouthwest monsoon- However, the northeast mon-

soon brings agriculturally significant rainfall to thenorthern and eastern parts of the country.

Conventionally Sri Lanka recognizes two distinctclimatic regions - the Wet and Dry Zones — althoughprecise demarcation is subject to academic debate.Application of the term "Dry Zone" to an area thatreceives over 1,000 millimeters of rainfall can be mis-leading, however, and tends to create a psychologicalbarrier to the human settlement and development of itsresources. In addition some have identified an "Inter-mediate Zone" between the 'Wet' and 'Dry* zones,while others have chosen to depict the coastal areas ofthe northwest and those in the southeast as "arid zones."

Hydrology

Sri Lanka's rains feed a radial network of rivers thatbegins in the central highlands. Some 103 distinct riverbasins cover 59,217 square kilometers. The rest of the

: land is practically devoid of surface water basins of anysignificance (Arumugam, 1969). Most identifiablestream basins are less than 100 square kilometers andmany carry water only during the rainy season.

The chapter on water resources describes the crit-ical factors that determine how much surface water isactually or potentially available to Sri Lankans beforeit evaporates or reaches the sea, and how much can beobtained from the ground water recharged by the rains.Sri Lanka receives about 12 million hectare meters ofwater annually from rainfall, of which more than 50percent is lost through evapotranspiration. Another 20percent seeps down to replenish ground water. Only30 percent, or about 35 million hectare meters, is avail-able as stream flow for irrigation or other purposes.

A substantial proportion of surface water is alreadyused for irrigation and hydropower generation. Thechapter on inland aquatic systems describes how manyof these uses have already affected the fishing andwildlife productivity of inland marshes, tanks and otherwaters that constitute an unusually high proportion ofSri Lanka's surface area. Land use in catchment areasaffects the quality of these waters. Sedimentation mayultimately reduce original estimates of the lifetimes ofdams and irrigation systems. Although water shortagesconstrain developments in the Dry Zone, excessivewater flow in the Wet Zone often poses serious prob-


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Introduction

lems of flooding and inundation, aggravated by flood-plain settlement and misuse of uplands.

Use and development of water resources has beenan integral part of Sri Lanka's heritage, as described inthe Inland Aquatic Resources chapter. About 12,000small village tanks now irrigate some 269,000 hectaresmainly in the Dry Zone. Since ancient times they havebeen recognized as valuable sources of fish. Inlandreservoirs now provide about 20 percent of Sri Lanka'sfish production.

Large-scale development of water resources forirrigation and hydro-power progressed rapidly duringthe last fifty years. Today largely because of dams onthe Mahaweli, hydro-power provides 90 percent of SriLanka's electric energy. The large reservoirs irrigateover 500,000 hectares of land, and have an aggregateinstalled capacity of 938 Megawatts (1988). But oppor-tunities for projects of large-scale water resource de-velopment, with a few limited exceptions, have beenexhausted with the Mahaweli- Development Pro-gramme. Now attention must focus largely on oppor-tunities for, small hydro-generation and more efficientuse and distribution of existing water resources anddevelopments.

Pollution of Sri Lanka's waters, described in thesection on water degradation, occurs throughout theisland from domestic, industrial, and agriculturalsources. Problems appear to be increasing. Healthimpacts are a basic indicator of this problem, but com-prehensive data: are inadequate. Less than 25 percentof Sri Lankan households have access to pipe-bornewater. The large majority still depend on water fromwells, while about 7 percent draw water from rivers andreservoirs for domestic use. Industrial waste is in mostcases untreated; Sri Lanka's only sewers exist in Co-lombo, serving about 20 percent of the larger Colombometropolitan region of 1.8 million, but none of thedischarge is treated.

Ground water provides an increasingly importantsource of water for irrigation and domestic use. Con-tamination of wells from improper waste disposal is arising concern in rural and urban areas. In the northcentral region investments in tube wells have substan-tially increased in recent years, but data and analysis of

ground water conditions and trends indicate seriousdeficiencies. In Jaffna, however, symptoms of over-ex-ploitation as well as contamination of well water fromurban discharges and agro-chemical use threaten pop-ulations and economic development. These impactsare described in a topical box.

People

At the last census (1981) Sri Lanka had a popula-tion of 14.9 million and at present it is estimated to benearing the 17 million mark. The great majority (75percent) of the people are Sinhalese. The Tamil pop-ulation accounts for 18 percent including those in theestate sector, who are descendants of the workers fromIndia brought to Sri Lanka by the British in the nine-teenth century to work on plantations. The Moors,mostly Tamil-speaking, form the next largest minoritycomprising 7 percent of the population. All other mi-norities, including Burghers (descendants of Dutch andother Europeans), Eurasians, and Chinese, account forless than one percent, but remain as distinct ethnicgroups.

The growth and distribution patterns of Sri Lanka'spopulation are described in detail in the chapter onpopulation. Population has increased from 2.76 millionin 1881 to the present 17 million, recording a sharpincrease particularly after Independence. It is pro-jected to reach about 20 million by the end of thecentury and to level off at about 25 million by 2046.

Population concentrates heavily in the southwestand central regions of the island and in the JaffnaPeninsula. The Dry Zone, in spite of state-aided settle-ment schemes in recent decades, remains sparsely pop-ulated. Although the average density of population ofthe island is around 250 per square kilometer, it variesconsiderably from 50-3,000 between the areas of lowestand highest densities.

Most Sri Lankans live in villages. Despite a steadyflow of migration from rural to urban areas, the urbancomponent of the population has remained virtuallystatic at about 22 percent during the past decade.These trends have been expected to change with indus-trialization and scarcity of available rural land, and mayreach 30 percent by the end of the century, whichtranslates into an 88 percent increase in Sri Lanka's

I

Introduction

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

urban population over its present urban component.Most of this increase will occur in the urban fringes,where public services are already under stress.

The spoken language of the large majority of thepeople in Sri Lanka is Sinhala, while Tamil is the dom-inant language in the north and to some extent in theeastern and central regions. Use of English is mostwidespread among urban and educated classes, whileit serves as a link language between different linguisticgroups. Nearly 70 percent of the people are Buddhists,15 percent are Hindus, and the balance is equally di-vided between Muslims and Christians.

Civil disturbances since 1983 in the north and east,and from 1987-1989 in other parts of the country, haveaffected natural resources and their management inmany ways. One consequence has been an inability tocarry out essential data gathering and field studies,including analyses of coastal, wildlife, forestry, andwater resources. Other impacts include significant re-strictions on resource management and enforcement.Profile chapters allude to many of these constraints.

The Economy

Since Independence Sri Lanka has achieved a highlevel of literacy (85 percent), a low rate of infant mor-tality and a high level of life expectancy at birth. SriLanka's economic performance until recently has beencharacterized by low output and poor employmentgrowth in contrast to other countries that have grownrapidly; in 1960 Sri Lanka was more prosperous thanSouth Korea and in 1970 more prosperous than Taiwan.As described in the chapter on the economy, real GrossDomestic Product (GDP) grew at 2.9 percent per yearfrom 1971-1977. From 1978-1986, however, it grew at5.6 percent per year under a more liberalized economyand with substantial new foreign assistance and invest-ment, including support for the Accelerated MahaweliDevelopment Project. Civil disturbances broughtsharp declines from 1987-1989, when GDP grew at 2.2percent per year.

In spite of changes since the late 1970s Sri Lankaremains primarily an agricultural country. Agricultureaccounts for over 25 percent of the total GDP, nearlyhalf the total employment and. export earnings, andabout 40 percent of government revenues. Over 90

percent of the rural population directly or indirectly

depends on agriculture. Traditionally agriculture has

consisted of the export-oriented plantation sector --

primarily tea, rubber and coconut ~ and the household

fanner sector, growing mainly paddy and subsidiary

food crops for domestic consumption. Many varieties

of fruits, vegetables and potatoes are grown in the hill

country areas. A highly productive home garden sys-

tem based on traditional land use patterns remains

important and can be replicable in many parts of the

island.

Available information indicates that 27 percent of

rural households are landless, 42 percent of the hold-

ings are less than half a hectare. These statistics paint

a distressing picture of the rural scene, and indicate

some of the pressures that are exerted on the natural

resource base.

Plantation crops spread over about 800,000 hect-

ares, particularly in the hill country and the wet and

intermediate climatic zones. Although areas under all

plantation crops, particularly rubber, have declined

significantly over the last three decades, they remain

important, sources of export earnings. Several other

perennial crops such as cocoa, coffee, cinnamon, car-

damom, pepper, nutmeg and cloves, often referred to

as "minor export crops," have recently become signifi-

cant exports.

The industrial base is narrow. Major manufactur-

ing industries, still primarily operated by the govern-

ment, include cement, steel, paper, tires and ceramics.

With the launching of the Free Trade Zone, the gar-

ment industry has gained prominence through private

investment Although foreign investment and external

collaboration have given Sri Lanka access to important

export markets, particularly for garments, other indus-

tries have not yet expanded sufficiently to provide solu-

tions to the twin problems of poverty and

unemployment Yet, as the chapters on population and

the economy make clear, Sri Lanka needs to create two

million new jobs over the next decade to match popu-

lation increases and relieve pressures on the land.

IIIIIIIII

n1• i

IIIIIIIIII

Introduction

Constitutional and AdministrativeStructure

Management of natural resources has increasinglydepended on national administrative and legal struc-tures. The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lankais a unitary state whose legal and administrative struc-ture is based on its republican constitution. The na-tional Constitution (1978) forms the supreme law underan Executive Presidency and a single house of Parlia-ment.

Sri Lanka consists of 25 administrative districts andnine provinces. The hierarchy of regional administra-tive divisions that supports the central government nowconsists of Provinces, Districts, Divisions and GramaNiladhari units, in descending administrative order andarea.

The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in1987 provided for devolution of power to the provinces,and this process, potentially significant for naturalresource management, is still underway. Provinces arenow the fundamental administrative units of regionalgovernance, and they have concurrent jurisdiction withthe central government over the protection of the envi-ronment, soils, coastal fisheries, and wildlife, amongother resources. Districts still form the basic units inthe parliamentary election process, but they have lostmuch of their traditional local authority. TheKachcheries that once formed the hub of district ad-ministration may continue to function as administrativearms of the Central Government with a reduced staffand resources.

At the village administrative level significantchanges are also taking place. The former Grama SevaNiladhari Divisions have been made smaller, and aunified village-level administrative service has been in-troduced by bringing together the former Grama SevaNiladhari, Vaga Niladhari (Cultivation Officer) andVisesa Seva Niladhari (Special Services Officers) intoone rank, renamed as Grama Niladhari.

The authorities in the Central Government execu-tive structure rank from the President to the Cabinet ofMinisters, Project Ministers and State Ministers, andfrom Governors to Chief Ministers and their Cabinetsat the provincial level. The elected government officers

in Sri Lanka are the President, Members of Parliament,and Members of the Provincial Councils. In the hier-archy of administrative officials, Secretaries to the Cab-inet, Project and State Ministers, Heads ofDepartments and Corporations function at the centralgovernment level. Chief Secretaries and Secretaries toprovincial ministries operate in the provinces. TheDivisional Secretaries (former Assistant GovernmentAgents) and the Grama Niladhari carry out vital func-tions at the divisional levels.

Translation of government policy into action isoften entrusted to the bureaucracy, which has estab-lished its own norms for administrative and financialprocedures. No cadre of environmental professionalsexists, however, within the Sri Lanka AdministrativeService.

Legal Structure Affecting NaturalResource Management

Article 28 of the Constitution states that "it is theduty of every person in Sri Lanka to protect nature andconserve its riches." To help implement this goal SriLanka has over 100 statutes directly or indirectly im-portant to natural resource management and environ-mental protection.

Compared with most developing countries, SriLanka has a long history of natural resource legislation.Laws supplement village traditions of resource use thatoperate in many parts of the island and may be mostsignificant in coastal fisheries. Some of the statutesdate back to the middle of the last century, includingthe Crown Lands Encroachment Ordinance of 1840,Irrigation Ordinance of 1856 and the ThoroughfaresOrdinance of 1861. Among the more prominentpieces of legislation related to natural resources are theForest Ordinance of 1907, the Land Development Or-dinance of 1935, Fauna and Flora Protection Ordi-nance of 1937, Mines, Quarries and MineralsOrdinance of 1947, Crown Lands Ordinance of 1947,and the Soil Conservation Act of 1951. More recently,Parliament enacted the Coast Conservation Act of1981, the National Aquatic Resources Act of 1981, theNational Heritage and Wilderness Act of 1987, and theNational Environmental Act of 1980, which wasamended in 1988 to require environmental impact as-

Introduction

sessments and licenses for industries potentially pro-ducing air, water, and land pollution.

The large numbers of government entities respon-sible for implementing environmental laws, and thegaps, overlaps and needs for cooperation and coordi-nation that make this task difficult, are noted in eachchapter.

Key Issues- in Natural ResourceManagement

Each chapter that follows raises major challengesthat confront Sri Lanka as it grapples with environmen-tal stress caused by rising population and increaseddemands on natural resource systems. Underlyingthese challenges are several key issues and questionsthat run through the text, and these are also addressedin the final chapter.

One issue concerns how to obtain and use informa-tion on environmental conditions and trends in the mostcost-effective manner possible. Whether the topicsconcern causes and effects of land, water, air, or bio-logical resource degradation or other topics, they giverise to difficult but important practical questions.These include: who should gather and analyze the in-formation, how should it be made available to all whoneed it, and how can it best be used for making deci-sions?

A second issue concerns how to obtain informedpublic debate about the nature and direction of envi-ronmentally sustainable development in Sri Lanka.

What are the essential elements of environmental con-servation around which different interest groups canagree? Should, for example, development projects andinvestments focus most strongly on creating new em-ployment that is environmentally sustainable, or onways to maximize environmental benefits or agricul-tural productivity? Where should industrial growthoccur — in Colombo, in smaller cities, in villages? Howshould concerns for decentralization of authority ordistributive justice affect the components of sustainabledevelopment?

A third basic issue concerns needs for effectiveimplementation of environmental objectives by govern-mental and non-governmental entities..Nearly everychapter of this profile highlights the proliferation ofagencies and other institutions involved in some aspectof land, water, or other natural resource. How canthese resources be managed more effectively -- moreefficiently -- given increased threats of environmentaldegradation, and needs for productivity? How caninformation on environmental costs and benefits beintegrated into government and private sector eco-nomic decisions? What greater roles are possible bycitizens, villages, businesses, and others? How shouldand could government change its role vis a vis theenvironment?

We can be sure of one thing. Responses to theseissues and questions will unfold over the next decade.By the turn of this century Sri Lanka will have madesignificant, in some cases irrevocable, environmentaldecisions affecting its future development.


Introduction

10

Among, the many ancient monuments of Sri Lanka's hydraulic civilization are these ruins at Yapahuwa


IIII

iii

[ ;

!

iIiiiIiiI

2 Heritage in Natural ResourceManagement

Sri- Lanka's history of natural resources manage-ment and conservation has few parallels even amongcountries with old civilizations. Until the arrival ofsettlers around, the fifth century BC, Sri Lanka wasaffected only by prehistoric man. The few studies of itsprimeval landscape (Noon & Noon, 1941; Perera, 1975)suggest that the prehistoric Bandarawelian communityused stone implements capable of clearing the forestsand practicing a form of chena cultivation, possiblyleading to the creation of some patana grasslands.Nevertheless, impacts on prehistoric man on thelandscape and natural resources appear insignificant.

The: legendary, story of civilization in Sri Lankabegins when the island was inhabitedby people of theoriginal tribes Yakka, Raksa, and Naga. These earlypeople gradually developed systems of sedentaryagriculture based on irrigation, and folklore maintainsthat the Yakkas built some ancient irrigation tanks. Bythe arrival of Vijaya, a prince from North India, around500 BC, small-scale irrigation systems were alreadyoperational (Figure 2.1).

The early Vijayan settlers probably harnessed theskills of local inhabitants predominantly Yakkas, toconstruct irrigation works and clear forests. In timethese Yakkas merged with the Sinhalese to form a singlecommunity; those who resisted assimilation probablyretreated to the interior forest and rock fastness, wherejungles sustained them. The Nagas also integrated withthe Sinhalese, but the Naga culture left a lasting imprint,particularly on water resources development. Somebelieve that the multi-headed cobra symbol often dis-covered at the sites of ancient irrigation structures andother water works, was the insignia of a Naga line ofroyalty well versed in hydraulic engineering.

Hydraulic Civilization

The early hydraulic societies thrived on small ir-rigation systems with unique assemblages of land uses

and agricultural attributes (Leach, 1959). Possiblythese systems evolved from early rain-fed shiftingagriculture into small-scale irrigation that, in turn, ledto major systems. The sedentary way of life facilitatedby this hydraulic base led to land tenure, propertyinheritance, and social organizations that persisted for.centuries. Community leadership patterns had to bestrong and effective with increasing size and complexityof irrigation systems. These-conditions eventually ledto centralized authority representing a form of "orientaldespotism" (WitfogeL 1959);

Conveyance of irrigation water over long distancesneeded efficient control: over distribution and. alloca-tion between the top- and tail-ends of the system.Smooth functioning of all hydraulic structures requiredefficient maintenance. Irrigation depending on micro-catchments required careful watershed management toreduce siltation and ensure catchment water yields.The land and water use system that developed overcenturies to satisfy these requirements has beendescribed as a "cascading system" (Madduma Bandara,1985).

Organization of small tanks into a cascading se-quence within micro-catchments allowed greater ef-ficiencies in water use (see Figure 22) . Drainage fromthe paddy fields in the upper part of the cascade flowedinto a downstream tank for reuse in the paddy fieldsbelow. The system fully expressed the well known dic-tum by the King Parakramabahu (AD 1153) that "not asingle drop of water received from rain should be al-lowed to escape into the sea without being utilized forhuman benefit."

System, management required community effortand coordination. A breach in the upper-most tankbund through neglect or excess water would threatenthe collapse of the entire sequence of tanks below.Similarly, if the capacity of a tank was increased ar-

12 Heritage

The Relative Number of Tanks (in use and abandoned)

24 48

milesTh» rectangles indicate the different sheets under which Sri Lanka is mapped on the scale of one inch to a mile

Rgure 2.1

IIIIIIIIIIi

[ •

i

I

IIII

Heritage 13

bitrarily by one village raising the bund or the spillway,it could inundate the lowermost paddy fields in anupstream village. Interdependent between villages ina cascade required well-coordinated management ofland and water resources.

The land use associated with tank cascadesdemonstrated a profound knowledge of resourcemanagement in a challenging environment essentiallytransformed from natural ecosystems into agro-ecosystems (Abeywickrema, 1990). Integrated landand water resources management in ancient times isreflected in the zonation of land use within the micro-catchments. The tanks and the paddy fields occupiedthe valleys where Low-Humic-Gley soils with poordrainage had limited use other than for bunded paddycultivation. Ridge summits, often strewn with rockoutcrops and inselbergs, were converted into works ofart and places of worship and spiritual retreat. Theinfluence of Buddhism led to the establishment ofsanctuaries early in history (de Alwis, 1969) and theenduring protection of wildlife unusual in many partsof the world (Kablishingh, 1988).

The middle part of the catena between the ridgetops and valley bottoms was used for rain fed chenafarming where Reddish Brown Earths proved ideal formany subsidiary seasonal food crops. Although in themodern context, chena wastes resources in Sri Lanka'searly history long fallow periods allowed vegetativeregeneration, and use was sufficiently infrequent toavoid serious soil erosion and environmental damage.Moreover village farmers spared large trees to provideshade and places for watch-huts. Small trees werelopped at breast height to enable them to sprout againat the end of the rainy season. Even during the Dutchperiod, introduction of cinnamon in chena lands wasapparently done to enrich forest with cinnamon ratherthan to grow it as a monoculture (Abeywickrema,1990).

The ancient village with its typical threefold landuse system — paddy field, home garden, and chena wasself-sufficient and provided a stable base for long-termuse. As Brohier (1934) noted, "tank" would appear tobe synonymous with "village," implying that eachagricultural settlement had a tank; and paddy fieldbelow it.

The remainder of the ancient population lived inthe larger irrigation areas that developed subsequently,or in cities like Anuradhapura in the Dry Zonelowlands. The hill country and the Wet Zone attractedonly a few settlements.

The skills in irrigation technology possessed by theancients were unique for a small country like Sri Lanka.As Needham noted "[ajlready in the first century AC,they understood the principle of the oblique weir.... theheight of dam spillways were adjusted by removablepillar sluices were well understood, ... the inside sur-faces of reservoir abutments were faced with 'ripplebands'... which acted as wave-breaking groynes ... themost striking invention was the intake-towers or valvetowers (bisokötuwa)." They developed the knowledgeto construct long canals with extremely low gradients,such as the Jaya Ganga, which carried water fromKalawewa to the city tanks of Anuradhapura along acanal 87 kilometers long (Figure 2.3). This yoda ela,which had a gradient of less than 10 cm per kilometerwithin its first 27 kilometers, continued to maintainitself as a natural stream. Some of the major ancienttanks, such as Yodawewa in Mannar district, were con-structed to feed a large number of small tanks.

The establishment of forests and construction ofponds, reservoirs and irrigation systems were con-sidered great meritorious acts in accordance withpopular Buddhism, the faith of the leaders and the largemajority of the people. Sri Lanka's history is full ofachievements of kings who contributed to thedevelopment of water resources. Since the first centuryAD kings such as Vasabha (67-111 AD) Mahasena(276-303 AD), Dhatusena (455-473 AD), Agbo II (575-608 AD) and Parakramabahu I (1153-1186 AD) builtnumerous reservoirs and irrigation systems which fedvast expanses of paddy field in the Dry Zone. Con-struction and upkeep of these irrigation systems be-came massive undertakings. An indigenous expertisedeveloped over the centuries which appears to havebeen called upon by other countries of South Asia.

Not all irrigation systems remained operationalthroughout this history (Figure 2.1). Their numbersand command areas expanded and contracted withpopulation changes. Nevertheless, up to the twelfthcentury AD the ancient Dry Zone supported a dense

14 Heritage

Cascades of Village Tanks

— — - Moinaxifotcascad»

PoddyfitWt

M Homtsttod

km

Slyambala Wtwa

:'^W/ Bandara Ratmal*

Timbiri Wtwa

Figure 2.2

III Heritage 15

DIAGRAM SHOWING

NACHCHADUWA.NUWARA WEWA.TISSA WEWA

AND

THE ANCIENT CANAL SYSTEM

Scale: Two Miles to One Inch

HSSA WEWA (JAYA WAPI)Built in 3O9 B.C.Restored 1809 V»5

NUWARA WEWABuilt I s» Century 0 . C.

Restored 1839 A.O.

Channel constructed before Yj.Nachchaduwa Tank was Hbuilt to tap the Malwatu Oyd

Not restored

NACHCHADUWA TANK ,'iBuilt B66-90IA.0.Restored 1906 A.D.

Channel built circa 459-479 A.O.conducting water from Kala Wewato Tisso WewaRestored 1835-88 A.O.

Tirappane, source of Talawe Ela down wich theJaya Ganga was directed into Wiloehchiya Korale

Trabe of Ancient Channel from theJaya Ganga to Kussawa Tank submergedby Nachchaduwa Traced in 1888by Mr Muray, Gmt. Agent

Approximate position ofAnicut which deflectedthe water into Nuwara WtwaThe dressed stone was .removed in \B73 torErecting the road bridge

Figure 2.3

16 Heritage

population. Folklore maintains that the density ofhouses allowed a fowl to move continuously fromAnuradhapura to Polonnaruwa by hopping over therooftops! Attempts to estimate the ancient populationon the basis of tank densities, without considering theirtemporal changes, have led to gross over-estimationswhich exceeded even the present population.However, the population in the capital city appears tohave been high, as reflected by the urban limits ofAnuradhapura, which encompassed an area the size ofGreater London today.

Collapse of the Rajarata Civilization

The ancient hydraulic civilization of the Dry Zonedisappeared after the twelfth century. Climatic change,malaria, depletion of soil fertility, foreign invasions andfamine are some of the reasons cited. The breakdownof the efficient irrigation management system may haveresulted' from annihilation of the kulinas — the DryZone nobility who possessed irrigation expertise — byinvading South. Indian forces (Paranavitana, 1960).Some scholars (Farmer, 1957) cite a combination offactors, including a push-pull effect that led todemographic shifts from the Dry Zone to the Wet Zone(Roberts, 1971). Whatever the reasons for collapse, theoutcome indicates the ecological and social fragility ofa human settlement pattern based on surface irrigationsystems.

The Kandyan Kingdom

With the decline of the hydraulic civilization SriLanka's capital began to shift from the Dry to the WetZone and to the hill country, which eventually becamethe stronghold of the Sinhalese people against invadingforces. First Anuradhapura, capital of Sri Lanka forover a millenium, yielded its status to Polonnaruwa.Then after brief spells in Dambadeniya, Kotte, Gam-pola and Sitavaka, the capital was finally establishedin Kandy until the British conquest. Population shiftsacross different ecological zones, from the Dry Zone,to the Wet Zone, and to the hill country, required anagrarian society to adjust to new environments and trynew ways of managing land and water.

In the hill country the people modified their life tosuit the wetter and' more rugged terrain; The paddy

cultivation in thedeniyas (valley bottoms) was irrigatedduring the drier periods through canals that collectedwater from springs in the hill slopes. Hills performedthe function of reservoirs, and the management ofwatersheds necessarily formed an integral componentof the agricultural enterprise. Different ecological seg-ments of the slopes were recognized, as reflected invillage names such as Ovita, Ovilla and Ovilikandaaccording to their location. Valley bottoms aroundwhich settlements arose were named after the valleywith the suffix of deniya (e.g. Gurudeniya, Aideniya,Peradeniya). At the lower segment of the catena, forestgardens were developed in the homesteads. Fartherup, chena cultivation was practiced occasionally on alargely sustainable basis. Hilltops were permanentlykept under a thick forest cover, which helped controlsoil erosion and regulate water flow.

The Kandyan Forest Garden became a man-madeforest consisting of various fruits and other economical-ly useful tree species, such as nutmeg and cloves. Itessentially copied the diversity and intricate inter-relationships of the natural forest. Kandyan ForestGardens are located between the valley bottoms andhigh slopes to avoid damp conditions and benefit froma deep soil cover and seepage of moisture from theupper regions. Aerial photographs can distinguishKandyan homesteads from the natural forests by thesand-strewn compounds in front of the houses, whichbrought much fresh air and sunshine. The micro- en-vironment of a Kandyan homestead provided a suitablebase for the continuity of human settlements in a wetmontane setting.

The Colonial Period

The Portuguese, and then the Dutch, ruled themaritime areas of the island after the beginning of thesixteenth century. Canals began to change some coas-tal areas, and exploitation of natural resources on acommercial scale began during this period except in thehillyinterior of the country, which continued under themonarchy. Far more significant changes in the naturalenvironment of the island began after the KandyanKingdom fell to the British in 1815.

The full brunt of the colonial rule began with theenforcement of new land laws by the British in the first

IIIIIIII

II

Heritage 17

half of the nineteenth century. The land policy pursuedby the British was based on the concept of "crown land,"which led to the enactment of legislation to bring vastextents of land directly under colonial administration.The Crown Lands Encroachments Ordinance of 1840proclaimed that "all forest, waste, unoccupied or uncul-tivated land shall be presumed to be the property of thecrown until the contrary thereof be proved." Thus over90 percent of the country fell under direct control of thecolonial government, which eventually paved the wayfor large-scale enterprises of plantation agriculture.

The adverse social impacts of colonial land policy,particularly on the villages of the hill country, are betterdocumented than their ecological consequences. Thelarge majority of the peasantry that owned land throughvarious forms of inheritance were unable to producedocumentary proof of their ownership rights. Further,no proof of ownership was possible for the commonland used for c/te/ta cultivation. The colonialgovernment took all these lands, the majority of whichwere under some forest cover, and sold them cheaplyto private parties. The hill country, still clothed in thickmontane rain forests, became almost totally denudedwithin less than a half a century. Over four thousandelephants may have been killed in the process.

Equally devastating impacts on landscape ecologyfollowed the process of deforestation. Soil erosion,landslides and siltation of stream and reservoir bedsbecame rampant and significantly altered the surfacehydrology. Serious land degradation became so ob-vious that the colonial government reacted by devis-

ing means to preserve the area above 1,500 meters. Thebirth of the forest department was associated initiallywith the need for soil conservation in the highlands.Similarly wildlife protection began with concern forpreserving game reserves. Crown ownership neverthe-less facilitated preservation of natural forest cover,which accounted for some 45 percent of Sri Lanka bythe time of National Independence. Plantationagriculture also developed soil conservation tech-nologies such as contour drains and stone terracing,which proved efficient in many well-maintained estates.Despite these attempts, however, soil erosion remaineda recurrent public concern in the last years of thecolonial rule.

The colonial heritage provided Sri Lanka with awide variety of legislation that facilitated conservationof natural resources through land orders and regula-tions. The Crown Land Ordinance of 1947, one suchexample, provided for the protection of coastalresources, stream banks and the beds of reservoirs. Toa large degree the Soil Conservation Act of 1951,though passed after Independence, is a similar legacyof colonial times. The Kothmale landslides of 1947which destroyed much life and property, requiringresettlement of many families, stimulated public con-cern, a comprehensive study (Gorrie, 1949), and even-tually enactment of the Soil Conservation Act of 1951.Its failure as a regulatory tool suggests the need for areappraisal of effective techniques -- perhaps based onvillage community behavior and incentives more sound-ly linked to Sri Lanka's traditional concern for a sus-tainable and productive environment.

References

Abeywickrema, B.A. (1990). Integrated conservation for humansurvival - International symposium on Ecology andLandscape Management in Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Brohier, R.L. (1934-35). Ancient irrigation works in Ceylon partsI, II and HI. Government Press, Ceylon.

Crown Lands Ordiance (1947). No. 8 of 1947 and amendments.Government Press, Colombo.

Encroachment upon crown lands ordinance (1840). GovernmentPress, Colomba

Farmer, B.H. (1957). Pioneer peasant colonization in Ceylon. Astudy in Asian agrarian problems. Oxford University Press,London.

Gorrie, Maclagen (19S4). Kotmale landslides and adjoining catch-ments. Sessional paper No. XVII of 1954. Government Press.

Leach. E.R. (19S9). Hydraulic society of Ceylon, past and present.Vol. 15, pp. 2-26.

Madduma Bandara, CM. (1985). Catchment ecosystems and vil-lage tank cascades in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka - in

18 Heritage

Needham, J. (1971). Gvil engineering and nautics - science andcivilization in China. CambridgeUniversity Press.

Paranavithana, S. (1960). The withdrawal of Sinhalese from theancient capitals. History of Ceylon, Vol. I. University ofCeylon, Peradeniya.

Perera, N.P. (197S). The human influence on the natural vegeta-tion of Sri Lanka highlands. Vidyodaya Journal of Arts,Science and Literature, Vol. V.

Roberts, M. (1971). The ruin of ancient Ceylon and drift to thesouthwest: The Ceylon Journal of Humanities, Vol II, No. 1.

Toynbee, Arnold J. (193S). A study of history. London.

Witfogel, ICA. (1957). Oriental Despotism; a comparative studyof total power. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Heritage ig

IIII

A festival scene in Negombo. Sri Lanka's urban population is growing faster than rural population


3 Population Profile

21

Population Growth

Sri Lanka's population has grown rapidly until re-cently. By 1986 it reached 16.8 million, yet in the firstmodern census, conducted in 1822 after the Britishoccupation, population was 889,584. By the next censusin 1871 population had increased to 2.4 million, largelydue to natural increase and immigration from South

the birth and death rates, the cohort sizes of females inreproductive age groups, and slow decline in fertility,have contributed to the natural increases that accountfor over 95 percent of the total population growth in thepast few decades.

Changes in Fertility

Sri Lanka had high birth rates at the beginning of

Population of Sri Lanka in Census Years1871 - 1981

I B

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

Enumerated Population (Millions)

y

/

1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981

Figure 3.1

India for the plantations (Figure 3.1).

Population increased by 518.5 percent between

1871 and 1981, but the rates and causes of growth have

been very different. For the intercensal periods 1891-

1901,1921-1931 the percentage increase over each ten-

year period was about 18 percent and the average

annual rate of growth was about 1.7 percent, but in the

first period it stemmed from large-scale migration into

the country, and in the latter period it largely resulted

from natural increases. Increases in the gap between

the century. Crude birth rate (CBR) fluctuated be-tween 38-40 per thousand in the first few decades of thetwentieth century but has now declined to 21.8 perthousand. A more refined measure of populationgrowth is the total fertility rate, defined as the averagenumber of children that would be born to a womanduring her lifetime if she passed through her child-bearing years conforming to the age-specific fertilityrate of a given year. The total fertility rate, estimatedat 5 3 in 1953, was nearly halved by 1987. This declineis reflected in the following rates.

22 POPULATION PROFILE

IIIIIIIIIII

Until the 1940s the crude death rate remained athigh levels, reaching 30 per thousand in some decades •(1911-1920). Several reasons have been cited: "... wide- •spread prevalence of endemic and epidemiological dis-eases, inadequate curative preventive health services, Ilow standards of living, high illiteracy rates and igno- *ranee of simple health rules among the mass of thepeople" (ESCAP 1974). Improvements in health and Isanitation services and in living standards and literacylevels reduced the live death rates to approximately 23 -^per thousand by 1930. The malaria eradication p r o - 1gram, improvement of health infrastructure and provi-sion of basic services made it possible to achieve a sharp _decline in mortality in the mid-1940s. Between 19461and 1947 the crude death rate declined from 20 perthousand to 14 per thousand, and it has continued to «mdecline to 6 per thousand. Life expectancy at birth Iincreased from 44 years for males and 42 years forfemales in 1946, to 64 years for males and 68.8 years forfemales by 1971. The life expectancy further increasedto 65.6 for males and 69.9 for females according to datafor 1978-1980.

1.5

1

0.5

0198

Projected Population

Avarag* Annual Rat« of Growth

-

I-86 86-91 91-96 96-2001 01-06Period

Growth

06-11

Rates

11-16 16-21 21-26

Figure 3.3

MortalityYear

1953

1963

1971

1974

1981

1987

Total Fertility Rate

5.3

5.0

4.2

3.5

3.3

2.8

Figure 3.2

Rapid population growth during the past decades,slow economic growth, and problems of unemploymentand productivity have determined governmental policyon population. Policies that provide family planninginformation and contraceptive services contribute tocontinued decline marital fertility. Population projec-tions constructed in 1988 assumed a linear total fertilitydecline to 2.1 by 2011, slightly lower than projected in1985. Some projections have been based on a fertilitydecline to 2.1 by the year 2000, based on findings of highmotivation among" married couples to reduce fertiltyrates. It is important to note that projections in thisanalysis, however, assume that total fertility will remainstable throughout the period of projection.

The crude death rate will probably not declinefurther. As fertility declines and the population ages,

III

II

j

III; ;

1

II(

III

I

II1{ •

1IIII

POPULATION PROFILE 23

Projected Total Populationby Selected Age Groups 1981 - 2051

Millions

2011 2021 2031 2041

I 0 - 14 Years EZZ115 - 59 Years 60 * Years

Figure 3.4

Population Distributionby Climatic Zones 1871 - 1981

16Millions

1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981Years

Maritime Districts i Plantation Districts

Figure 3.5

Dry Zone Districts


the crude death rate will be close to the crude birth rate,and population growth will reach a replacement pla-teau.

International Migration

It is difficult to predict migration trends, given thesocial, political and economic variables in countries oforigin and destination. The inflow of Indian migrantworkers resulted in large net immigration until mid-century.

Migration into Sri Lanka on a large scale andon systematic basis began in the early 1830swith the opening up of the hill country areasfor coffee plantations. The reluctance of theindigenous labor to accept employment on thenewly opened estates resulted in a regularrecruitment by the European planters of largenumbers of indentured labourers from SouthIndia. In the past while Sri Lanka has beenreceiving a large number of immigrants, thenumber of nationals emigrating from the coun-try had been negligible. None of the indige-nous communities are migratory in character.They are attached to their land and have hadbetter fortune with it than have the South In-dian peasants. (ESCAP 1974).

Citizenship laws of 1949 regulated immigration,and political changes and new language policies afterindependence stimulated emigration of Eurasian andBurgher communities to North America, Western Eu-rope, Australia, and other parts of Asia. The Indo-Cey-lon Agreement of 1964 for repatriation of Indianmigrant workers substantially increased out-migrationin the 1970s. Outflows of nationals to developed coun-tries for economic reasons commenced at the end of the1960s and assumed brain drain proportions in the1970s. Demand for labor in the Middle East raised thevolume of temporary migration after the mid-1970s,when total volume of migration to this region peakedaround 225,000. It declined after 1984 and more rap-idly with the Gulf crisis in 1990. Ethnic violence in the1980s resulted in migration of Sri Lankan Tamils toIndia, estimated at 100,000. Violence and terrorist ac-tivities also caused clandestine migration to WesternEurope and North America, mostly for economic rea-

sons. The flows were large but reliable data are notavailable.

The population projection constructed in 1988 as-sumed net outilow of 50,000 per year in the short termuntil 1991, and average rates of 35,000 per year from1991 to 2006 and 25,000 per year thereafter. Majorchanges in social, political and economic conditionscould seriously alter these estimated migration flows,however, especially in the short term.

Projected Population

The population projection used in this profile wasconstructed in 1988 based on the assumptions outlinedabove on fertility, mortality and migration. The projec-tion provides only tentative estimates to 2056, primarilyto examine the size and composition of the populationas growth rates decline. Long range projections havebeen found reliable only in the short and medium term.

According to the current projection, populationhas increased from 15.046 million in 1981 to 16.587million in 1986 and is projected to rise to 20.05 millionin 2001,22.01 million in 2011, and 23.725 million in 2021.In 2046 it should peak at 25.444 million, resulting in a69 percent increase since 1981. The average rates ofannual growth are given in Figure 3.3 and numericalincrease in Figure 3.4.

In contrast, other projections have concluded thatpopulation will increase to less than 20 million by theyear 2000 and will stabilize at about 23 million by 2040.They are based on less conservative basic assumptions.

This projection discloses several noteworthytrends concerning pre-school and elderly populations.The pre-school age group of 0-4 years would increasefrom the base year 1981 until 1986, decline until 2006,increase again to 2016, and then decline (Figure 3.4).The relative share of this age group would continuouslydecline from 13.5 per cent in 1986 to 6.5 per cent towardthe end of the projection period. Young dependents inthe age group 0-14 years would peak near 1991, at about5.9 million, and would decline thereafter. In contrast,the elderly population shows a dramatic increase. Thepopulation over 60 years of age would increase morethan threefold, from 982,000 in 1981 to 3.15 million by2016. Ranks of the elderly would continue to increase


IIIIIIIIIII

i

IIIIIIIII


to over 6 million toward the end of the projection. Asa result, old age dependency would continue to rise.Cost of old age dependency may be less than youthdependency; instead of costs of schools, for example,outlays would be mainly for pensions, health care, andspecial facilities needed by the elderly.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

We can best examine social and economic devel-opment in terms of agro-climatic zones by dividing thepopulation into geographical boundaries. The WetZone is defined by administrative districts of Colombo,Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle, Matara, Kandy, NuwaraEliya, Ratnapura and Kegalle, with the Dry Zone com-prising the remaining sixteen districts. Within the WetZone districts it is useful to distinguish Colombo,Gampaha, Kalutara, Galle and Matara, all of whichhave maritime boundaries. They also differ from otherWet Zone districts by having relatively high levels ofdevelopment, industrial employment and urban popu-lation. In contrast hill country Wet Zone districts havelarge plantation sectors.

The distribution of population by climatic zones forthe period 1871-1981 is given in Figure 3.5. It showsthat since 1871, and until recently, population haslargely concentrated in the Wet Zone districts. By1946, two-thirds of the population lived in 23.7 percentof the country. The increase resulted primarily fromthe development of the plantation industry in the WetZone, the influx of Indian immigrant plantation labor-ers, growth of trade and commercial activities in WetZone maritime districts, and the prevalence of malariain the Dry Zone. Increased density in the Wet Zonecaused overcrowding and reduced per capita availabil-ity of agricultural land.

Since 1946 the government has sought to improvethe Dry Zone through irrigation, new settlements, andimproved health care, education and communicationfacilities. Repatriation of Indian immigrant labor wasalso encouraged particularly from hill country planta-tion districts, where the share declined from 26.4 per-cent in 1931 to 2L1 percent Today the relative shareof the Wet Zone- population has diminished to 54.7

percent. Substantial additional redistribution of thepopulation to Dry Zone agricultural land is not antici-pated. Instead, population growth will occur in existingurban areas, and other areas selected for industrial andcommercial development.

Population Density

Sri Lanka is one of the most densely populatedcountries in the world, second only to Bangladeshamong the less developed countries and otherwise ex-ceeded in Asia only by Japan, Republic of Korea, andsmall island states such as Singapore and Hong Kong.Population density in Sri Lanka, on the basis of thecurrent estimated population of 16.8 million, amountsto 260 persons per sq. km. Uneven concentration ofpopulation in the Wet Zone causes further pressure onnatural resources. (Figure 3.6.)

Regional variation of population densities and thegrowth trends for the decennial period are shown inFigure 3.8, summarized and given by province in Figure3.7. Some provinces are still relatively sparsely popu-lated. Densities in 1988 varied from a low 42 personsper sq. km. in Vavuniya and 46 in Mullaitivu in theNorthern Province to nearly 2,900 per sq. km. in theColombo district. Wide variation in the Provincial den-sities occur as well, from 1,175 per sq. km. in the West-ern Province to 94 persons per sq. km. in the NorthCentral Province. The North Central, Eastern, and UvaProvinces have population densities below 125 personsper sq. km., substantially below the densities of all otherprovinces except the Northern Province, with its rela-tively low 145 persons per sq. km.

Since independence, inter-provincial and inter-district migration, and peasant settlement in the DryZone have reduced disparities in population concen-trations.

The distribution of population and populationdensities are also determined by the industrial profileof the area, and access to jobs. In rural areas, wheredemographic, social and economic differences are gen-erally not sharply pronounced, migration has dependedon opportunities for work, including wage employmentin nearby urban centers. The rise in unemploymentlevels in urban areas has reduced the volume of theserural flows.

I


anti

600

400

200

0

BG - BANGLADESH

IN • INDIA

NE - NEPAL

Population Density in

Population Danalty Par Square Kllomatar

8Q KO JA SL IN

KO - KOREA

VI-VIETNAM

CH-CHINA

BU- BURMA

VI PH PA NECountry

JA - JAPAN

1986

CH TH ID BU MA

SL - SRI LANKA

PH - PHILIPPINES PA - PAKISTAN

TH • THAILAND

MA - MALAYSIA

ID • INDONESIA

Figure 3.6

i A An14UO

1200-

1000-

8 0 0 -

600 -

4 0 0

200-

0 -

NP - Nothern ProvinceUVA' - Province of UvaEP - Eastern Province

Population Density & Distributionby Province

'opulation Per Square Kilometer

1111 • •III..• .II• • • m m m m m m m\WP CP SP NP EP NWP NCP UVA SAB ALL

Province

NCP - North Central Province NWP - North Western ProvinceSAB - Province of Sabaragamuwa CP - Central ProvinceWP - Western Province- SP - Southern Province

Figure 3.7

IIIIIIIIII

I •

ÏII

IIIIIIIII


Province / District

Sri Lanka

Western ProvinceColomboGampahaKalutara

Central ProvinceKandyMataleNuwara Biya

Southern ProvinceGalleMataraAmbantota

Northern ProvinceJaffnaMannarVavuniyaMullaitivu

Eastern ProvinceBatticaloaAm paraTrincomalee

North Western ProvinceKurunegalaPuttalam

North Centeral ProvinceAnuradhapuraPolonnaruwa

Uva ProvinceBadullaMoneragala

Sabaragamuwa ProvinceRatn apuraKegalle

Density Of Population Per SquareBy Province And District 1871

Land area

Square KM

64,651.83

3,657.84652.42

1,398.851,606.57

5,583.241,890.761.988.591,703.85

5,513.831,673.911,246.562,593.36

8.685.532,072.252,002.062,645.161,966.06

9.622.072,464.634,539.222,618.22

7,749.764.772.832,976.93

10,532.977,129.213.403.76

8,405.042.818.175.586.87

4,901.553,238.781,662.77

%

100.0

5.71.02.22.5

3.62.93.12.6

8.52.61.94.0

13.43.23.14.13.0

14.93.87.04.0

^^.07.44.6

16.311.05.3

13.04.48.6

7.65.02.6

1953

125

610838

328

245359

87268

205314336

74

66193

1809

3738

31

11013325

2222

5656

182132287

Kilometer-1988

Density per

1963

165

7761,089

398

304466130328

259388418107

85248

2519

57817254

149181103

374034

78188

19

229171352

Square km

1971

196

9302,297

839454

350508158377

301439470131

101336

372322

751046072

181215127

525548

9621835

269208387

1981

230

1.0722,605

994516

360486180420

341487516164

128401

533639

1011348698

220254165

818277

109227

49

302246412

1988

257

1,1742.8911.067

570

385644204309

389542596190

146408624246

120159100115

251288192

949690

122244

60

332277440

Figure 3.8

I



Urban-Rural Distribution

Urban growth in developed countries has accom-panied economic and industrial development, but thatis not necessarily true in developing countries; despiteurbanization their national economies can still remainprimarily agrarian.

Internationally recognized yardsticks delineateurban and rural areas. The UN has identified five:administrative area, population size, local governmentarea, urban characteristics, and predominant economicactivity. In Sri Lanka, with its traditional agriculturaleconomy, urban areas can retain largely rural charac-teristics. This was true long ago, as described by thecensus report in 1946.

The great city of Anuradhapura in ancient times,notwithstanding its size and architectural features wasnot altogether 'urban', for it contained within its limitsirrigation tanks, paddy fields, and even forests. Withinthe municipal limits of Kandy today, there are situatedestates of appreciable acreage, while within the areaunder the administrative jurisdiction of the Badullaurban council there are large paddy fields. Some of thelarger villages are more densely populated than some'towns' which had been brought under the operation ofthe Small Towns Sanitary Ordinance. Town and villageare ordinarily wards of somewhat vague applicationand are not easily defined and distinguished. (Censusof Population 1946 : General Report.)

In recent times the delineation of urban boundariesin Sri Lanka has not necessarily been based on urbancharacter or well-defined guidelines. Today, censusdefinitions of urban areas include Town Councils,Urban Councils, and Municipal Councils. But from1963 to 1971, for example, Town Council status wasgiven to communities with populations ranging fromless than 2,000 to over 40,000. As a result, many truly"urban" areas have been considered "rural." Preciseurban-rural distinctions remain somewhat arbitraryand may underestimate urban environmental condi-tions or growth trends. Unless these factors are recog-nized, urban statistics may mislead planners and policymakers required to identify needs for urban infrastruc-ture, housing, potable water supplies, health-, and otherbasic human requirements in highly populated areas.

Trends

Between 1871 and 1981 Sri Lanka's urban popula-tion increased twelvefold, and the urban share in-creased from approximately 11 percent to nearly 22percent. Urbanization has slowed during the past fourdecades and declined during the intercensal period1971-1981. Policies of the past five or six decades thatemphasized development of rural infrastructure andsocial sector programs, kept urbanization rates at mod-est levels, as did low rates of industrialization. Urban-ization rates have been lower than those of manycountries of the region and the urban sector share ofthe population has been relatively low (see Figure 3.9).Nevertheless, contrary to these national trends, unusu-ally high rates of growth have occurred within the Co-lombo Urban Area. (See box on urbanization in SriLanka.)

The urban population of 1 million in 1946 in-creased to 3.2 million in 1981, while total populationincreased from 6.6 million to 14.8 million (Figure 3.10).Between 1946 and 1981 the urban percentage share ofpopulation increased by approximately 6 percentagepoints. Growth of urban population was higher be-tween 1953 and 1963, when the growth rate reached4.88 percent per annum, after which the growth ratedeclined.

Variation in the urban population percentageamong the provinces ranges from 46.7 percent in theWestern Province to 6.2 percent in the North WesternProvince. The percentage of urban population in theWestern Province is more than double that of any otherprovince except the Northern Province. In the WesternProvince the urban percentage has steadily increasedfrom 33 percent in 1946 to 48 percent in 1971, showinga decline in 1971-1981. If we included the developedareas, outside the local authority areas then the urbanpercentage would be even higher. More importantly,57 per cent of the country's urban population resides inthe Western Province. Figure 3.11 shows that the urbanpopulation in the Northern Province, lower than thenational average in 1946 and 1953, exceeded the na-tional average by 1963. Urban population growth hasbeen relatively slow in the North Central Province andCentral Province.

IIIIIIII

I

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Ii

ii

POPULATION PRORLE 29

Percentage Urban in Total Population

Country

BangladeshBurma

IndiaIndonesia

LaosMalaysia

NepalPakistan

PhilippinesSingaporeSri LankaThailandVietnam

40 60Percentage

•11965 ES

80

1985

100 120

Figure 3.9

20

1 c

Total

Ii

10

5

-

oP1881

Urban

Population (millions)

1891 1901 1911

Population 1881

•1921 1931 1941

Census Years

WM Rural Population Ë=Üi Urban

- 1981

1951 1961 1971 1981

Population

Figure 3.10

I


IIIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIII

Significant changes in urbanization rates are notforeseeable in the long term. Rates of economicgrowth, and increased industrial employment willlargely determine urban growth in the short and me-dium term. Population growth, pressures on agricul-tural land and rising rural land prices, expansion oftrade and commerce, provision of urban electricity,communication services and amenities and needs todevelop manufacturing industries may slowly raise ur-banization levels. If, as is possible, urbanization reaches30 percent by the end of the century, then the populationliving in urban areas would increase to 6.015 million —an 88.4 percent increase over the current urban popu-lation. If the present urban distribution pattern contin-ues, then as much as 50 percent of the urban populationwill remain in the Western Province.

These urban projections, when added to existingurban needs (see sections on water and air degrada-tion), point compellingly to new urban planning andinvestment challenges.Many other Third World cities now grapple with almostintractable problems of pollution,transportation,andinfrastructure inadequacy that have rapidly outpacedurban planning and investment. Sri Lanka would dowell to anticipate and prevent a similar fate by attentionto potentially significant increases in problems of wastewater management, drinking water supply and quality,air quality, solid waste disposal, and adequate housing,transportation, and health services.

FAMILY SIZE ANDHOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION

Analyses of families and households determine,and in turn are influenced by, basic demographic vari-ables of fertility, mortality and migration. Recent cen-suses have paid increased attention to the household asa basic socio-economic unit that supplies and demandsgoods and services.

The concept of the household is based on the ar-rangements made by persons individually or in groupsto provide themselves with food or other living essen-tials. A household may be either a one-person house-hold, or a multi-person household that pools incomeand uses a common budget. Household members mayor may not be related.

The censuses and surveys conducted in Sri Lankahave used household as the basic unit of enumeration.The concept of the household as a unit in Sri Lanka hasalways denoted one or more family units residing in ahousing unit. Although a household could comprisemore than one family unit the reverse is not feasible.The extended family relationship is accommodated bya definition allowing integration of several family unitsunder one household. The head of the household isaccepted as the adult person, male or female, who isresponsible for the care of the household.

Growth of Households and FamilyFormations

Since the census of 1953 the total number of house-holds in Sri Lanka increased nearly 90 percent, from 1.6million to 3.05 million in 1981. Urban households tre-bled, from 0.19 million to 0.59 million, due to the rise ofnew urban centers, internal migration, and increasedfamily size in urban areas. Growth of rural householdswas slower; including the estate sector, rural house-holds grew by only 73.0 percent. Average householdsize increased for the country as a whole from 5.0 in 1953to 5;2 by 1971, due in part to the slow growth of availablehousing. It declined thereafter to 4.9 persons by 1981.(Figure 3.12 and 3.13)

Trends data show that family formation has oc-curred at a slightly higher rate than population increase,but in the urban sector population growth outstrippedthe rate of family formation.

Size of Households

A declining trend in household size is evident fromthe Consumer Finance surveys, which provide broadlycomparable data.

Declines in household size and family size resultedfrom declines in fertility that began in the late 1950s.Urban sector households have been consistently largerbecause of boarders, domestic servants and aides.Scarcity of housing in the urban centers has probablyslowed the formation of new h< ..=^holds as childrendelay leaving the nuclear family. In contrast, the size ofestate sector households has always been lower than theall-island average.

IIII

i •

III1j

II

IIIIII1III


Distribution of Urban Populationby Province 1953 - 1981

2000

1500

1000

500

Thousands

WP CP SP NP EP NWP NCP UVA SABProvince

1953 1963 1971 1981

Figure 3.11

Growth of Households by Sector1953 - 1981

Millions

Sri Lanka Urban Rural Sri Lanka Urban Rural Sri Lanka Urban Rural Estate

1953 1971 1981••^Population f N^ Households

Rgure 3.12



Forecast of Households

Projections for number of households and the rateof growth of households improve estimates of housingrequirements and the provision of amenities. A gen-eral paucity of data on households and family forma-tion and headship collected through censuses andsurveys makes projections difficult, however. Based ona formula developed by the UN, and the data fromCensuses of Population and Housing 1971 and 1981,estimates have been developed for the total number ofhouseholds for the quinquennial years 1981-2001, therate of increase of households in this period, and theaverage size of households (See Figure 3.14).

The forecast shows the total number of householdsreaching 4.575 million by the end of the century. Thismeans nearly 400,000 households added during eachquinquennial period — or 1,600,000 householders be-tween 1981 and 2001. Housing facilities and suitablelocations will be needed to meet this increased demand.Even so, the rate of increase in the number of house-holds will decline during this period. The average sizeof households will drop from 4.9 in 1981 to 4.4 in 2001(Figure 3.13).

HOUSING

The Census of Population 1981 estimated the totalnumber of dwelling places at 3.029 million, of which2.924 million were housing units and 0.105 million wereliving quarters other than housing units. The total num-ber of occupied housing units amounted to 2.813 mil-lion, and of them 0.110 million, or 3.8 percent, werevacant at the time of enumeration. The percentage ofvacant housing units varied in the different sectors, 4 3percent were vacant in the rural sector, 4.7 percent inthe estate sector, and only 1 3 percent in the urbansector.

Growth of Housing Stock

During the intercensal period 1971-1981 the hous-ing stock increased by 26.9 percent while the populationincreased by 17 percent. Hence the housing stock in-creased at an average annual rate of 2.4 percent. Incontrast housing stock increased by only 12.5 percentin the intercensal period 1963-1971, when populationincreased by 19.9 percent. The growth of population

and housing stock between 1971 and 1981 and thepercentage intercensal increases are illustrated in Fig-ure 3.15.

Quality of Housing Units

The structural quality of housing depends on theconstruction materials used. Three types of housingunits have been identified based on construction mate-rial used for walls, roofing and floors: permanent, semi-permanent, and improvised units. In general where allmaterial consists of durable products like cement,bricks, tiles or asbestos sheets, the unit may be consid-ered permanent If units use perishable materiab suchas cadjan, or discarded wooden planks, the unit isclassified as improvised, and when a mixture has beenused we consider it semi-permanent. (Figure 3.16) Inthe intercensal period 1971-1981 the percentage of per-manent units increased from 35.4 percent to 41.9 per-cent, a 50 percent increase. The percentage share ofpermanent units increased in all three sectors, whereasthe relative share of improvised units declined. Themajor part of the increase in permanent units was in therural sector. Data on the age of stock show distinctimprovements in the pace of permanent housing con-struction after 1977.

Materials of Construction

The percentage distribution of occupied housingunits by principal materials used for walls, roofing andfloor by sector is shown in Figure 3.17. Slightly morethan half of all housing units have used materials suchas mud, wood, cadjan or palmyrah for the constructionof walls. For roofing material approximately 42 percentused cadjan, palmyra or similar materials. Just over 50percent of all occupied housing units used wood, mudor other materials for the floors. All the materials areof domestic origin, although timber and cement im-ports are beginning to be needed.

Age of Housing Stock

The age of housing stock ascertained at the 1981Census was based on the year of completion or firstoccupation. The increase in housing units since 1971is shown in Figure 3.18. This distribution shows that 62percent of the housing units were constructed in 1970or before, and 73.2 percent were permanent units.

IIIIIIIIIj

II

j •

IIIIIIr :j

II11


Average Size of Households by Sector1953 - 1981

No. of Persons/Household

1953

Urban ESS Rural Sri Lanka

1981

Estate

Figure 3.13

CAAft

ouuu

4000

3000

2000

1000

Total

,_——

01981

Forecasts

No. of Households in

___< •—

1986

- m

of Households 1981

Thousands

1991Year

— Total No. Forecast

- 2001

^ —

1996 2001

Figure 3.14


Growth

Sector

Urban

Rural

Estate

All Sectors

of Total

1971

Population and

Total Population

1981

(million)

2.848

8.707

1.134

12.689

3.192

10.720

.933

14.847

Increase

%of

Increase

12.1

23.1

-17.7

17.0

in Occupied Housing

Occupied Houslnj

1971

0.421

1.558

0.238

2.217

1981

0.512

2.085

0.217

2.813

1971 - 1981

1 Units

%of

Increase

21.5

33.7

-8.6

26.9

Figure 3.15

100

80

60

40

20

0

-20

-40

-60

-80

Percent Increase of Occupied Housingby Type & Sector 1971 - 1981

Increase

vvv

All

Total

Urban RuralSectors

Estate

Permanent Semi-Permanent I I Improved

Figure 3.16

IIIIIII1IIII!IIIIIIIII


Those constructed between 1971 and 1975 amountedto 10.5 percent of the total stock. The growth rateaccelerated to 3.9 in 1976, declined to 3.4 percent by1977, then increased to 4.2 percent in 1978 and 5.3percent by 1980.

Occupancy and Overcrowding

Sharing of housing units had declined by 1981 innumerical magnitude and as a percentage. The Censusof 1981 disclosed that over 90 percent of the housingunits in each sector were occupied by single house-holds. Only 4.8 percent of the housing units wereshared by more than one household in 1981, comparedto 7.6 percent in 1971.

Type of Lighting

The Census of 1981 found that 82 percent of allhousing units depended on kerosene lamp lighting(Figure 3.19). Electric lighting increased from 9 per-cent in 1971 to 14.9 percent in 1981. Housing unitsusing electricity in the urban sector increased fromapproximately 33 percent to over 45 percent. In therural sector, only 8.3 percent of the houses receivedelectricity, but the number of rural housing units usingelectric lighting rose substantially, from 44,000 to172,000.

In the estate sector, however, the number of hous-ing units using electricity was only 5.6 percent. Ruralelectrification programs undertaken during the pastyears may have raised these proportions, but the back-log of units not yet provided with electricity remainssubstantial in the rural and estate sectors.

Main Sources of Drinking Water

Housing units with access to piped water increasedfrom 0.444 million in 1971 to 0.497 million in 1981, butthe proportion with piped water declined from 20 per-cent to 17.5 percent (Figure 3.20). Housing units de-pendent on wells for drinking water increased from 63.8percent to 72.9 percent. Thus wells remain the mainsource of drinking water for nearly three-fourths of thecountry's population, and the proportion dependent onrivers, tanks, and other surface sources has remainedaround 7 percent. By 1981 nearly all urban housing

units had access to piped water. The share of estatesector housing units with this facility has been tradition-ally high at about two-thirds. An insignificant propor-tion (about 5 percent) of the rural housing units areserved with piped water, and about 85 percent dependon well water. Although wells are still Sri Lanka's prin-cipal source of drinking water, as many as 20 percent ofwells are unprotected and allow inflow of pollutedwater.

Dispersal of housing units in village areas, absenceof potable ground water for drinking, and the cost ofproviding pipe borne water will remain important de-velopment issues, especially because approximately800,000 additional housing units must be supplied be-tween 1990 and the end of the century. The magnitudeof this backlog of housing units requiring safe drinkingwater is evident from Figure 3.21, which provides data"on the main source of drinking water by district. In 14out of the 25 districts (Kalutara, Matale, Galle, Matara,Hambantota, Mullaitivu, Ampara, Kurunegala, An-uradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Badulla, Moneragala,Ratnapura and Kegalle) more than one-third of thepopulation do not have access to safe drinking waterand are using unprotected wells, rivers and tanks. Inrural areas the shallow wells used for drinking water arefrequently holes dug in the ground that run dry duringthe dry season and receive polluted water during therainy season.

Toilet Facilities

Poor sewerage facilities for housing lead to con-tamination of water sources and the spread of disease.The 1981 Census data disclosed that one out of everythree houses lacked sanitary toilet facilities, down from35.5 percent in 1971. In the urban sector during thisperiod, the proportion not served by sanitary toiletfacilities remained unchanged at approximately 20 per-cent. The rural sector made some gains; the proportiondeclined from 42J percent to 36.5 percent, but in theestate sector the position deteriorated.

Part of the overall decline may have been due to achange in the definition used in the 1981 Census, whichcategorized a unit using a toilet of another housing unitas one lacking a toilet.

36 POPUUTION PRORLE

iii

Urban-Walls Rural - Walls

MuO 16.5Wood 9.4

Othar 0.7

Brick ar CaDook 52.3

Brick or CaOook 27.6

Cement Blocks 18

Palmyrah. Cadjan 5.1

, Cement Blocks 11.9

Other 0.6

Palmyrah. Cadian 5.6

Wood 1.3

Mud 53

Estate - Walls Urban - Roof

Cement Blocks63 Tlie 48.2

Palmyrah. Cadjan0.5

Mud18.6

Brick or CaDook15.9

Asbestos sheets 16.2

Metal Sheets 12.9

Other 1

Cadian. Straw 21.8

Rural - RoofEstate - Roof

Tile 37.6Otner 2

Metal Sheets 7.7

Asbestos sneets 4.1

ASDBSIOS sneets 13.1

Tiia 12

Otner 0.6' Caajan. Straw 2.86

Metal Sheets 71.5

Cadian, Straw 48.6

Rgure 3.17

IIIIIIIII

I:iiiiiti

ii

POPULATION PRORLE

Wood 0 2

Urban - Floor

Other 0.5

Mud 18.8

Cement or ' •-. ' _• -•

Wood 0.9

Rural - Floor

Cement or Tiie 44.7

Other 0.5

Mud 54.6

Estate - Floor

wood 0.3

Cement or Tile 24 5

Otnei o l

Rgure 3.17

37


3000-

2500-

2000-

1500-

1000-

500-

o -pre

Age and Increase

Mo. of units (Thousands)

1970 71-75 76 77Year of

of Housing

^ — ^

78Construction

Stock

79

1981

^ — —

80 81

Figure 3.18

Domestic Lighting 1981Total No. of Housing Units > 2.813,444

Kerosene82.5%

Electricity14.9%

Other3.6%

Figure 3.1»

IIIIIII1I

ÎIIIIIIIi

II

POPULATION PROFILE

Distribution of Occupied Housing Unitsby Source of Drinking Water

100

1071 1061Urban

EE3 pipwi w»t»r ES3 wall

1071 1071 1081Rural Estate

• Rlvar. Tank« «to- E 3 Not Stat«»

Figure 3.20

Figure 3.21

39

Main Source Of

District

Sri Lanka

ColomboGampahaKalutaraKandyMataleNuwara BiyaGalleMatara

HambantotaJaffna

MannarVavuniaMullaitivuBatticaloaAm paraTrincomaleeKurunegalaPuttalamAnuradhapuraPolonnaruwaBadullaMoneragalaRatnapura

Kegalle

TotalNumber

2813844

272,488265,951160,422178,37968,208

122,828146.385121,75580,496

157,60918,04917.70313,50569,09077,97447,822

263.504105,169107,914

48,183120,18251,551

158,686139,992

DrinkingBy

%

100.0

100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.1100.0100.0100.099.9

100.099.9

100.999.9

100.0100.099.8

100.099.9

100.0100.0100.0100.099.9

Water In Occupied Housing UnitsDistricts 1981

Piped

Water%

17.6

52.08.75.5

29.314.261.06.2

9.911.210.821.3

4.63.84.07.56.72.27.46.72.4

43.54.7

19.4

10.0

ProtectedWell

%

52.2

37.866.159.144.046.613.261.347.4

41.576.9

70.374.1

59.675.961.664.064.566.860.047.9

24.035.334.851.6

Unprotec-ted Well

20.6

7.421.928.719.724.28.0

27.636.030.18.05.7

13.4

27.59.3

13.916.726.718.823.4

39.514.929.321.4

28.3

River.tank &

Other Source%

7.0

0.50.63.84.7

12.810.43.14.9

16.12.1

Z 13.7

6.39.0

12.310.64.55.17.76.7

13.828.822.5

7.6

NotStated

%

2.5

2.32.72.92.32.27.51.81.81.12.1

0.64.12.71.74.72.01.91.92.11.63.81.91.92.4

POPULATION PROFILE

IIIIIIIIII

Occupied Housing Units by Type of Toiletby Sector 1971 - 1981

Percentage

1971 1981 1971 1981 1971 1981Urban Rural Estate

) Flush ES3 Water Seal H Pit EZ3 Bucket S 3 No Toilet

Figure 3.22

The number of housing units using flush toilets alsohad declined by nearly 9 percent. As a consequence therelative share of this facility declined by nearly 2 per-centage points to 4.8 percent. However, the number ofwater sealed toilets nearly doubled between 1971 and1981. (Figure 322). In the urban sector the number ofbucket toilets had declined from 81,000 to 42,000, andthe percentage share of this type in all sectors declinednationwide to only 1.9 percent. Figure 3.23 shows thewide variation in the different types of toilets in use andthe variations in districts. Outside Colombo the pro-portion of flush toilets is relatively small, with Jaffnahaving 8 percent and Kandy 5.5 percent. Water sealedtoilets are more evenly distributed. Pit toilets, however,remain the most widely used toilet while the bucket isbecoming obsolete. The percentage of housing unitswhich lack any toilets has been exceedingly high. Indistricts such as Mannar, Vavuniya, Mullaitivu,Batticaloa, Ampara and Trincomalee, more than two-thirds of the housing lacked toilet facilities.

POPULATION AND DOMESTICFOOD PRODUCTION

Sri Lanka's traditionally dominant agricultural sec-tor has largely produced tea, rubber and coconut prod-ucts for export, while food imports used a major part ofthe export earnings. Recognizing the cost of feeding a

growing population, policies since the 1930s have en-couraged development of croplands in the Dry Zone, Ithrough irrigation and peasant settlements. • *

Between 1946 and 1962 162,0004 hectares of newland were cultivated, and another 147,800 hectares de-veloped for agriculture between 1962 and 1973. Agri-cultural land increased by 18 percent over this period,raising agricultural croplands from 26.0 percent to 31.5percent of the country's total land area. The scale ofnew land development slowed after 1973, but the areadeveloped for paddy alone between 1973 and 1986amounted to 134,500 hectares. Cultivated land nowincreases by 10,100 hectares per year.

The agricultural sector still contributes as much as22.4 percent of the national product and 45.0 percentof total employment. These figures would be evenhigher if they included industries dependent on agricul-tural raw material.

Information on land availability and agriculturalproduction has been canvassed through a series ofagricultural censuses in 1946,1962,1973, and 1982, withthe next census planned for 1992. In 1946 agriculturallands totalled 1.727 million hectares. They increased to2.037 million hectares by 1973. Because of under-enu-meration of agricultural lands, particularly paddy

IIIIIIIIII

IIiiiiiiii

Iiiiiiiiiiii


Occupied Housing Units by Type ofToilet Facilities & District 1981

100Percentage

Colombo

E=3 Fluth Toilet

EZ3 Bucket

Kandy Gall«Diatrieta

Jaffna Battlealoa

E S Watar Toilet529 Nona

mm pitCD Not 3tated

Rgure 3.23

fields, at the Census of Agriculture 1982, that censusdid not disclose the growth of agricultural land duringthe intercensal period.

The extent of agricultural land ascertained in the1946,1973 and 1982 censuses and agricultural land percapita in 1982 are given in Figure 3.24. Average agri-cultural land availability has been 0.13 hectare perperson for the country as a whole. In the predominantlyagricultural districts of the Dry Zone the agriculturalland availability varied between 0.16 hectare per personto a maximum of 0.28 hhectare per person in Vavuniya.In densely populated areas such as Gampaha andJaffna it declined to about 0.06 hectare per person.Current distribution and use patterns of agriculturallands by crop are displayed bellow.

Crop

Tea

Rubber

Coconut

Other permanent crops

Paddy

Highland temporary crops

Total

Hectare»

222,700

242,900

415.000

176,100

729,900

253,000

2,037,600

Plantation crop lands have not increased, butpaddy increased from 390300 hectares in 19S2 to727,900 hectares in 198S. It accounts for, about 11percent óf the total land area, and 35 percent of the totalcultivated area. Production also increased from595,000 metric tons to a maximum of 2,661,000 metrictons. A considerable part of this increase resulted fromimproved productivity.

Lands devoted to other cereals, pulses, roots andtubers and other annuals total approximately 253,000hectares. Although much of the cultivation is rainfedand yields are low, productivity can improve substan-tially. About 90 percent self-sufficiency, has beenachieved for rice. Barring major droughts, if Sri Lankamaintains its recent productivity gains, it should meetthe increasing rice demands in the near future. Contin-ued imports of wheat flour will be necessary in themedium term at current levels. Substantial expansionof sugar acreage will be required to meet rising de-mands without increased imports.

Projections for food requirements show that thecalorie availability needs from vegetables and fruitshave not been met and that demand for these items willbe about 25 percent above current supply by the end ofthe century. Per capita calorie, protein, and fat sup-plies have slowly improved over the past decade despite


Rapid Urbanization In Sri Lanka: Implicationsand Challenges

Rapid growth of the Colombo Urban Area (CUA), with a currently estimated population of 1.6million, has gravely concerned local authorities. Fourteen local authorities make up the CUA: twomunicipal councils (Colombo and Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia), five Urban Councils (Kotte, Moratuwa,Kolonnawa, Peliyagoda and Wattala-Mabole) and the seven Town Councils (Maharagama, Battaramulla,Kotikawatta, MuUeriyawa, Kelaniya, Dalugama and Hendala). Each authority functioned as a distinctlyindividual entity until about twenty years ago. Now the CUA has grown so as to fuse each local authoritywith the others. An array of new social, economic and environmental problems has arisen from this highconcentration of urban poverty, overloading the urban sewer, water and drainage infrastructure.

The annual rate of growth of urban population for all of Sri Lanka declineddramatically to L2 percentbetween 1971 and 1981 — down from 62 percent and 5.1 percent during the previous two periods,1953-1963 and 1963-1971 respectively. However, phenomenal growth rates were recorded during the1971-1981 period by a majority of local authorities in the CUA — Moratuwa (40 percent), Battaramulla(27.8 percent), Hendäla (24.5 percent), Maharagama (192 percent), Kelaniya (12.4 percent), Dalugama(12.1 percent), Wattala-Mabole (10.6 percent) and Kotikawatta (102 percent)^ Further,.while the density!for all of Sri Lanka was only 230 persons/sqJan, density for the CUA was7,844persons/sqJani and 15,9174"persons/sqJcm for the Colombo Municipal Council. ' V -

The physical consequences of such rapid, urban growth include sub-standard shelter, improper OFinadequate water supply, unhygienic toilet facilities, undesirable and unsanitary solid waste disposal, andgradual elimination of a network of storm water basins.

Shelter

The acute shelter problems, like other urbanization problems, are mostly confined to Colombo'sshanty and slum settlements. With nearly 50 percent (or 65,000 households) of the Colombo MunicipalCouncil area's population cramped in. such settlements, the urban housing: component of the MillionHouses Programme, launched by the government in 1984, was aimed at rehabilitating these settlements.Shelters in these settlements are overcrowded and built of improvised material on marginal, usually floodprone land, Occupants typically lack legal rights to the land they occupy.

Through the Million Houses Programme (MHP), families ia shanty and slum settlements have beengiven legal tenure to the land, along with loans of up to 15,000 rupees to improve their shelter through *Housing Optio» Loans Package (HOLP). As of August 1988; nearly 30#00shanty families had benefitedfrom the Million Houses Programme. . -

To overcome acute shortage of land, especially for low-income housing, the government reduced theminimum size of plots for residential development from 303 to 152 square meters, and in some spécialcases to 51 square meters. The resulting increase in spot densities has strained the infrastructure to itslimits andJócar officials have found themselves unable to controi,illegal and unauthorized constructionûsually extensions for cooking, areas, which; due t o restrictedspacev often abut toilets* cattle sheds, orpoultry runs in the adjoining plot. The result of these uiiauthonzedstnicture» »unhygienic cooking;

III

IIIIIIIii

11


Water Supply and Sanitation

As shanty and slum improvement schemes increase so does demand for water supply. Rehabilitationsettlements therefore have posed a challenge to the National Water Supply and Drainage Board(NWS&DB). Existing supply lines are already overloaded and new supply now appears feasible only bytapping ground water where the quality is found suitable for human consumption. Collection of rain wateris also being explored.

Rising Risk of Water Pollution

In the Colombo District in 1981 about 37 percent a» * e approximately 272^00 housing units hadeither pit toilets (24 percent), bucket toilets or none at -m* Afcout half (52 percent) of all housing unitshad piped water, and over a third (37.8 percent) had pmaecferi wells. About 10 percent of the housingunits used shallow wells highly susceptible to domestic i mil Mniilinii. or they used untreated river wateror other sources. At 5.48 persons per unit - the average urbaafcousehold size in 1981/1982 - some 150,000residents in the Colombo Distria were at potentially high risk of contracting some waterborne diseasefrom water contamination. Today, assuming no change in the percentage of people who use unprotectedwater, this high risk group may have increased by more than 20,000 because of Colombo's growing urbanpopulation; Numbers at risk will be higher still if piped water or protected well water becomes contami-nated. Only 375,000 in Colombo are served by sewers.

Conditions in the Gampaha District are potentially more serious. About 60 percent of the 266,000housing units had pit toilets (43.8 percent), bucket types, or none (14.8 percent). Of these units, 9 percentreceived piped water, 66 percent used protected wells, and the remaining 25 percent used unprotectedwells, rivers and other sources. This means about 364,000 people were at high risk from contaminatedwater in 198L Today there are about 400,000.

If Colombo and other urban areas increase their growth rate over the next ten years as forecast, waterpollution problems will obviously grow more serious unless there is significant new investment in urbanwater and sanitation infrastructure.

In local authorities where wells are the sole source of drinking water, the building of septic tankswithin a 152 - square meter plot hits a snag: by-laws require septic tanks to be 1525 meters away from awell, whether one's own or a neighbors,, in order to prevent contamination. Several surveys have shownthat these by-laws are not strictly obeyed.

The local authorities along the sea coast face a peculiar problem arising from persistent rural habitsunsuited to urban- settlement. Squatters encroaching on sea coast reservations are in the practice ofrelieving themselves directly on the beach. The excreta, washed away by the sea, resurface and polluteother beaches, some of which are frequented by tourists. Providing these settlements with any form oftoilet has not yet proved effective.

Solid Waste Collection and Disposal

Domestic garbage disposal requires urgent attention in the CUA. In most parts of the CUA garbageis either collected by "hand carters" from residences and pfled at central collection points or householdsare expected to bring their garbage to these points. The collected garbage remains for a number of days,polluting the environment and inviting rats and dogs, as wdfaucavenging by the poor, until garbage truckstake it away for disposal, usually dumping in marshy Ian* atmy from residential areas.

I



Safe andiconvenient disposal sites, however, have become increasingly scarce; As a result, the whole

process of garbage collection and disposal has become inefficient; garbage piled at temporary locations

often remains unattended for a considerable period, causing a nuisance and health hazard to residents.

With rising urban population and garbage output estimated at 470 tons per day by 1992, cost effective

alternatives to present garbage collection and disposal systems have become an urgent need.

Elimination of Storm Water Basins

Skyrocketing urban, land prices force low and middle income Households to seek cheaper residential

lands away from the dty center. One direct result is the Glling of marshy land for residential development.

A network of such marshy land within the CUA has served as a natural drainage system for storm waters.

With the filling in of these storm water basins — over 200 hectares by the Sri' Lanka Reclamation and

Development Corporation alone since 1968 storm drainage malfunctions are causing floods in most of

the low-lying areas within the CUA. In the absence of a clear policy to maintain these storm water basins,

local authorities have no alternative but to approve applications for fillmg; by developers-or individual

house builders. "• '"''•• '.'"'"; • • • Ä ^ - - / ^ %

problems of equitable distribution to low incomegroups.

LABOR SUPPLY

Population censuses and labor force surveys con-ducted since Independence have shown rapid growthin Sri Lanka's labor force. It increased from 2.6 millionin 1946 to 3.4 in 1963, to 4 5 million in 1971 and reached5.9 million in 1985 (See Figure 325). Annual rates ofgrowth during this span:

1946 • 1953 . 2.1 percent

1946 • 1971 2.7 percent

1946-1985 2.1 percent

1963-1971 3.3 percent

1971-1981 Z5 percent

1971 -1985 2.1 percent

Between 1963 and 1981 growth rates were particu-larly high, exceeding Z5 percent per year, and higherthan the growth rate of the total population. This rateof growth in the labor force is unlikely to decline below2.0 percent in the short and medium term because newentrants to the workforce over the next fifteen to twentyyears have already been born. A decline could occuronly through a substantial increase of external migra-tion.

Population of Working Age

Analyses of the labor force usually consider age

group 15-59 years as the population of working age,

with those outside this range being young dependents

or elderly. Recent census and labor force surveys can-

vassed the employment status of persons above 10

years. Some earlier surveys even canvassed the next

lower age group of 5-9 years because of the prevalence

of child labor. Child labor exists, but it has declined in

magnitude and as a percentage of the total labor force.

At the 1981 Census child workers in the age group 10-14

years totalled 8,975 - including 5,840 males and 3,135

females.

With longer life expectancy the economically ac-

tive population above 60 years has increased, and this

trend will continue. The working-age population will

increase from 8.677 million in 1981 to an estimated

10.593 million by 1991. By 2001 it will increase by 2 3

million to 12325 million — 47.8 percent higher than in

1981. Between 2001 and 2011 its size will increase again

by 13 million to 14.189 million, but thereafter working-

age population will increase only marginally, reaching



a maximum of nearly 15 million in 2036. Net additionsto the population of working age over the next 20 yearswill be about 0.9-1.0 million in each quinquennial pe-riod between 1986 and 2OO6.These are critical figures.They show the significant future additions to the laborforce and the magnitude of the employment task ahead.

The number of working-age people will increaseuntil 2036, but after 2006 their relative share will declinefrom 65.01 percent to 59.44 percent, while the share ofelderly will increase. Issues of old age dependency andhealth care are likely to become increasingly significantduring this period. Higher life expectancy and conse-quent larger cohorts in older age groups will affect theinternal composition of the productive population. Theworking population will become increasingly older.,the male share will decline in relation to the femaleshare.

Employment by Industry Sectors

Data on the distribution of employment by indus-trial sector, ascertained through cross section surveys,show how the industrial composition of the workforcehas changed over time (Figure 3.26). Structuralchanges in the economy have been slow, with the agri-culture sector remaining large and absorbing as muchas one-half of the employed population. The propor-tion dependent on agriculture, approximately 53 per-cent in 1953, declined only 4 percent to 49 percent by1985.

Over this period agriculture absorbed approxi-mately 1 million persons, but its the slow growth rateof around 1.5 percent per year, compared to annualincreases of over 2 percent per year in the labor forceand the total population, resulted in a large pool ofsurplus labor. Agriculture could absorb only aboutone-third of the growing increment in labor supply,which averaged between 100,000 and 125,000 per year.Unfortunately, manufacturing sector employmentcould not take up the slack. It grew from 290,000 in1953 to 650,000 by 1985, increasing its share from 9percent to 123 percent. Slow growth of this sector didnot keep pace with the increasing number of educatedand skilled men and women in the workforce, nor wereother sectors able to do so.

Occupational Distribution

Slow structural changes in the economy are re-flected in the relatively small shifts from agriculture andrelated work to professional, technical, production andrelated service employment. Thus the number of agri-cultural workers declined by 4 percent between 1953and 1985, and the share of professional workers in-creased only marginally, by about 1.5 percent. Classi-fication problems prevent extensive comparisonsbetween the 1953 and subsequent surveys, but Figure3.27 shows that the share of production process workersincreased from 23 percent to about 28 percent between1963 and 1985. During this time these occupationsabsorbed approximately 700,000 net additions. Onlymodest shifts occurred in occupational distribution.

Future population trends, labor force growth, andthe rising share of people with educational and otherskills require shifts towards employment in manufac-turing, agricultural processes and industries, and pro-fessional, technical, and service occupations. Creationof new jobs will not suffice; new employment opportu-nities must match a higher skills profile.

The labor force estimated at 5.563 million in 1980and 6.395 million in 1986 grew at an average rate of138,600 per year. By 2001, the projected labor force of8.78 million will comprise 5.97 million males and 2.81million females, with an average annual increase of159,000 by increments of 105,000 males and 53,500females. By 2016 the labor force will increase by afurther 22. million, an average of 148,000 per year from2002-2016, to nearly 11 million, comprising 7.11 millionmales and 3.89 million females. Most significant is theacceleration of female entry into the workforce. Thefemale net additions to the workforce should increasefrom about 50,000 in the 1990s to nearly 70,000 in thefirst 15 years of the twenty-first century. New additionsto the workforce will have higher educational attain-ments and better skills than those leaving it.

Employment Growth Required toMatch Labor Supply

An intractable problem in the country during thepast three decades has been youth unemployment andthe need to increase productive employment for newmembers of the workforce. Although about 175,000-


Province/District

Sri Lanka

Western Province.

Colombo

Gampaha

Kalutara

Central Province.

Kandy

Matale

Nuwara Eliya

Southern Province.

Galle

Matara

Hambantota

Northern Province.

Jaffna

Mannar

Vavuniya

Mullaitivu

Eastern Province.

Batticaloa

Ampara

Trincomalee

North Western Province

Kurunegala

Puttalam

North Central Province

Anuradhapura

Polonnaruwa

Uva Province.

Badulla

Moneragala

Sabaragamuwa Province

Ratn apura

Kegalle

Pop.

Number

14,846,750

3.919,807

1,699,241

1,390,862

829,704

2,009,248

1,048,317

357,354

603,577

1,882,661

814,531

643,786

424,344

1.109.404

830,552

106.235

95.428

77.189

975,251

330,333

388.970

255.948

1.704.334

1.211,801

492,533

849,492

587,929

261,563

914,522

640,952

273,570

1,482,030

797,087

684,944

%

100.0

26.40

11.45

9.37

5.59

13.55

7.06

2.41

4.07

12.68

5.49

4.34

2.86

7.48

5.59

0.72

0.64

0.52

6.57

2.2

2.62

1.72

11.48

8.16

3.32

5.72

3.96

1.76

6.16

4.32

1.84

9.98

5.36

4.61

Population Density

Land

Area

(hectares)

6,476.884

365,927

65.268

139.946

160,713

559,236

236,806

199,611

122,818

551,579

167,449

124,696

259,433

868,923

207,309

200.287

264,623

196,704

807,158

246,564

298,667

261,927

775,287

477,474

297,814

1,062,685

722.170

340,515

995,725

281,927

713,798

490364

324016

166348

Density

Pop/ha

1981

2.30

10.27

26.03

9.93

5.16

3.58

4.42

1.78

4.92

3.41

4.87

5.16

1.63

1.28

4.00

0.52

0.37

0.40

1.21

1.33

1.31

0.99

2.20

2.54

1.65

0.79

0.82

0.77

0.91

2.27

0.40

3.01

2.47

4.12

Total Extent Of Agricultural U n d (ha)

1946

172,691

272,185

168,715

103,470

300,091

162.819

68,088

69,183

235,285

94,487

87,503

53,295

90,125

61,906

15,283

12,935

80.008

37,651

29.860

12,596

313,866

236.720

77,146

68,839

53,658

15,181

107,657

92,296

15,360

259637

123812

135825

1973

2.036,989

269,583

168,336

101.248

309,139

174,521

67,574

67,043

260.878

98,426

90.796

7.165

110,868

57.616

20.934

32.317

134,564

46,294

52,796

35,475

363,468

274,185

89.283

153,378

109,410

43,968

161,542

101,972

59.570

273568

146860

126708

Agricultural

1982 Land /Cap. 82

1,975,639

234,811

35,610

• 95,744

103,457

278,457

111,024

69,555

97,878

247,830

94,253

80,346

673,230

114,677

49,224

18,491

27,784

19,177

155,187

50,907

62,666

41,614

363,839

274,346

894,93

167,053

113,636

53,417

162,186

98,218

63,968

250599

135782

114816

0.13

0.06

0.02

0.07

0.13

0.14

0.11

0.19

0.16

0.13

0.12

0.13

0.17

0.11

0.06

0.17

0.29

0.25

0.16

0.15

0.16

0.17

0.21

0.23

0.18

0.20

0.19

0.20

0.18

0.15

0.23

0.17

0.17

0.17

Figure 3.24

IIIIIIIIIII

j •

IIIIIII1II


Title Of Survey

1.

2..

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Census OfPopulation -1946



Labor ForceSurvey -1968

Socio-econom icSurvey-1969/70


Survey Of LabourForce ParticipationRates -1973

Land And LabourUtilisationSurvey-1975

Consumer Finance& Socio-economicSurvey -1978/79

Socio-economicSurvey -1980/8


Consumer Finances& Socio-economicSurvey -1981/82

Total

2,611

2,993

3.464

4,150

4,169

4,488

4,560

4,957

5,521

15,715

5,105

5,282

Labour Force Estimates

1946-•1986

Labour ForceParticipation 000'Mala Female

2,041

2.268

2.742

3.156

3.124

3,312

3,267

3,490

3.712

4.109

3,767

3.843

570

724

722

984

1,045

1,176

1,293

1,467

1,809

1,606

1,248

1.439

Crude Participation Rat«

Total Male

39.2

37.0

32.7

34.6

38.6

35.4

34.5

36.5

38.0

37.3

33.8

34.3

Source: Korale, R.B.M. SriLanka Economic Journal: Vol.1, No.l, 1986

57.8

53.1

49.8

50.7

57.3

50.7

48.5

50.2

50.4

53.1

49.8

49.7

>

Female

18.2

18.9

14.2

17.2

19.5

19.1

20.2

22.1

26.2

21.2

17.1

19.4

FIGURE 3.25

48 POPUUTION PROFILE

Distribution

Sector

1. Agriculturehunting, forestry& Fishing

2. Mining &Quarrying

3. Manufacturing

4. Electricity,gas & water

5. Construction

6. Wholesale &retail trade

7. Transport,storage &communication

8. Finance,Insurance, realestates & businessservices

9. Community,social &personal services

10. Activities notadequatelydescribed

All economicactivities

Census1953

1584.1(52.9)

13.8(0.3)

289.2(9-7)

3.3(0.1)

56.7(19)

228.8(9.4)

104.3(5.5)

65.1(2.2)

1

396.2(13.2)

197.8(6.6)

2993.3(100.0)

of Employed Population by

(Figures in Thousands;

Census1963

1681.9(52.6)

9.4(0.3)

292.3(9.2)

7.8(0.2)

85.1(2.7)

349.1(10.9)

137.6(4.3)

15.6(0.5)

440.9(13.8)

175.4(5.5)

3195.1(100.0)

Census1971

1828.9(50.1)

13.1(0.4)

339.4(9.3)

9.6(0.3)

103.6(2.8)

343.8(9.4)

178.9(4.9)

24.9(0.7)

492.8(13.5)

313.9(8.6)

3648.9(100.0)

Industry Sector

Percentages in brackets)

LF&SES1980/81

2293.3(47.3)

63.4(13)

572.0( - )

19.2(0.4)

216.1( - )

485.8(100)

202.4(4.2)

52.6(1.1)

644.6(13.3)

301.9(6.2)

4851.3(100.0)

Census1981

1863.8(45.2)

38.6(0.9)

416.8(10.1)

15.2(0.4)

124.8(3.9)

433.3(10.5)

189.8(4.8)

45.5(1-1)

596.7(14.5)

385.8(9.4)

4119.3(100.0)

ConsumerFinance

1981/82

2360.7(51.2)

77.9(1.7)

573.6(12.4)

14.3(0.3)

238.4(5.2)

493.4(10.7)

188.6(4.1)

68.2(1.5)

581.4(12.6)

15.2(0.3)

4610.7(100.0)

LF&SES1985/86

2530.9(49.3)

66.7(13)

648.5(12.7)

21.5(0.4)

226.9(4.4)

513.9(10.0)

220.0(4.3)

65.1(1.3)

631.4(12.3)

206.8(0.4)

5131.7(100.0)

Figure 3.26

IIIIIIII

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POPULATION PROFILE

Occupational Distribution of the Employed Population 1953 -1986(In Thousands)

Major Occupation

Professional, Technical& Related Workers

Administrative &Managerial Workers

Clerical & RelatedWorkers

Sales Workers

Service Workers

Agricultural, AnimalHusbandry & ForestryWorkers, Fishermen& Hunters

Production & RelatedWorkers, TransportEquipment Operators& Labourers

Workers notClassified

Total

Census1953

Census1963

Census1971

LF&SES1980/81

ConsumerFinances

1981/82

LF & SES1985/86

113.6(3.8)

28.8(0.9)

103.3(3.5)

221.2(7.4)

439.5(14.7)

UZ7(4.5)

32.9(1.0

110.4(3.7)

212.2(6.6)

359.6(8.1)

178.5(4.9)

14.0(0.4).

186.1(5.1)

272.4(7.5)

198.0(5.4)

269.2(5.5)

25.4(0.5)

274.1(5-6)

396.0(8.2)

265.4(5.5)

304.1(6.5)

51.4(1.1)

262.0(5.6)

392.9(8.4)

257.3(5.5)

272.9(5.3)

26.4(0.5)

280.5(5.5)

442.0(8.6)

241.5(4.7)

1536.1 1653.61782.1 2191.2 2180.0 2438.3(51.3) (51.7) (48.8) (45.2) (46.6) (47.5)

488.3(16.3)

739.7(23.1)

926.4(25.4)

1415.4(24.2)

996.4(21.3)

1420.9(27.7)

62.5(2.1)

2993.3(100.0)

40.6(1-3)

3199.7(100.0)

91.5(2.5)

3649.0(100.0)

Figure 3.27

14.0(0.3)

4851.4(100.0)

235.9(5.0)

4678.0(100.0)

9.2(0.2)

5131.7(100.0)

49



200,000 new jobs were created from 1978-1982,economic growth has not absorbed the net additionsto the workforce or reduced the backlog of unem-ployed. Slow economic growth during the past fewyears has raised unemployment from 850,000-900,000in 1982 to about 1.17 million by 1988. This backlog,added to increasing annual increments of labor sup-ply, substantially increases the magnitude of short- ormedium-term employment creation plans. Totalgrowth of employed during the 35-year period from1946-1991 amounted to only 2.2 million. The netincrease in the labor force between 1986 and 2001,plus the backlog, totals about 3.523 million. Toachieve full employment by the beginning of thetwenty-first century Sri Lanka will need to create anadditional 225,000 job opportunities each year overthe next 10-11 years.

Net additions to the laborforce during 1986-2001 2 363 million

Backlog of unemployed 1986 M 40 million

Less unemployed residualof 5 percent in 2001

. Average annual rate ofemployment creation 1986-2001

3,523 million

0.439 million

3,084 million

205,000

In the future the average number of new jobsmust be higher than the estimated 205,000 per yearbec~*se it has not been possible to achieve this levelof ne - employment during the past few years. Withthe —Jed backlog the average is closer to 225,000 peryear.

Based on past experience, meeting this target willbe a formidable task. It will require careful planningand implementation of chosen employment genera-lion strategies that can make up shortfalls in any yearwhen job creation lags. Strategies will need to includegeographical dispersal of industries, and sites andprocesses that protect Sri Lanka's environment andnatural resources.

References

Central Bank of Ceylon (1984). Report on consumer financesand socio-economic survey 1981/82: Sri Lanka. Colombo:the Bank. 333 pp.

Ceylon, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1950). Census of Ceylon1946. Vol. 1, Part 1. General Report, Govt. Printer, Co-lombo. 340 pp.

ESCAP (1976). Population of Sri Lanka. New York: UN. 397 pp.

ESCAP (1986). Dimensions of return migration in Sri Lanka, byKorale, R.M.B. et al. Returning migrant workers: explor-atory studies. New York: Bangkok: UN. pp. 15-42.

Korale, R.B.M. (1988). Demographic trends and projects. FirstAnnual Sessions of the Organisation of Professional Asso-ciations - Sri Lanka in the Year 2015. 6-9 Oct. 1988. Co-lombo. 37 pp.

Korale, R.M.B. et al. (1989). A statistical overview of employmentand unemployment trends. Inst. of Policy Studies, Co-lombo. 60 pp.

Korale, R.M.Betal. (1983). Manpower: data sources, utilizationtrends and prospects in Sri Lanka. Ministry of Plan Im-plementation, Colombo. 168 pp.

Marga Institute (1986). Housing development in Sri Lanka 1971-1981. Marga, Colombo. 303 pp.

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1980). Census ofAgriculture 1973, Sri Lanka: General Report. Colombo. 100PP-

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1986). Census ofAgriculture 1982: General Report. Colombo. 200 pp.

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1986). Census ofPopulation 1963: All Island Tables. Colombo. 240 pp.

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1977). Census ofPopulation 1971. General Report. Colombo. 200 pp.

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1986). Census ofPopulation and Housing 1981: Vol. 3. General Report.Ministry of Plan Implementation, Colombo 300 pp.

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1986). Census ofPopulation and Housing 1981: Vol. 2. Part III: Housing. AllIsland Tables. Ministry of Plan Implementation. Colombo.56 pp.

Sri Lanka, Dept. of Census and Statistics (1987). Labour Forceand Socio-Economic Survey 1985/86: Sri Lanka. Prelimi-nary Report. Ministry of Plan Implementation. Colombo.300 pp

UN Dept of Economic and Social Affairs (1973). Manuals onmewtods of estimating population. Manual VII: Methods ofprojecting households and families. UN, New York. 100 pp.

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' UN oept. of Economic and Social Affairs (1973). Manuals on UN Oept. of Economic and Social Affairs (1989). Handbook on

g Methods of estimating population. Manual VIII: Methodsof ^ ^ " ^ « " o « - UN. New York. 154 pp.

J projections of urban and rural population. UN, New York. W o f | d ^ ( 1 9 8 8 ) W o f | d Development Report. Oxford Univ.

125 pp. Press. New York. 307 pp.

I

A typical small market serving Sri Lankan consumers.


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53

4 Economic Conditions and Trends

II

Sri Lanka is one of the poorest countries in theworld, with a per capita income of US $375 (Rs.11,939)in 1988 (Central Bank of Sri Lanka 1988). Like manyother developing nations it faces chronic economicdifficulties, despite a still promising natural resourcebase. In 1960 Sri Lanka was more prosperous thanSouth Korea, and in 1970 more prosperous than Taiwan(Buultjens, 1990), but 40 years after Independence itsuffers from unemployment, inflation and poverty, in-adequate managerial capacity.

Deforestation, land degradation, soil erosion, pol-lution and other environmental stresses add new di-mensions to these economic problems becauseproductive, sustainable environmental systems can nolonger be assumed. To achieve sustainable develop-ment, Sri Lanka must integrate economic thinking intoits environmental policies, and vice versa.

This brief economic profile of Sri Lanka sinceIndependence describes the effects of global and na-tional economic changes on Sri Lanka's society, econ-omy, government policy, and natural resources. Theseeffects can be measured by data on capital investment,income generation, employment creation and increasesin output. Yet such economic information does notnecessarily help us understand the environmental ef-fects of economic changes and actions, and how theseenvironn. ntal impacts affect prospects for sustainableeconomic development

Economists and environmentalists increasinglyrecognize how misleading it can be when any economicinvestment is considered a contribution to economicgrowth, regardless of whether it enhances or degradesthe environment. Traditional systems of national eco-nomic accounting have not become adequately devel-oped to capture the total benefits and costs associatedwith investment decisions. Total benefits and costsinclude not only the tangible and market componentsof inputs and outputs but also the intangible and non-market components. Economists in many countries are

working on ways to improve existing national account-ing methods, but until we develop better systems andfar better information to feed into them, we must makedecisions based on the imperfect data and analysesavailable.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Sri Lankan economy of the 1950s and 1960sdepended primarily on export-oriented commercialplantations of tea, rubber, and coconut. In the ruralsubsistence sector cultivation of paddy and other sub-sidiary food crops became increasingly important; nosignificant manufacturing existed prior to 1950. In theearly 1950s, the outbreak of the Korean War stimulatedthe Rubber Boom, coupled with the Tea Boom a fewyears later. As a result Sri Lanka enjoyed balance ofpayments surpluses. Because no severe economic orsocial problems erupted, policy makers neglected theimportance of economic diversification or shifts to in-dustrialization.

Favorable economic conditions did not continue.By the late 1950s Sri Lanka experienced a deterioratingbalance of payments and new problems of unemploy-ment and failure to earn sufficient foreign exchange topurchase food and other commodities. To overcomethese problems the government established several ag-ricultural projects and various industrial venturesunder its direct patronage and supervision.

Successive governments maintained the primaryobjective of self-sufficiency in food, especially in riceproduction. Wherever possible, most governmentssought to increase the industry's role in the nationaleconomy, and they encouraged land settlement in theDry Zone to reduce unemployment and populationpressure in urban areas and to increase food produc-tion.

Sri Lanka's five year plan introduced in 1971 maybe considered the peak of these inward-oriented

54 Economies

II1

growth policies in Sri Lanka. Import substitution andexport expansion were the primary means to achieveeconomic growth. The government exercized vast con-trol over economic activities. Most industries weregovernment-operated monopolies. New public corpo-rations took over production of steel, cement, sugar,fertilizer, refined petroleum, plywood, leather, mineralsands and paper. By the mid 1970s such parastatalcorporations carried out most trade and distributionactivities.

Continuous deterioration of the balance of pay-ments position and other macro-economic problemsrequired decision makers to initiate an extensive importcontrol program while introducing import licences formost non-essential commodities. They introducedprice controls which, by the early 1970s, included morethan 6,000 articles. Since 1968 the government hasimplemented a dual exchange rate system to provideincentives for export diversification and disincentivesfor imports of non-essential consumer goods. It alsoestablished a concessionary tariff policy favoring im-port of machinery, equipment, and raw materials.

Although these policies restricted consumer free-dom, they helped increase industrial production andchanged Sri Lanka's economic structure. Low tariffsfor imported capital equipment and raw materialsmade local production for local markets artificiallycost-effective. Nevertheless, foreign reserves contin-ued to decline, and the current account deficit in thebalance of payments stood at 350 million rupees (59million U.S. dollars) in 1970. " The government alsonationalized the privately-owned transport, oil, insur-ance and banking businesses in the 1960s, and tree cropplantations in the early 1970s. It also limited privateownership of land to 50 acres per person. Public sectoreconomic intervention continued and gradually in-creased until November 1977.

That year marked the transition to economic liber-alization in Sri Lanka. The new government beganestablishing market-oriented policies and took keeninterest in introducing supply side economic policies.Some of the major policies implemented in this direc-tion:

setting the exchange rate at more realistic levels;

I

h thesBIsigniV

• reducing controls on foreign exchange transaidons;

• liberalizing trade and encouraging foreign invest^ments;

» privatizing industries and increasing economic e fBfidency,

•• reducing budgetary burdens of the government, fl

Liberalization and macro-economic structuralchanges brought substantial improvements in the proMauction and financial sectors. The industries s e c t o jhad operated far below capacity because foreign ex-change shortages inhibited import of spare parts an^raw materials. Capacity use in the industries sector ;a whole increased from 54 percent in 1975 to 75 percentin 1984. New Free Trade Zones, the Greater Colomb*Economic Commission, and introduction of export i n |centives helped attract direct foreign investment inexport-oriented manufacturing industries. With imeasures total industrial exports have increased sigicantly.

Benefits to the financial sector were more promflnent; it became one of the fastest growing sectors of theeconomy. Interest rates were allowed to fluctuate Maccordance with market conditions. In general, thesBrates were positive in real terms. New foreign bankswere allowed to operate in the economy, increasing thnumber of foreign banks in Colombo to 20. ForeigCurrency Banking Units, which operated as subsidiar-ies of commercial banks, were allowed transactions iflforeign currency with non-resident enterprises, such ;those established in the Free Trade Zones, and theycould accept foreign currency deposits from non-redents, notably Sri Lankans working abroad. The gcernment also opened the non-banking finance marketto the private sector with or without foreign participétion. m

With these positive trends came several unfavoiaable developments. First, the economy was unable wÊincrease its domestic rate of savings. The resource gapbetween savings and needs for investment had to \mfilled through foreign borrowing, which increased ttfldebt service burden on the economy. The overall debt

II

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Economics 55

service ratio increased; in 1988 debt reached 28 percent

f total export earnings and remittances from abroad.

Budget and balance of payment deficits also rose at

increasing rates. The budget deficit -- less than 10

percent of GDP in the early 1970s - increased to almost

20 percent of GDP in 1982. It dropped to 10 percent

in 1984 but increased again to 20 percent of GDP in

1988. The current account deficit of the balance of

payments, which stood at 20 percent of GDP in 1970

increased to almost 12 percent of GDP in 1982. In the

late 1980s it reached a manageable level of 5-6 percent.

The second problem was that government had to

borrow to meet local and foreign expenditure obliga-

tions. Total government debt, around 75 percent of

GDP in 1970, surpassed the total GDP in 1988 and

reached 108 percent of GDP in 1989. Foreign debt,

only 20 percent of the total public debt in 1970, in-

creased to approximately 57 percent in 1989 — almost

a threefold increase within 20 years.

The economy experienced its worst conditions in

1987, when the growth of GDP was only 1.5 percent.

Despite some improvements in 1988, the economy

achieved only marginal improvements to attain growth

of 2.7 percent. Ethnic problems after 1983 and civil

disturbances after 1987 caused severe disruption of

social and economic life. Work stoppages and disrup-

tions to transport, communications, banking and finan-

cial services became almost routine, and they reduced

or crippled production and distribution activities. As a

result government revenue decreased from 21.2 per-

cent of GDP in 1987 to 18.9 percent in 1988. Increased

defense and other consumption expenditures helped to

raise the budget deficit in 1988 to 15 percent of GDP -

the highest level since 1982. The government then had

no alternative but to finance its deficit through com-

mercial borrowing. The rate of inflation also was high

at about 14 percent in 1988 - highest since 1983. If the

government had not drawn down its foreign exchange

reserves to support imports and increase the supply of

food and other essential commodities, inflationary

pressures would have been still higher.

RESOURCE AVAILABILITY ANDPERFORMANCE IN

THE ECONOMY

Gross Domestic Product

From 1965-1977, the Sri Lankan economy grew atan average annual rate of 4.0 percent. This was com-paratively higher than the average annual rate of growthof 3.1 percent achieved by the "low income countries"(excluding China and India) during the same period.Growth from 1987-1989 was approximately 4.9 percentper annum, compared to growth of 2.9 percentachieved by low income countries (World Bank, 1988).

Aided by the open economic policies' adopted in1977, the 4.2 percent growth in 1977 almost doubled to8.2 percent in 1978. It continued to improve up to 1987despite the ethnic problems in the country of 1983. In1987 the GDP growth rate reached the lowest level of1.5 percent, resulting in a negative growth of real percapita GDP due to severe civil unrest. (Figure 4.1).Ethnic conflicts in the north and the east, civil distur-bances in the south, and bad weather conditions expe-rienced throughout the country over three consecutiveyears were the primary reasons for the poor economicperformance during the period of 1987-1989.

Sectoral Contribution: Agriculture

The share of the major economic sectors in thecomposition of GDP and their growth rates from 1978-1989 are displayed in Figure 4.2. Agriculture still ac-counts for more than 25 percent of the country's totalGDP. Its annual rate of growth averaged about 2.9percent compared to average annual growth of 4.9percent in "low income countries" from 1980-1986 and2.0 percent excluding China and India.

In general agricultural production is weather de-pendent, and almost every crop subsector has experi-enced sluggish growth from weather factors. Upwardgrowth in one year has been followed by downwardtrends the next year. This is evident in the productiontrends of the major tree crops, tea and rubber. In thepaddy subsector production increased for two or threeconsecutive years, followed by a downfall due to poorweather conditions. However paddy production has

56 Economies

Rate of Growth of GDP 1970 - 1989

140Billions Rate of Growth %

10

- 270 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89

Year

—'— GDP (Rupees) - * - Rate of Growth - * - Growth per Capita

Source : Central Bank of Ceylon, AnnualReport

Figure 4.1

Sectoral Composition of GDP1978 - 1989

Percentage

20

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Agriculture s H Mining EEB Manufacture E5S3 Construction

ES3 Transport EE3 Wholesale CD Government 223 Other

Source: Central Bank of Ceylon,Annual Reports

Figure 4.2

III Economics 57

The Price Of Pollution

A study by the Central Environmental Authority in 1985 found that due to the breakdown of theelectrostatic precipitators installed in the Puttalam Cement Factory the plant emitted about 120-200 tons ofcement dust daily. About 10,000 hectares of neighboring lands were affected by the dust fall, including about3,400 hectares of coconut The cost of cement dust let loose in the factory was estimated at 20,000 rupees perday, or 6 million rupees per year, not including damage to the quality of cement produced, or the calcium oxidelost with dust evaporation.

To remedy the problem, the study recommended replacement or reconditioning of the electrostaticprecipitators (at a cost of 30 million rupees) and construction of a water treatment plant and a waterconditioning tower (at a cost of another 55 million rupees). Because the Cement Corporation had no fundsto meet these costs a Government grant of 43 million rupees (inclusive of price escalation) was needed to replacethe pollution controls.

A similar example concerns the Hunupitiya Fertiliser Complex and its environmental impacts. Thiscomplex ground, mixed, and distributed basic chemical fertilizer ingredients throughout the country. From itsinception, the complex stored fertiliser and empty sacks in the open yard because it lacked adequate warehous-ing facilities. During the rains, water washed the fertilizers into surface and ground water. A study undertakenby the Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research in 1984 found that well water in the area within akilometer radius had become undrinkable and caused irritation to the eyes and skin, formation of calculi, andother health problems. The water pollution also adversely affected home garden yields and poultry.

The total value of resources exhausted, depleted or deteriorated due to adverse environmental impact atthe fertilizer plant was estimated at 47.5 million rupees over 20 years. The study therefore recommended pipeborne water to supply the area by extending the Colombo North Water Supply Scheme (at a cost of 14 millionrupees) and also construction of additional warehousing facilities (at a cost of 1.5 million rupees) to discontinuestorage of fertilizer and empty bags in the open yard. The Government was compelled to provide funds toextend the water supply facility to the area because the Fertiliser Corporation lacked sufficient funds to meetthe cost.

increased by 26.7 percent or on average by 2.47 per yearduring the period of 1977 to 1989.

Attempts to expand agricultural production in Sri

Lanka began in the 1930s when the government

launched programs to repair, restore and rehabilitate

the ancient irrigation systems. After Independence,

however, emphasis shifted to a series of multipurpose

river valley development schemes — the Gal-Oya

Scheme in 1948, the Uda Walawe Scheme in the late

1950s, and the Mahaweli basin development in the late

1960s. After Independence irrigable paddy acreage

increased more than 300 percent,, and the-

Mahawelialone now provides 60 percent of the electric

power of the country.

Irrigation programs for agriculture allowed suc-

cessive governments to address the problems of unem-

ployment and food production. Yet this approach was

highly capital intensive and proved a costly way to

provide what amounted to limited employment oppor-

tunities. Despite planning to generate secondary activ-

ities such as agro-based industries able to absorb the

next generation of settlers, in fact the second generation

had either to resort to traditional shifting cultivation in

58 Economics

III

the reserved forest areas or find employment in theurban centers.

Government policy towards the agricultural sectorhas also been unbalanced. It has put special emphasison paddy production and has devoted large subsidiesto that subsector. The export crop sector, however, hasnot been given the same priority or fiscal and otherincentives. Investments in the export crops sector havebeen insufficient to maintain the production levels at-tained in the 1960s. Although tea exports have re-mained roughly constant for three decades, rubberexports have fallen by about half. Sri Lanka's share inthe world tea market declined from over a third in the1960s to a fifth in the 1980s.

Despite these changes, agriculture still plays a pre-dominant role in the Sri Lankan economy. Forty yearsafter Independence Sri Lanka primarily depends ontea, rubber and coconut for exports, and paddy, pulsesand subsidiary food crop production for subsistence.Nevertheless, the country's agricultural economy is intransition.

Agricultural structures are changing mainly due tothe green revolution and other technological break-throughs. Paddy production has achieved a remark-able growth since Independence due to increased yieldand expansion of land under production and irrigation.Other crops and animal husbandry activities have notshown similar changes due to poor achievements inresearch and development activities.

Industry

The year 1978 marked a turning point for SriLanka's industrial sector. From 1970-77 industrial out-put grew at an annual rate of 19 percent at currentprices. From 1978-89, however, average annual growthof the manufacturing sector rose approximately 22 per-cent — at constant 1982 prices this was approximately5.5 percent per year, compared with the 4.8 percentgrowth achieved by the low income countries, excludingChina and India, from 1980-1986.

A striking feature of the industrial sector has beenthe differential rates of growth experienced by the pub-lic and private sectors. While private sector industrieshave shown considerable dynamism since economic

liberalization in 1978, the public sector has shown o n f ldeclining trends.

Yet very little structural change has occurred in t h lmix of outputs in the industrial sector. Over the pasWdecade three subsectors - food, beverages and to-bacco; textiles, wearing apparel and leather; and cheralicals, petroleum, coal, and plastic products - have been*predominant in production and value added. Thevaccounted for 86 percent of the total industrial o u t p u lIn contrast the share of engineering-based industrie™often considered to be the core of a country's soundindustrial base, remained at about 5 percent of t o t soutput. Increasing dependence on the use of importeerraw materials has also characterized Sri Lanka's indus-trial sector. Of the total value of production from t h lchemicals subsector, over 70 percent consisted of im-ported materials in the 1980s, compared to 47 percerîn the 1970s. The three major industrial subsectors a l s lused almost 65 percent of the energy consumed by theentire sector.

JGovernment involvement in industry began in thi1940s when a number of enterprises were establishedto produce commodities that could not be imported i lwartime. Essentially these were import substitutionindustries, although the government did not define suchan industrial policy until later. Following the balanclof payments difficulties incurred in the late 1950s, how-ever, the government explicitly implemented an imporisubstitution strategy because it had to ban or restrithe import of many industrial goods. Under the indus-trial policy statement issued in 1956, the governmentassumed control over basic heavy industries such a liron and steel, cement, chemicals and fertilizer, leavingmanufacture of light consumer goods to the privatesector. But in time even this allowance changed, a n lthe government began several state enterprises to pro-duce such consumer goods, as leather products, vegeatable oil, ceramics, textiles, paper, plywood, tires a m itubes, and hardware.

Import substitution and state-sponsored industrilalization continued through the 1960s and 1970s, untiltrade liberalization began after 1977. The old strate;had caused several negative economic effects. Onethat economic efficiency of industrialization sufferedfrom a disregard of the relatively high costs of produ

1I

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Economics

100

80

60

40

20

1972 1975

Consumer Qoods

Investment Goods

Source : Central Bank of Ceylon.Annual Reports.

1978 1982 1986

I I Intermediate Qoods

• I Unclassified

Figure 4.3

1989

59

Composition of Imports in Selected Years

Percentage

Volume and Value of ImportsRice, Wheat and Sugar

800Quantity (m.t.) Rs. (millions)

600 i

400-

200-

1978 1982

• f t Rice- o - Rice

Source: Customs Returns

1984 1986Year

CZH Wheat

- * - Wheat

Figure 4.4

1988 1989

Sugar

Sugar

5000

60 Economies

IIIII

tion in the local market. Industries could not expand tosell in the export market, and economies of scale forlocal industry were also impossible.

In addition state-sponsored enterprises had alwayssought and usually obtained protection against foreigncompetition. Tariffs were increased to high levelsalong with, in most cases, quantity restrictions. Suchexcessive protection eventually destroyed the compet-itive edge of many domestic industries that were onceconsidered strong import substitution and export-ori-ented industries.

Finally the direct employment generated by theprotected industries came at a very high capital cost.Policies of fixed exchange rates and concessionarytariffs that allowed importation of capital goods andraw materials favored the acquisition of technologiesthat were capital, not labor, intensive. The average costof employing a unit of labor in most of the public sectormanufacturing industries was around 60,000 US dollarsat 1987 prices! The generation of indirect employmentwas also limited due to poor linkages between theindustrial policy and the rest of the economy.

Services and Construction

With the economic liberalization policies after1977 the services and construction sectors showed highrates of growth until the civil disturbances in 1983.Between 1978 and 1983 the construction sector experi-enced annual growth of 8.8 percent, compared with 2.6percent growth from 1971-1977. The services sectorgrew at average annual rates of 3.7 percent from 1970-1977, and 7.2 percent from 1978-1983. With the civildisturbance in 1983, construction growth declined to anannual average of 1.0 percent per year, and servicesgrowth declined to 3.2 percent.

Civil unrest hit the tourist industry hardest. Totaltourist arrivals which peaked 407,230 persons in 1982,declined to 182,620 in 1987. In 1989 tourism increasedto 184,732 persons — an increase of 1.1 percent over1987. Gross earnings of the industry also declined from146.6 million US dollars in 1983 to 76.3 million USdollars in 1989 — 50 percent of 1982 earnings.

The high growth rates achieved by the constructionindustry from 1978-1982 resulted largely from im-

plementation of the three major government projects:the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme,the Katunayake Free Trade Zone Development, andthe Housing Development and Urban Renewal Pro-gramme.

Imports

Imports, which constitute approximately one-thirdof the total GDP, are a major resource available forconsumption and investment in the economy. Thecomposition of imports has changed considerably overtime - from the high proportion of consumer goods(for example, food and drink) in the early 1970s to thehigh proportion of investment and intermediate goodsin the 1980s. The percentage composition of SriLanka's imports in the 1970s and 1980s is given inFigure 43.

Within the import category of food and drink themajor items included were rice, wheat, and sugar. Re-lationships between imports and local production arestrong in this category. Since rice and wheat are closesubstitutes, declines in local production of rice weremet by additional imports of either wheat or rice, de-pending on the price at the time of import.

The total volumes and values of imports of rice,wheat, and sugar in some selected years is shown byFigure 4.4. It reveals the vulnerability of the economyand the balance of payments to price changes of foodimports. If adverse weather reduces local productionor if international food prices increase, then conditionsof adverse balance of payments can result.

RESOURCE UTILIZATIONTrends in Consumption and Investment

Consumption and investment patterns from 1970-1989 are shown in Figure 4.5. Important to the invest-ment structure was its source of financing.Approximately 80 percent of GDE from 1970-1977 wasfinanced from national savings, and the balance of 20percent came from foreign assistance. However, from1979-1989 investment financing was drasticallychanged; approximately 54 percent came from nationalsavings and 46 percent from foreign assistance. Thefinancing of the gross domestic investment from 1970-1977 and 1978-1989 is shown in Figure 4.6, and the

Economics 61

120

100

Percentage

8 0 -

60

4 0 -

20

Gross Domestic Expenditure1970 - 89

70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89Year

I I Public Consumption

• B StocksPrivate Consumption

E 3 Gross Investment

Sour»* Central Bank o» Ceylon. AnnualReporta. • Valuee in Re. Million•• Percentage«

Figure 4.5

Financing of Gross Domestic investment(GDI)

Rs. Millions

77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89

Year

National Savings I Foreign Assistance

Source : National Planning Department,Publie Inveetment Programm«. Differentlasuee.

Figure 4.6

62 Economies

Net Disbursement of Official DevelopmentAssistance 1980 - 88

600$ Million $ Per Capita

80 81 82 83 84 85

Year86 87 88

- * - $ Million -*- P«r Capita $

Source: Department of External ResourcesEconomic Indicators, Different Issues

89

Figure 4.7

disbursement of official foreign assistance from allsources from 1980-1989 is shown in Figure 4.7.

The increase in per capita receipt of external for-eign assistance is consistent with the increased flow offoreign savings that were devoted to financing invest-ment expenditure during the same period.

We lack adequate information in Sri Lanka toanalyze the sectoral composition of gross domestic in-vestment. Private sector investment is computed in-clusive of investments made by the public corporations.During the 1970s the public sector, which includes thegovernment ministries, departments and enterprisesother than public corporations, devoted approximately30 percent of their investment to machinery and equip-ment and the balance (70 percent) to land developmentand construction-related activities. From 1982-1984these proportions changed to 48 percent and 52 percentrespectively. However, by the end of the 1980s theproportions again reversed, to 30 percent on machineryand equipment and 70 percent on land developmentand construction. The increase in investment in ma-chinery and equipment during the early 1980s was dueentirely to heavy mvestments in power generationequipment for the Accelerated Mahaweli Develop-ment Programme.

Exports

Over the twenty years between 1960 and 1980 SriLanka experienced no substantial increase in total vol-ume of exports. The export volume index of 102 in 1962(1978 = 100) remained about the same in 1980, with apeak of 111 in 1965. During 1964,1968,1970, and 1975the export volume index reached 107, but in all otheryears it was well below that.

Since 1980 export volumes have steadily improvedto reach a 50 point increase in the volume index 1980-1989. Remarkable increases resulted from exports ofprecious and semiprecious stones and industrial prod-ucts; the export volume index (1981 = 100) for preciousand semiprecious stones increased from 144 to 4314and for industrial products it increased from 74 to 189between 1980 and 1989. Similar trends can be observedin terms of export values, where the value index of allexports increased from 87 in 1980 (1981 = 100) to 267in 1989. Trends in export volume and value are givenin Figure 4.8.

Statistics on export performance during the pastten years clearly show the growing export diversifica-tion of the economy. Sri Lanka no longer depends onthree agricultural tree crops. Industrial goods have

Economies 63

Export Trade Indices (1981 = 100)Tea Rubber

300

250

200-

150

100

so

0 1111 1

pi El1 •1| i

IIMII

140-

120-

100-

80"

ao-

«o-

3 -

l |80 81 82 S3 84 85 88 87 88 89

Year

I Export Volum« I E I D O M vak»

80 81 82 83 84 88Year

87 88 80

3 Export Volum* I Export Vahra

Coconut Products

280

200

ISO

100

80 81 82 83 84 85 88 87 88 88

Year

Industrial Products

800

80 81 82 83 84 88 88 87 88 89

1 Export Voluir» I Export Valu« » Export Volum« I Export Valume

Petroleum Products Precious & Semi-Precious Stones

140

120-

100

80

so

40

20-

o

c ' ^ <—

80 81 82 83 84 88 8« 87 88 89

Year

Ü Ü Export Voluma>"~~^B Export Vatu*

Source : Central Bank of Ceylon, Annual Report

Thousands

3-

2-

80 81 82 83 84 85 88 87 88 89

Year

i Export Volum» I Export Valu*

Figure 4.8

64 Economies

Export Trad« Indices (1981 • 100)Minor Agricultural Products

200

150-

100

so-

ar ss M

Export Valu»

Figure 4.8

surpassed 50 percent and agricultural exports now ac-count for no more than 40 percent of total exports.Nevertheless, as depicted in Figure 4.9, industrial ex-ports depend heavily on imported raw materials, andthe value added in industry is comparatively low. Al-most 62 percent of industrial exports, or 31 percent Ofthe total value of exports, are textiles and garments inwhich import content can reach 60 percent.

Since the economic policy changes begun after1977 the government has sought to implement a Na-tional Export Development Plan (NEDP), with the firstNEDP covering the period 1983-1987. The Plan's pri-ority policy measures were to ensure free trade in inputsrequired for export processing so Sri Lankan exporterscould compete in world markets. To ensure this freeaccess the government implemented schemes for dutyrebate, manufacture-in-bond, and duty exemption (toeliminate duties on machinery, equipment, and acces-sories used in export processing industries).

A basic constraint on industrial export promotionis the lack of automatic financing facilities able to pro-vide working capital at competitive interest rates.Commercial banks require securities and collateral be-yond the ability of small exporters who, from a bank'spoint of view, are not credit-worthy. Although the SriLanka Export Credit Insurance Corporation was estab-lished precisely to overcome this problem, this measurehas been nullified by bank requirements for securities

and collateral over and above the Corporation's guar-antee limits.

MACRO-ECONOMICLIMITATIONS

AND PRESSURESSri Lanka's economy is still passing through a tran-

sitional period from a relatively inward-looking, agri-culture-based economy to one that is outward lookingand industrial. This transformation would have beenmuch quicker and less painful if severe resource im-balances had not been experienced during the last de-cade. These are important to note and examine briefly.

Unemployment

The total workforce has been growing at an averageof 138,500 per year. This is an annual increase muchhigher than the average annual population growth. Incontrast, net employment creation has grown duringthe past several years at an annual average of 90,000units, adding approximately 35,000 persons to the exist-ing unemployed backlog. Hence, the open unem-ployed rate increased from 12.0 percent in 1981 toalmost 20 percent in 1988.

Underemployment is also serious, amounting toover 20 percent of the workforce and mainly concen-trated in rural areas. If we assume that the underem-ployed work only two-thirds of the time this rate addsanother 8 percent in equivalent open unemployment tothe current figure of 20 percent.

The opening of the economy after 1977 produceda spurt to generate jobs that might have been sustain-able in the long run. Yet the civil disturbances in 1983created such economic dislocation that today Sri Lankafaces a large gap between present labor force growthand domestic job creation, making it exceedingly diffi-cult to bring unemployment down to its 1981 level.

Job opportunities abroad have helped consider-ably in relieving unemployment, but these opportuni-ties appear more limited in the near future. Nor willmassive investment programs, such as the AcceleratedMahaweli Development, be available to increase agri-cultural employment through expanding irrigationacreage. The economy must now depend on industrial

IIIIIIIIIIIr ;

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I£ :V

I[

If

Economies

Composition of Exports 1980 -1989(Percentages)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Category

Agriculture Exports

1.1 Tea

1.2 Rubber

1.3 Coconut

1.4 Minor Agricultural Crops

Industrial Exports

2.1 Textiles & Garments

2.2 Petroleum Products

2.3 Other

Mineral Exports

3.1 Gems

3.2 Other

Unclassified Qncl. re-exports)

1980

61.8

35.1

14.7

7.0

5.1

33.0

10.4

17.7

4.9

4.6

3.8

0.8

0.6

1981

57.3

30.6

13.7

6.8

6.6

34.7

14.4

16.0

4.3

3.8

3.0

0.8

3.7

1982

54.3

29.6

10.8

7.0

6.9

38.6

16.3

15.3

6.9

4.0

3.2

0.8

3.1

1983

58.0

33.1

11.4

7.6

5.9

35.1

18.9

10.6

5.6

4.5

3.7

0.8

2.4

1984

60.3

4Z2

8.8

5.7

3.6

33.7

20.2

8.8

4.7

2.2

1.6

.0.6

3.7

1985

52.5

33.1

7.1

8.5

3.8

39.5

22.0

10.7

6.8

2.4

1.6

0.6

5.6

1096

46.3

27.2

7.7

7.0

4.4

46.6

28.3

6.9

11.4

3.5

2.2

1.3

3.7

1987

42.4

25.9

7.1

5.2

4.2

48.6

31.3

6.3

11.0

4.4

3.5

0.9

4.6

1988

42.8

26.2

7.9

3.3

5.4

48.3

30.4

4.8

13.1

5.6

4.4

1.2

3.3

1989

39.2

24.3

5.5

5.1

4.3

50.7

31.4

4.0

15.3

4.8

3.9

0.9

5.3

Percentage

100

80

6 0 -

4 0 -

2 0 -

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989Year

E B Agriculture Export

I I Mineral Export

Industrial Export

Unclassified

Source : Central Bank of Ceylon, Annual Reports

Figure 4.9

65

66 Economies


Percentage DistributionIncome 1953 -

Percentage

8 O ' | l4 0 - ^

2 0 -

mmdHtOr i1953 1963

C3 Highest ES! 8thE53 4th • 5th E 3 2nd

tmnnmitmm

1973

Year

* 9th

• 3rd

of Household1985

1981 1985

E£B eth • 7thI B Lowast

Figure 4.10

and other non-traditional pursuits to create employ-ment opportunities.

In the past Sri Lanka achieved an annual laborproductivity rate of approximately 3.0 percent. At thisrate, to absorb the annually increasing workforce alone,the economy will need to achieve an average annual rateof growth of 5.1 percent. If, however, the backlog ofunemployed is also to be absorbed into the employmentstream over a period of perhaps ten years, the annualrate of GDP growth must be increased to 7.0 percent,assuming a constant rate of productivity and an in-crease in the workforce.

Income Distribution and Poverty

Trends in the pattern of income distribution andthe related problem of poverty can be gleaned from theConsumer Finances and Socio-Economic Surveys ofthe Central Bank, and the Socio-Economic and LabourForce Participation Surveys of the Department of Cen-sus and Statistics. They provide detailed informationon the income distribution pattern in Sri Lanka duringthe years 1953, 1963, 1973, 1981 and 1985. Althoughthese two data sources are not strictly comparable, dueto definitional problems, Figure 4.10 shows the per-centage distribution of household income during theperiod 1953-85.

The data suggest that the income benefits of eco-nomic growth experienced after 1978 have, so far, fa-vored upper income groups more than the lowergroups. The share of the bottom 40 percent, who re-ceived a total income of 19.29 percent in 1973, in-creased to 21.4 percent in 1981, but it declined to 16percent in 1985. During this period the share of thehighest 20 percent increased from 42.95 percent in 1973to 523 percent in 1985. World Bank analysts, using1985-86 poverty survey data, concluded that despiteimprovements in mortality, crude death rates, and pop-ulation growth rates, about 20 percent of Sri Lanka'spopulation was living in poverty (World Bank 1990).

Malnutrition

The nutritional surveys of 1976,1981/2, and 1985/6reveal high levels of malnutrition among infants andpreschool children. Chronic malnutrition of childrenin this age group was 34 percent in 1976 and 36 percentin 1981/2. In 1985/6 however, it fell to 275 percent forthe 3 months to 3 year old age group. A 1987 healthsurvey has indicated that about 25 percent of pr e-schoolchildren were under height for their age because ofmalnutrition (World Bank 1990).

Micro-nutrient deficiencies of iron, iodine and vi-tamin A have been major malnutrition problems in Sri

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Economics 67

Lanka. Iron deficiency of a mild nature seems to bearound 50-60 percent in children and pregnant andlactating women. Goiter incidence ranges from 6-35percent in the goiter endemic regions.

Government policy has traditionally emphasizedincreased agricultural productivity to overcome the nu-tritional problems. Because the removal of subsidieson wheat-flour, rice, fertilizer, and bus fares threatenedto reduce consumption levels of the poorest 20 percentof the population, the government stretched out theelimination of rice and wheat-flour subsidies into 1990.In addition, several special programs such as theTriposha distribution program, school biscuit feedingprogram, and primary health care intervention pro-gram, have also been implemented, along with theJanasaviya Program, and the School Mid-day MealPrograms.

POLICY IMPACT

Macro-economic and development policies havedirect and indirect effects on the productive sectors ofthe economy. Comprehensive study of the economicconditions and trends requires analyses of the directimpacts of fiscal, monetary and pricing policies over thepast ten to twenty years.

Before 1977 predominant state intervention in eco-nomic activities emphasized regulatory measuresthrough price controls and fixed exchange rates. Gov-ernment subsidies were commonly directed to produc-ers as well as consumers. After 1977, however, the stateconcentrated on ways to create necessary infrastruc-ture for economic development and to reduce or elim-inate direct involvement in economic activities. Thesepolicies were reflected in import liberalization, a float-ing exchange rate, and removal of price controls andquantity restrictions. Market forces strongly affectedeconomic decisions.

Before 1977 policies encouraged the establish-ment of high capital intensive industrial ventures undergovernment patronage. Pricing policy adopted bythese enterprises basically sought to maintain a lowercost of living, giving secondary consideration to profit-ability or economic efficiency. Often no margin existedto cover maintenance or replacement costs of ma-chinery and equipment. As a result, small breakdowns

in the production process required government fundsfor a remedy, and sometimes the establishment wasclosed for months for want of repair funds. (See box -The Price of Pollution.)

Environmental Degradation and EconomicDevelopment

Production or consumption inevitably createswastes and environmental emissions as by-products.The effects of these by-products cause three kinds ofimpacts that economists consider externalities:

• direct externalities affecting the producer that hehas reason to internalize and so reduce or prevent,such as pollution of his own water supply,

• spatial externalities generated in one place butaffecting another place which the producer has noincentives to correct, such as air pollution emittedthrough a tall stack;

• intergenerational externalities likely to affect fu-ture generations, such as improperly managedtoxic waste.

These impacts occur regardless of ownership, pub-lic or private. Various regulatory and economic toolsare available to address these problems.

After 1977, to correct the investment failures thatcaused these kinds of problems, the government re-moved price controls and adjusted exchange rates. Re-sults were encouraging. Some inefficient industrialenterprises halted production. Other industries foundthat they were better able to generate sufficient fundsto meet repair and maintenance costs. Depending ontheir profitability, public sector agencies were also ableto borrow funds from the financial markets for theseand other purposes.

Economic policies after 1977 stimulated new in-vestments in industry, tourism, export agriculture, andaquaculture where high profit margins have been mostassured. These investment opportunities are likely toencourage more intense commercial use of and compe-tition for water, land, and other natural resources. Soit becomes increasingly important to include the costsof environmental degradation in the industry's cost ofdoing business. This can be done by developing

68 Economics

resource management systems that give resource usersincentives to choose for themselves how best to avoidthe adverse environmental consequences of theirresource use.

To achieve this goal, and to develop programs forsustainable resource use, Sri Lanka's production andpollution control systems must recognize the costs ofresource depletion and degradation. Later chapters

highlight the urgent need for much better data and

application of data on natural resource losses, environ-

mental impacts on human health, and other significant

environmental changes. By translating these impacts

into economic terms, policy makers will have a new and

powerful ability to build sound environmental ap-

proaches into economic development programs in ways

that, until now, have been largely neglected.

References

Asian Development Bank (ADB) (1989). 'Sri Lanka'. Asian De-velopment Outlook 1989, Manila, pp. 135-140.

Asian Development Bank (ADB) (1990). 'Sri Lanka'. Asian De-velopment Outlook, 1990, Manila, pp. 163-169.

Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBAR). Annual Report 1979/1980.

Economic Research Department, Colombo.

Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBAR) (1983). Report on consumerfinances and social economic survey 1978/1979, Sri Lanka,parts I and II. Statistics Department. Colombo.

Centra Bank of Sri Lanka (CBAR) (1984). Report on consumerfinances and socio-economic survey 1981/1982, Sri Lanka,parts I and IL Statistics Department, Colomba

Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBAR) (1990). Reports on consumerfinances and social economic survey 1986/1987, Sri Lanka,part IL Statistics Department, Colombo.

Central Environmental Authority (CEA) (1988). Sri Lanka: Na-tional conservation strategy. Department of GovernmentPrinting, Colombo.

Government of Sri Lanka (1988). The National Atlas of SriLanka. Survey Department, Colombo.

Levin, J. (1990). The economy and the environment: revising thenational accounts. IMF survey, Vol. 19, No. 11. pp. 161 and168-169.

Wanigasundara, M. (1987). Malnutrition among children: SriLanka's problem. Daily News. Colombo. Friday December11,1987.

World Bank (1988). World development report 1988. OxfordUniversity Press for IBRD/ World Bank, Washington.


Economies 5g

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70

Victoria Dam on the Mahaweii Ganga is Sri Lanka's major producer of hydroelectricKy.

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

IIIIIIIIIIIIIII1•III

r

The major forms of primary energy used in SriLanka are biomass (70 percent), hydroelectricity (10percent), and oil (20 percent). Not included in thisenergy budget is solar energy, used to dry agriculturalproduce and fish and extract salt from sea water, anddraught power commonly used to transport goods inrural areas, plough paddy fields, and harvest timber.

Hydro energy and biomass are indigenous resour-ces, but all oil must be imported. No fossil fuels havebeen discovered in Sri Lanka or its offshore territorialjurisdiction. Until 1973, woodfuel use was graduallyshifting to oil for household cooking and in some smallindustries, but that trend stopped with the oil pricehikes of the 1970s. Rising oil prices caused severe andcontinuing strains on Sri Lanka's economy; in 1982 netoil imports rose to 47 percent of export earnings. Es-calation in oil prices in the 1970s helped accelerate SriLanka's Mahaweli development project — earlier con-ceived mainly as an irrigation project to boost domesticagriculture. The large hydroelectric generatingcapacity of its storage reservoirs assumed new impor-tance. As oil became expensive, household and smallindustry sectors began turning back to woodfuel.

Consumption of commercial energy (electricityand petroleum) by sector divides into transport (54percent), industry and commerce (26 percent), domes-tic (17 percent) and others (3 percent). Transportconsumes only petroleum products. Domestic con-sumption of commercial energy (electricity andkerosene) is mainly for lighting, although the last tenyears has seen a significant increase in use of electricalappliances such as fans, cookers, and refrigerators,particularly in urban households.

In the near future, at least, biomass fuel will retainits dominant energy position. Most biomass fuel is usedin domestic cooking. Because of highly inefficient tradi-tional cooking methods the energy wasted frombiomass conversion is particularly high; in terms of

71

5 Energy Resources

useful energy, the contribution of biomass fuel to thenational energy budget reduces to about 40 percent.(See Figure 5.1)

ELECTRICITY DEMAND

Electricity consumption has grown rapidly duringthe past two decades. From 1970-1977, despite sloweconomic growth and declines in petroleum consump-tion, electricity demand grew at an annual rate of 7percent. This high growth may be attributed in part tothe absence of tariff increases (when the petroleumprices rose 50 percent), and a growing industrial andcommercial market for electricity.

Supply and distribution of electricity is the respon-sibility of the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), agovernment agency. In 1988, the total electric saleswere 2370 GWh. The consumption by differentcategories of users is shown in Figure 5.2.

From 1977 to 1983 average annual consumptionrose to 9.5 percent, spurred by the opening of theeconomy, new industries in the Export PromotionZone, the booming tourist industry, and general expan-sion of the services sector. The large number of newtourist hotels created a new and significant demand forlighting, air conditioning, cooking, water heating andrefrigeration. In the domestic sector, too, increaseduse of newly available domestic appliances significantlyincreased electric demands. So did greatly acceleratedrural electrification after 1977. Demand grew despiteseveral substantial increases in electric rates.

With civil disturbances in 1983 came a decline inthe rate of economic growth and, concomitantly, in therate of growth of electricity consumption. From 1983to 1988 annual growth in consumption dropped to 5.5percent. Overall, since the introduction of economicreforms, from 1977 to 1988, average annual growth ofelectricity consumption (sales) was 7.8 percent in con-

72 Energy Resource

Proportions of Primary Energy consumed in Sri Lanka in terms of1. Total Energy and 2. Useful Energy

KSr.tJ BIOMASS FUEL

f=I?J HYDRO

Figure 5.1

Energy Use in GWh.

m

industrial 905 I t

\ àHotels 85

General Services 358

E-::::::fh> Religious 12

mm/

•••) > O < X X A X D o m e s t i c 3 9 2

•••âHi|Mr ' Street Lighting 17

^ H ^ ^ ^ Local Authorities 601

Figure 5.2

I

II

I ;! ;

IIIIIIII

f :

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Energy Resources 73

Electricity Demand Forecasts and Hydropotential(from GTZ Master Plan)

Print OMM2<O0 «W»/YMr

Figure 5.3

Annual Electricity Generation - Hydro and Thermal

Figure 5.4

I

74 Energy Resource


trast to an average GDP growth rate of 4.9 percent Onthe basis of the total sales of electricity to all sectors,annual per capita consumption of electricity rose from75 to 143 KWh during these years.

In the months that followed a restoration of civilorder from December 1989 to March 1990, electricityconsumption surged upward to the equivalent of anannual growth of 20 percent.

The present government has sought to extend theelectricity grid to rural areas as fast as possible.Whereas by 1977 only 943 rural electricity schemes hadbeen completed, by 1988 the number had increased to8,080. By 1990 a third of Sri Lanka's villages receivedelectricity. The total of households using electricity forlighting was 14.9 percent in 1981, and 24 percent in1988.

To help forecast electricity demand and to planpower development projects, the German Agency forTechnical Cooperation (GTZ) recently helped theCEB to prepare a Master Plan for electricity supply.The GTZ demand forecasting model for the Plan linksfuture consumption to predicted population gains,specific consumption per household, and the expectedincreases in consumers. Separate forecasts for urbanand rural areas, take into account targets for ruralelectrification, future development of commercial andindustrial consumer categories, overalleconomicgrowth, and GDP/consumption elasticities for severalsubsectors.

The GTZ model presented three demand growthscenarios (Figure S3). The base demand forecast (anintermediate scenario between the high and lowforecasts), assumes that SO percent of Sri Lanka'shouseholds will be connected to the grid by the year2000, and that long-term average GDP growth will be 5percent per year. The base demand curve assumes thata reduction in distribution losses from 17 to 12 percentcould be achieved within this decade.

If this base demand forecast is accurate, SriLanka's system peak demand will grow from 600 MWin 1988, to 1,600 MW in 2,000 and 3,000 MW in 2010.The required generation will rise from 2,800 GWh in1988 to 7,200 GWh in 2000 and 13,700 GWh in 2010.The generation demand would, on average, increase by

82 percent per year up to the year 2000 and by 6.7percent per year from 2001 to 2010. The naturalresource implications of meeting this demand are dis-cussed below.

ROLE OF HYDROPOWER

A high rainfall and mountainous terrain in thesouthwest part of the island have provided the countrywith excellent hydropower resources. Prior to the1950s mini hydro plants were used in tea and rubberfactories for providing motive power and in-houselighting, but steam and diesel generators providedpower to Colombo and the other major towns. The firsthydropower plant that supplied electricity for distribu-tion was commissioned in 1950, with capacity of 25 MW.Since then, hydropower has played an increasingly im-portant role, and by 1977 installed hydropower capacitywas 332 MW with an annual output of 1,215 GWh. Incontrast, installed capacity of thermal generation was70 MW in 1977 and the output was only 2 GWh.

After 1977, with rapid economic expansion andgrowth in electricity demand, the installation ofhydropower plants could not keep pace with demand,requiring more thermal plants. Thermal generationwas necessarily high in 1983 when prolonged dryweather reduced hydropower generation; of a totaloutput of 2,144 GWh, thermal contributed 42 percent(897 GWh). Since then, hydropower development ac-celerated and in 1988 hydro (which by then had anaggregate installed capacity of 938 MW) produced2^597 GWh, while the thermal plants mostly played astandby role and produced only seven percent of thetotal (202 GWh). Total electricity generation each yearfrom 1977 to 1989, and the hydroelectric share are givenin Figure 5.4.

At present, the total installed capacity ofhydropower plant is 1017 MW, and the output is 3375GWh in a year of average rainfall. One more powerstation is under construction: Samanalawewa(capacity, 120 MW; annual output, 420 GWh). Whenthis project is completed, most of Sri Lanka's largehydropower resources will have been harnessed. How-ever, the GTZ-sponsored Master Plan study inves-tigated the possibilities of capacity extension at the

IIIIIIII

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Energy Resources 75

existing power stations and concluded that 300 MWcould be added at a cost of 600 US dollars per KW.

The GTZ studied the possible medium-scalehydropower resources and identified 75 sites. It foundthat 41 of these could possibly be economic in com-parison to thermal power generation. Detailedprefeasibility level studies were carried out at each site.Project reports addressed such ancillary aspects as thepossible use of these hydropower projects for supplyingirrigation water and for flood control, and possibleeconomic costs through loss of agricultural and forestland. Their total economic hydro potential, up to an oilprice of 40 US dollars per barrel (the world rate as ofOctober 1, 1990), was estimated at 3,400 GWh perannum, equivalent to an aggregate capacity of 775 MWat an average 50 percent operating capacity.

Mini hydro sites scattered around the tea and rub-ber plantations offer another untapped source ofhydropower. The total potential is estimated at about100 MW, with a generation capability of 400 GWh perannum. Several government agencies are involved inmini-hydro development activities, notably the JanathaEstates Development Board (JEDB) and the StatePlantations Corporation (SLSPC). Several foreignagencies have financed feasibility studies and in somecases actually provided funds for implementing energyprojects.

Hydropower generation requires adequate andregular rainfall; generation capability drops appreciab-ly in dry years. Hence every new hydropower plantrequires a thermal plant backup. In addition, thermalunits have a distinct role in the periods between thecommissioning of hydropower stations, when demandcontinues to rise without corresponding increase in thehydro-generation.

After completion of the Samanalawewa project in1992, total installed hydroelectric capacity will be 1,137MW. Thermal back-up equal to a third of this capacityis considered necessary to avoid shortages fromdrought. Present thermal capacity is 200 MW. TheKelanitissa plant is being rehabilitated and will add 50MW, but more thermal capacity will also be required.Given the capacity and cost limitations of furtherhydropower generation thermal generation for backup

and primary supply will inevitably play an increasinglyimportant role.

Thermal Generation Options

Is nuclear power a reasonable option? A few yearsago the Atomic Energy Authority studied all aspects ofnuclear power generation in Sri Lanka. A committeeof experts appointed by the National Science Counciladvised against it for technical, economic and environ-mental reasons, but it recommended another reviewafter the year 2000.

In the mid-1980s feasibility studies sponsored bythe CEB evaluated proposal for a coal-fired powergenerating station in Trincomalee on the east coast ofSri Lanka. Slated to commence operations in the mid-1990s, its generating capacity was to have been in-creased futher, until, in the late 1990s, it would have agenerating capacity of 900 MW, with two units of 150MW and two of 300 MW. Coal was to be imported fromAustralia or South Africa and off-loaded at the deepwater harbor at Trincomalee.

The proposal quickly aroused controversy. TheNational Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA) op-posed plant location at Trincomalee, and when theproposal became public numerous individuals and non-government organizations protested as well. Amongthe issues they raised : shortcomings in the requiredenvironmental impact assessment, the unknown effectof acid rain on tea and rubber plantations, thermalpollution of the sea around Trincomalee, and adverseimpacts on a picturesque sea coast resort and potentialtourist region. The NGOs claimed that there was un-tapped and available hydro potential, that a significantsaving in electricity could be effected by reducing trans-mission losses, and that thermal capacity could beprovided by smaller power stations in more environ-mentally appropriate sites. The CEB sought a con-struction permit from the Director of the Departmentof Coast Conservation, who studied the environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) and public submissions, in-cluding criticisms of the NGOs. As a result, he decidedthat the EIA had not adequately addressed the issuesinvolved and withheld permission. The matter was notpursued by the CEB, since oil prices had by then

I

76 Energy Resource

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

1988 Commercial Energy

Electricity 40%

LP Gas 0.9»

Coal 0.3%

Oil 58.9%

Figure 5.5

dropped sharply, making a coal-fired plant un-economic.

Subsequently, a smaller coal-fired thermal plantwas analyzed for location on the coast south of Galle.In light of the environmental concerns expressed, inOctober 1990 the President directed the Ministry ofPower and Energy to suspend work on the proposaluntil all alternatives had been given careful considera-tion.

Economic and Social Costs of Hydropower

Hydropower generation is capital intensive andrequires substantial foreign exchange, yet its lowoperating costs and overall profitability have made it anattractive energy choice. Moreover, there has been noserious problem in securing the funds for hydrodevelopment from low-interest loans or as outrightgrants from foreign governments or funding agencies.

Hydropower generation from large dams carries ahigh social cost, often inundating fertile land (e.g. in theDumbara and Kotmale valleys) and displacing manyfamilies and even whole villages. In the Dumbara valleyconstruction of the Victoria reservoir required evacua-tion of nearly 6,000 families. State assistance wasnecessarily provided to resettle displaced families andmitigate their financial burden and cultural shock.

A health hazard has arisen from the impounding ofwater and restriction of river flow. Mosquitoes breedin the stagnant pools of downstream river beds, whichmay be a factor responsible for the spread of malaria.

Another adverse impact of impounding water up-stream is the drying up of wetlands in the riverine floodplains, reducing habitat for animals, fish and birds.'

Despite the social costs, with adequate mitigationmeasures hydropower development has substantial ad-vantages over other forms of conventional electricitygeneration in Sri Lanka. Its reservoirs also provideirrigation water for thousands of hectares of land. Thisin turn brings more benefits as well as potential environ-mental and social costs including land salinization andpollution by agrochemicals.

The relatively low cost of hydropower has helpedmeet social objectives for rural populations. The CEBis expected to function as a commercially viableenterprise, but as a government institution it must besensitive to social needs. Hence rural electrification,although not offering attractive financial returns, isactively pursued to help improve the quality of life ofthe large rural population by opening avenues for ruralindustrial development and agricultural production.

The CEB tariff structure seeks to provide a basicminimum supply of electricity to domestic consumers

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Energy Resources 77

at rates low-income families can afford. The latestdomestic tariff for monthly bills, introduced in April1990, is 0.55 rupees per unit for the first 10 units, 1.05rupees per unit for the next 40 units, 2.00 rupees perunit for the next 50 units, 3 rupees per unit for the next350 units, and 4 rupees per unit for consumption over450 units. A fixed charge of 10 rupees is levied fromhouseholds whose monthly consumption is 10 units ormore, while the charge is reduced to 5 rupees where theconsumption is less than 10 units. Taking into accountthe social needs and statutory obligations to functionas an economically viable enterprise, the CEB tries tomaintain a modest 8 percent return on the revaluedcapital assets.

PETROLEUM SUPPLYAND DEMAND

Supply and Processing

In 1988 oil supplied 59 percent of Sri Lanka'scommercial energy as shown in Figure 55. Althoughthere has been limited exploration for oil on-shore andoff-shore, no indigenous sources have been found.Hence, the country has had to rely on imported crudeoil and refined products to meet demand.

The Ceylon Petroleum Corporation (CPC) is thesole importer and processor of petroleum products.Because the government establishes domestic prices nodirect relationship exists between international crudeoil prices and the domestic price of refined products.Prices were increased gradually during the 1970s asinternational oil prices rose. Between 1981 and 1989 thegovernment raised the local price of refined productstwice, a 40 percent increase for most products in 1983,and a 20-25 percent increase in 1989. In response toIraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, the govern-ment raised the local price of petrol from 20 rupees to25 rupees per liter, and in November 1990 to 35 rupeesper liter.

Sri Lankan refinery capacity. Since 1969 crude oilhas been processed at a refinery in Sapugaskanda witha capacity of 50,000 bbl/day. Originally designed toprocess Iranian light crude, after foreign exchange con-straints and supply uncertainties it was redesigned toprocess other crude oils as well. Countries and crude

oils supplying Sri Lanka are Abu Dhabi (Upper Sakus),Egypt (Suez Blend), Iran (Iranian Light), Malaysia(Mirri/Tapis), Oman (Oman), Saudi Arabia (ArabianLight), Qatar (Qatar Marine), and, until the recentembargo, Iraq (Basrah Light).

The refinery meets most domestic demands forpetroleum products, with the shortfall, primarily in autodiesel, met by spot purchase. As demand for LiquidPetroleum Gas (LPG) increased, the supply shortfallwas met by imports. Proposed plant modifications willenable the refinery to meet demands for auto diesel anddouble the production of LPG by 1992. Excess produc-tion, largely fuel oil, is exported directly.

Sources of Demand

Transportation dominates the consumption ofpetroleum products (Figure 5.6). Approximately 60percent of finished oil products supplies motorvehicles. In industry, the largest demand for petroleumcomes from cement, tea, paper, steel, tire, and glassmanufacturing (GEB, 1990). Foreign demand is com-prised of aviation fuel and bunker oil.

Local sales of super petrol, auto diesel and superdiesel have generally risen since 1983; the decrease in1989 reflected an increase in local price (Figure 5.7).Transportation largely consumes diesel fuel (Figure5.8); the public transportation service relies on it andthe policy of pricing it below gasoline has stimulatedimports of a high proportion of diesel vehicles.

Bus service — public (SLTB) and private — ac-counts for over 80 percent of the passenger traffic in SriLanka. Operations have been greatly affected by civilinstability, the 1988 SLTB fleet size decreased by 13percent from its 1984 peak -- from 8,005 down to 6,996,which is now lower than the 7,254 existing in 1979.Consumption of diesel fuel for the SLTB declined to21.2 million gallons per annum for 1988 but may rise to23.5 million gallons in 1990.

Petroleum usage in industry has significantlydeclined since 1984, except for supplies required forthermal electricity generation to meet hydroelectricshortfall from drought in 1986 (Figure 5.9). Severalfactors contributed to the decline. Civil instabilityslowed economic growth, industries switched to

78 Energy Resource

Use of Petroleum Products

Transportation62.91%

Other37.09%

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII.

Figure 5.6

Petroleum Sales

600(000 M.T.)

500-

400-

300-

200-

100- I I I I I

n n

8 =I1982 1983 1984- 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

H i Super Petrol

IX ~i Super Diesel

(ZD Auto Diesel

Kerosene-

Figure 5.7

HUH Heavy Diesel

Furnace Oil

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Energy Resources

Figure 5.8

Industrial Petroleum DemandIncluding CEB Demand

C000 M.T.)

79

Transportation

Avtur4.7%

I. \ ^ ^ ^ ^

Fuels

^ \ Super PetrolX 25.5%

^ ^ ^ ^ J — — Other^ 0.2%

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Furnace- Oil I Heavy Diesel

Figure 5.9

80 Energy Resource

Domestic Petroleum Demand

250

200

150

100

50

('000 M.T.O)

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

I I Kerosene H i LP Gas


Figure 5.10

Petroleum ForecastExcluding CEB Demand

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

(000 M.T.)

1989 1990 1991

I I Qasolin»

ES3 Kerosene

1992

Auto Diesel

Heavy Diesel

Figure 5.11

1993 1994

LP Gas

EEEB Fuel Oil

1995

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rEnergy Resources 81

electric energy following completion of the Mahawelidams, and some industries switched to biomass as acheaper source of fuel. The share of industrial energyfrom biomass increased from 69.4 percent in 1978 to75.9 percent in 1987. Major efforts were made in theearly 1980s to promote fuel efficiency and reduce in-dustrial and commercial waste of energy.

Oil products for domestic consumption arekerosene and LPG gas (Figure 5.10). Use of kerosenefor lighting has decreased from approximately 82 per-cent of households in 1981 to 763 percent in 1988. Thedecline can be attributed to the expansion of the ruralelectrification during this period. Demands for LPGgas have increased significantly over the past few yearsas a relatively inexpensive cooking fuel compared toelectricity.

The forecast for petroleum products ( Figure 5.11),excluding demand from the Ceylon Electricity Board(CEB) for thermal generation, indicates that the fastestgrowth in demand is expected for gasoline and LPG.Demand for aviation fuel will depend largely on touristbusiness. Bunker oil demand depends on the bunkerprices at Singapore and Middle East ports, and demandfor fuel oil will depend on the proposed diesel genera-tion plants to be established in the future and theindustrial practices of fuel substitution.

BIOMASS FUEL

Consumption

Biomass provides cooking fuel for 94 percent of SriLankan households and, in addition, the source of heatfor many small industries. Biomass fuel accounts for 70percent of the primary energy consumed in Sri Lanka.

In 1983, a statistically designed study of householdfuel consumption provided a wealth of new, badlyneeded data. It found that total biomass fuel consump-tion by households in 1983 was 7.5 million tons (air dry,ready-to-use condition), which is 35 percent higherthan previous assumptions. Per capita consumption ofbiomass fuel for household cooking was 4% kilogramsper year for the island as a whole and 526 kg per yearfor the rural sector, which used biomass fuel exclusively.Two years later, in 1985, the Forestry ResourcesDevelopment Project estimated biomass consumption

at 7.8 million tons. Assuming a 1.5 percent annualgrowth since then, the 1990 consumption would be 8.21million tons.

Many industries (tea, rubber, desiccated coconut,bricks, tiles) use woodfuel as the source of heat. Thetotal consumption in 1988 was estimated at 1.15 milliontons, or about a seventh of the biomass fuel consumedby households. (See Figure 5.12).

Future Demand Trends

Growth rates in biomass fuel consumption coin-cide with population growth of 1.5 percent. Thepopulation growth rate is forecast to decrease untilwithin three to four decades population stabilizes.Substitution of oil, electricity, or liquified petroleumgas (LPG) for biomass fuel in household cooking willprobably not appreciably reduce per capita consump-tion of biomass fuel in the 1990s.

Programs of the Ministry of Power and Energy,among others, promote fuel-efficient woodfuel stovesin place of the traditional three-stone open Tire and thesemi-enclosed mud stove. If, as expected, theseprograms continue successfully, they could significantlyreduce per capita consumption of fuelwood. Takinginto account decreasing population growth rates andthe expected decrease in per 'capita consumption ofbiomass fuel, growth in biomass fuel consumption byhouseholds may steadily decline from its present 1.5percent. Figure 5.13 depicts three alternative con-sumption scenarios given in the Forestry Master Plan.Over a million households may well replace their tradi-tional mud stoves or three-stone open fires with fuel-efficient cook stoves by the year 2000. If so, theprojected biomass fuel demand by the household sectorshould follow path 2, or possibly path 3. By the year2000, the difference in biomass requirements per yearbetween scenario 3 and 2 is equivalent to a 10-year-oldforest plantation of 2,500 hectares.

Annual demand for fuelwood by industries, nowstanding at 1.15 million tons, will also grow, but probab-ly at a slower rate than the growth in the industriesthemselves owing to expected introduction of energy-saving technologies. The Forestry Master Planforecasts industrial demand to peak around the year2000, at 1.28 million tons and to drop slowly there after.

82 Energy Resource

Distribution of Biomass Fuel Consumption

Rubbers«/. Other 4 V.

Small hotels,Brick, bating houses

Total biomass fuel consumption Biomass fuel in industry

Figure 5.12

10-0

as

1

r8.5

ao

Alternative

•

; ^

I984-«S

Biomass

Y*ar

Fuel

+—

Demand Projections

1 -

2000

Rgure5.i3

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Energy Resources 83

Sources of Biomass Fuel

The 1983 household biomass fuel survey revealedthat rubber wood accounted for 18 percent of the con-sumption, crop wastes 28.8 percent, and other woodfuel 53.2 percent. Crop wastes consisted mainly ofcoconut tree wood, fallen fronds, husks and shells.Other crop wastes included uprooted tea bushes,manioc and cinnamon sticks, arecanut wood, andpaddy husks. All biomass fuel not within categories ofrubber wood and crop wastes were placed in a thirdcategory of "other fuelwood."

Rubber and coconut plantations are found in fourdistinct agro-ecological regions, and their contributionto fuel supply is of special importance. The proportionsof the different types of biomass fuel consumed byhouseholds in each of the zones are shown in Figure5.14. In the most densely populated southwest sectorplantation coconut and rubber play a crucial role inmeeting the energy demands.

In rural areas the vast majority of households (80percent) gather all their own biomass fuel. Most urbanhouseholds purchase at least a part of their require-ments. Only a small proportion of household collectionexceeded one mile (1.6 km). Because in most places nohigh forest is close to villages, many collections areapparently made from crop plantations or waste- andscrub-land. However, in many hill country areas fuel-wood does come from natural forests, causing severeforest degradation.

Of the three categories of biomass fuel referred toin the biomass study, "other fuelwood" accounts for 53.2percent of consumption. This category includes fuel-wood from the forest and all biomass fuel gatheredfrom waste, scrub-land and private lands (excludingrubber wood and crop wastes). The proportion comingfrom the forest cannot be large given the presence ofbiomass fuel from other closer sources. A reasonableassumption is that, taking the total consumption ofbiomass fuel by households, the proportion comingfrom high forest amounts to 20 to 25 percent, includingthe official supplies of the State Timber Corporation.

Only recently has Sri Lanka used charcoal as ahousehold fuel. Availability of large quantities of lowquality wood in forests cleared under the Mahaweli

scheme prompted the State Timber Corporation toproduce charcoal for domestic use and export. Be-cause charcoal had not been used previously as ahousehold fuel, the project included plans to developand produce an inexpensive charcoal cooker and tomake charcoal popular for cooking. The target groupwas urban households.

In contrast to households where an appreciableproportion of biomass fuel consists of sticks, twigs,coconut fronds, and similar material, industries usebiomass in woodfuel billets. Industries obtain 49 per-cent of their biomass fuel from rubber wood, and 38percent from natural forests. The balance comes most-ly from forest plantations, home gardens and estatecuttings, while a small part consists of crop wastes suchas paddy husks and bagasse.

Future Trends in Supplies

At present, Sri Lanka has no overall shortage ofbiomass fuel, but regional deficits occur in Colomboand in the hill country. Fortunately in the rural areas,where cooking relies entirely on biomass fuel, it isgenerally available. Over the past decades, severalhundred thousand hectares of natural forest have beenconverted to scrub-land, and these areas, provide use-ful woodfuel pickings for villagers. However, jf, asrecent trends indicate, large areas of waste land are putto other economic use, this will reduce areas availablefor woodfuel. Moreover, as economic conditions im-prove, the people may neither have time nor inclinationto gather fuelwood, so they may purchase the material.Such trends are already observable in new settlementareas. In the future, therefore, biomass fuel suppliesfrom traditional sources will probably decline anddemand for woodfuel through commercial channelswill grow. Steps will then be needed by the ForestDepartment in particular to raise fuelwood plantationsin strategic locations.

In Colombo and other urban and suburban areasin the southwest, rubber plantations taken up forreplanting provide a substantial proportion of the fuel-wood needs. Yet this wood also, when chemicallytreated, has served as furniture wood for local andexport markets. If promising trends continue, fuel-wood supplies will require new fuelwood plantations.

84 Energy Resource

ENERGY EFFICIENCY - SRI LANKA'S CHEAPEST ENERGYRESOURCE

How can Sri Lanka meet its needs for new, environmentally benign energy supplies to fuel social andeconomic development? Significant new supplies can come from greater energy efficiency.

Sri Lanka's energy consumption in 1989 was roughly 6 million tons of oil equivalent - per person lessthan one-fifteénth that of some industrialized countries. Approximately 87 percent of the country's energydemand is met by fuelwood and imported oil, the remainder by hydroelectric power. Given widespreadpublic concern-over the environmental impacts of new large-scale hydro projects and coal-fired powerplants, the government is committed to developing new and renewable energy resources.

Energy efficiency may be one of Sri Lanka's promising sources of energy. Energy planners oftenignore the fact that society values energy not for its own sake but for the services that energy provides.Kilowatt-hours of electricity, barrels of oil, and bundles of fuelwood are important only for the light, heat,and. motive power they generate. By improving the efficiency of energy use — increasing the servicesderived from energy already consumed -- we gain an eminently feasible complement to other new energysupplies. Many countries have found that tapping energy efficiency resources is typically less expensivethan importing oil and building new power plants - and environmentally preferable as welL

Studies suggest that Sri Lanka's energy efficiency resources are at this point plentiful and potentiallycheaper than other energy supplies. A 1985 analysis by the Senior Energy Advisor to the President, Dr.Mohan Munasinghe, found that modest energy savings — ranging from 5-15 percent among industries,buildings, hotels, residences and street lighting—would reduce expected peak electricity demand by 15-23percent in the coming years (Munasinghe, 1988). Initial detailed energy audits of 16 industrial plants, onehotel and one hospital were carried out under a joint World Bank/UNDP study (ESMAP, 1986). Manyof the energy-saving measures identified had a lower cost per unit of energy saved than the cost of an equalunit of imported oil or new power generation capacity. Actual savings could be considerably higher byapplying currently available, state-of-the-art technologies. Two environmental NGOs, the EnvironmentalFoundation Ltd. (Sri Lanka) and the Natural Resources Defense Council (U.S.A.), are currently under-taking a joint study of Sri Lanka's energy efficiency potential, based on modern technologies. Participatinginstitutions include the Ministry of Energy Conservation, the National Engineering Research andDevelopment Centre, the Sri Lanka Energy Managers Association, and the Development FinanceCorporation of Ceylon.

Sri Lanka has a national energy conservation program which includes educational campaigns, energyaudits, and a subsidized loan fund, but unfortunately it has been less successful than expected. Onereason: along with advice and technical assistance, energy consumers need more incentives to invest inenergy-saving technologies. When choosing a motor, a cookstove, a light bulb, an air-conditioner, or arefrigerator, many consumers cannot afford the more efficient, but higher-priced, model. Higher-incomeconsumers are often indifferent to potential long-run cost savings. Several steps would help Sri Lankaimprove development of its energy efficiency resources:

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Energy Resources 85

• Integrated "Least-Cost" Planning. Energy planners can examine the potential for savingelectricity, fuelwood, and oil throughout Sri Lanka's economy by adopting state-of-the-art energy-saving technologies. The cost of the energy-saving measures should be calculated per unit of energysaved so that the cost of energy efficiency resources can be compared to the cost of other energysupplies.

• Enhanced Efficiency Programs. Energy sector institutions, particularly the CEB, can providegrants or low-interest loans to customers for the added first cost of efficient equipment Repay-ment could be included in the customer's monthly bills.

• Efficiency Standards and Labels. The government could set minimum efficiency standards for alldomestic and imported appliances, industrial equipment, automobiles, and new buildings. Stand-ardized testing facilities would be required. All tested equipment would bear efficiency ratinglabels to help customers choose among competing models.

Efficiency improvements alone are unlikely to satisfy all of Sri Lanka's future energy needs. Furtherdevelopment of new power supplies may be necessary. Nevertheless, an efficiency-based energy strategywould decrease needs for new power generating capacity and reduce environmental degradation.Moreover, improved energy efficiency would invariably lead to improved economic productivity as well.

Box prepared by Kristin Wulfsberg, Energy Consultant to the Environmental Foundation Ltd., andGlen T. Prickett, Research Associate with the Natural Resources Defense Council (USA).

The Forestry Master Plan recommends that fuel-wood for domestic use should be increased throughfarmers' woodlots. In addition, the Department mayneed its own program of fuelwood plantations whereshortages of biomass fuel for domestic needs are likelyto occur.

To meet industrial demands individual plants willincreasingly require large quantities of fuelwood fromtheir own plantations. The Forestry Master Planrecommends block fuelwood plantations raised by in-dustries that use woodfuel. The Janatha EstatesDevelopment Board has demonstrated that suchschemes can be successful; in recent years it has raisedseveral thousand hectares of fuelwood plantations.

Economic and Social Costs of Fuelwood

Eighty to ninety percent of the biomass fuel con-sumed by households is obtained by gathering withoutmonetary transaction. In rural areas it is generallyavailable at no great distance from the home, and oftenthe home garden itself provides a good part of thebiomass fuel requirements.

In some urban and suburban households too thehome garden provides a part of the biomass fuel, butmost fuelwood must be purchased. In Colombo theprice of fuelwood in January 1990 was about 50 rupeesper load of 51 kilograms. At current prices, fuelwoodis cheaper than alternative fuels. The in situ price offuelwood is very low, and its price to the urban con-sumer is determined mainly by the cost of transport.Hence, as the cost of lorry hire increases fuel woodcosts also increase.

Other Biofuel Resources

Besides the traditional resources, other biofuelsoffer potential. One is coir dust from the coconut husk.When fibre is extracted, the husk yields as a by-producta large quantity of soft tissue ("pith") mixed with shortfibres. This may make up as much as 60 percent of theweight of the air-dry husk. The coir dust now collectsas large heaps of unwanted material around fiber mills,causing environmental pollution. It could be convertedto briquettes for use as fuel, but at present the costexceeds the price of fuelwood. Some of this materialcan provide fuel for future small-scale thermal power

86 Energy Resource IBiomass Fuel Survey - Agro-Ecological Zones and Percentage Compositior

Of Biomass Fuel Types used in Each ZoneMLuti

Zm ttmiwr

«««ram

»M4IMMII

Figure 5.14

Energy Efficient Cook Stoves

CI9R Mod«

Sorvodoyo Mod«4

lOa Mod*

NEROC*ntre Model

Rgure 5.15

IIIIII

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Energy Resources 87

Paddy husk is another little-used biofuel. About500,000 tons are produced annually, some of which isused for household cooking by families living near ricemills, and as a source of heat for parboiling paddy. Thevast bulk is burnt off unused. It is a potential resourcethat can be used when traditional fuels become scarceor expensive.

MAIN ISSUES ANDINSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES

In 1982 an Energy Adviser to the Minister ofpower and Energy (a position then held by the Presi-dent) was appointed to establish an organizationalframework for integrated energy planning, create anddevelop analytical procedures, and train the manpowernecessary for planning. The tasks were largely achievedduring the ensuing three years.

In 1985, a non-governmental Sri Lanka EnergyManager's Association, was formed to upgrade energymanagement skills in the private sector, carry out ener-gy audits, and take effective measures for saying energyin industry. That same year the Ministry of Power andEnergy created an Energy Conservationor EnergyConservation fund to provide financial assistance forimproving energy utilization and promote the use ofalternative energy resources. A Project Ministry forEnergy Conservation was created in March 1990 topromote identified energy conservation programs.

Electricity

By 1992, Sri Lanka will have Japped all its majorhydropower resources, and further development mustthen focus on medium, small and mini hydro resources,thermal generation, and other options. The govern-ment is considering several options. Many small-scalehydropower sites could be developed, and costsmay be and costs may be attractive if oil prices forthermal generation continue to rise. The GTZ haspointed out that hydro development will create severalthousand more jobs and avoid more pollution thancomparably sized oil-powered units. However, sup-plementary thermal generation will still require gas,diesel or coal-fired plants. In addition, 10 to 15 MW

electricity generating units may be distributed in thecoconut growing areas using coir dust for fuel.

It is the general view of energy planners that overthe next ten years large thermal power stations will needto be introduced into the generation system to meetprojected demands and backup requirements. How-ever, it is not clear how this can be achieved, becausethe most recent attempt to install a coal-fired powerstation on the southwest coast has been stopped be-cause of environmental considerations. Among therange of available alternatives is the hitherto over-looked possibility of increasing generation capacity ofexisting hydropower systems, which now generate anaverage of only 3,375 GWh per year, with installedcapacity of 1017 MW. Increased capacity could beachieved by regulating the inflow into the reservoirs ~a well-known function of forests. Increasing the per-centage of forest cover in the catchment area is there-fore vitally necessary.

Conservation

While recognizing needs for increased generationcapacity, it is important for the national economy thatelectricity conservation measures be adopted in all sec-tors. In the manufacturing industry, for example, out-dated and faulty equipment results in a considerablewaste of energy. Energy audits should be carried outroutinely in factories to indicate where waste occursand the corrective action needed. Significant energysavings could often be effected with simple housekeep-ing improvements where the pay-back period is only amatter of weeks.

Hotels can also save energy. They have stimulatedrapid growth in electricity demand. A large luxury-class hotel consumes as much electricity as a provincialtown. Although hotels must be maintained to attractinternational tourists, it is still possible to reduceelectricity consumption. For example, large quantitiesof water could be heated to 60°C using direct solarenergy. Locally produced solar heaters are availablebut not widely used. By adjusting the tariff structure,hotel owners can be encouraged to reduce excessiveelectricity use.

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88 Energy Resource

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Registration of New Vehiclesby Fuel Type from 1970 - 1989

100Thousand«

70 71 72 73 '74 '76 76 77 78 79 80 '81 82 '83'84 '85 '86 87 '88 '89 '90YEAR

••Petrol

douroti Doportmont of Motor Trafflo

* Estimated registration

Diesel CD OTHER 1 9 9 o > 100,000

TotalVehicles 1990= 687,676

Figure 5.16

Although the Rural Electrification Programmereceives high government priority, rural households aregenerally too poor to pay for service connections andinternal wiring. Electric supply has also failed to stimu-late rural industries as much as expected. To helpresolve these problems the government has introduceda package of incentives to help domestic consumers andentrepreneurs in rural areas, including low-interestloans, easy repayment terms, low-cost service connec-tions, and internal wiring provided by the CEB.

Phase II of the Rural Electrification Programme,now in progress, will provide electricity to 600 morevillages and augment supplies to 600 others. Plans arealso being prepared for Phase III, so that by the year2000 all villages in the country will be either connectedto the electricity grid or provided with another assuredsource of energy.

Biomass fuel

The general availability of biomass fuel in thecountry today should not discouragethe developmentof resources and conservation measures.

Because traditional cooking stoves and three-stoneopen fires used by the large majority of households

waste biomass fuel, many institutions, both governmentand non-government, have encouraged use of im-proved, fuel-efficient stoves (see Figure 5.15.)Whereas traditional cooking methods obtain 8 to 14percent useful heat, some improved cookers obtain 35percent. Several programs now propagate use of thesecookers. Under one program the Ministry of Powerand Energy has replaced traditional cookers with atwo-burner cooker in over 200,000 rural households inover 13 administrative districts. Continuation of thisprogram, together with the sale of other models pfimproved cookers through private outlets, could resultin over a million households changing to fuel-efficientcookers before the year 2000.

Technologies adapted for use in Sri Lanka by theNational Engineering Research and DevelopmentCentre, are biomass gasifiers for tea leaf drying andsmelting brass, windmills to charge batteries for domes-tic lighting, and bread baking ovens which save biomassfuel. The Water Resources Board developed a windmillfor pumping water for irrigation. The dramatic fall inthe price of oil in the mid-1980s slackened efforts tostimulate renewable energy. The rapid oil price risefollowing the Persian Gulf crisis illustrates howshort-sighted this neglect has been.

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Air PollutionAir pollution is one of the chief by-products of energy production and consumption, but in Sri Lanka

it also results from chena fires and burning of refuse. Unfortunately, we lack reliable information on theamounts of air pollution produced in Sri Lanka and how it affects human health and the environment. Yetthe problem has become increasingly serious in urban areas, and public concern for cleaner air is growing.

The Colombo district, where two-thirds of the population is urban, accounts for over 60 percent ofthe manufacturing industries, 60 per cent of registered vehicles and both diesel power plants. Hence, themost significant air pollution is generated primarily in this region.

SOURCES OF POLLUTION

The major air pollution sources are summarized below:

Stationary Sources

The domestic sector, at nearly 69 percent of the total, is the primary energy consumer. Its contributionsto air pollution result from domestic cooking and lighting fueled by wood, electricity, kerosene, and gas.Overall pollution is insignificant, but domestic health impacts of fuelwood and kerosene burning have notbeen measured.

Industrial processes, consuming about 17 percent of total energy, also contribute particulates and gasesto the atmosphere. A 1989 survey found that over 4,000 manufacturing facilities had potential for air Orwater pollution. About 40 percent are chemical, food and textile plants using fuelwood or furnace oiL andnearly 25 percent are quarrying and mining activities. A well-known example of industrial air pollution isthe Puttalam cement works, which belched tons of paniculate matter into the environment, degradedsurrounding agricultural fields and may have caused health problems (see Chapter 4 - The Price ofPollution). Despite such cases, the industrial survey indicated that industry has low emission levels andis localized in areas of dense population; water pollution is still a more significant industrial problem thanair pollution.

Power génération. Sri Lanka's electricity generation, largely hydro, includes two diesel generatingunits with a total capacity 260 MW in the Colombo metropolis. Additional units are being planned toaugment hydro supplies. There are 21 generating facilities, with capacities ranging from 1 MW to 25 MW,located in four power stations, which use gas, heavy oil and diesel as fuel. As yet, however, no large thermalpower plants have been built in Sri Lanka, so air pollution from power generation remains low.

Refiisebuming. Open burning of domestic and industrial refuse is widespread Particularly in urbanareas the resulting pollution is a well-recognized public nuisance.

Mobile Sources

The transport sector, accounting for 12 percent of Sri Lanka's energy consumption in 1989, and 60percent of all petroleum consumption, causes the most serious air pollution due to its concentration inpopulated areas. In 1990,60 percent of the country's more than half a million registered motor vehicleswere concentrated in the Colombo district

90 Energy Resource

The number of vehicles registered annually in Sri Lanka between 1970 and 1990 increased 14-fold(see Figure 5.16); Fuel is primarily petrol or diesel, refined locally from imported crude oil by the CeylonPetroleum Corporation. Sulphur content in refined fuel is maintained below 0.1 and 1.1 percent by weightrespectively for petrol and diesel. Lead in the form of tetraethyl is added to refined oil at the r-ate of 034to 0.55 grams per liter. Consumption rates recorded by the Ceylon Petroleum Corporation between 1970and 1986 (Figure 5.17) show that petrol consumption has declined marginally, but consumption of dieselhas doubled due to the increased number of private buses.

Vehicles account for nearly all the pollution resulting from petroleum consumption in Sri Lanka,based on estimates of 1989 consumption and WHO and US Environmental Protection Agency emissionfactors. Of all petroleum combustion emissions, vehicles produce 98 percent of the carbon monoxide, 92percent of the hydrocarbons, 79 percent of the oxides of nitrogen, 75 percent of particulates, and 46 percentof the sulphur dioxide. Buses and trucks are the major offenders, responsible for two-thirds or more ofall vehicle emissions other than carbon monoxide.

Recognizing the growing vehicle pollution problem, the government appointed a committee of expertsin 1987 to draw up plans to combat vehicular emissions. As yet none of the 20 committee recommendationshave been implemented.

AIR QUALITY MONITORING

The first major effort to monitor air quality began in early 1989 when the National Building ResearchOrganization initiated its three-year Colombo Air Quality Monitoring Program (CAMP): Phase Irequires a preliminary assessment of Colombo City air quality through determinations of sulphation rates,measured by concentration of sulphur compounds like sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide, and hydrogensulphide, and dustfall, measured by the total settleable dust in the atmosphere. Locations showing adverseair quality will be monitored in Phase II to measure suspended paniculate matter; SO2 and NOx. Thejoint CEA/NBRO program is a necessary first step toward several objectives: to establish a database forColombo City, to formulate National Air Quality Standards; and to establish a permanent monitoringstation.

In. the first phase, nearing completion, 52 locations were selected for continuous monitoring, andyear-long data are now available for 39 of these. To facilitate simultaneous monitoring of sulphation ratesand dustfall, the NBRO delineated individual sampling units, with monitoring stations about 0.8 kilometersapart. Results showed that sulphation rates- ranged between 0.04 and 0.45 milligrams per 100 squarecentimeters. The highest level was obtained from a sampling station located in the Kollupitiya commercialarea. Dustfall measurements showed the highest value of 1,4715 milligrams per square meter per day ata station near the Colombo NorthIndustrial Zone in Grandpass» while a station in Narahenpitarecordedthe lowest value of 139.70 milligrams per square meter per day,. .

The following criteria were adopted to classify air quality in identifying Phase II locations:

Excellent: Dustfall less than 200 milligrams per square meter per day and sulphation rate less than0.1 milligrams per 100 square centimeters per day. • . !:: . . . ;

Moderate? Dustfall 200-300 milligrams per square meter per day and sulphatibff rate less, thaa 0.1-0.2 milligrams per 100 square centimeters.. ; . , J? T

::"; ï:;J--:~ 'J-^~: '";"'' V^ ''îS"'--.-•.-

IIIIIIIIII

IIpIII!


Unsatisfactory: Dustfall more than 300 milligrams per square meter per day and sulphation rate morethan 0.2 milligrams per 100 square centimeters.

Monitoring results rated 18 locations as excellent, 12 as moderate and 9 as unsatisfactory. Allunsatisfactory locations were situated in commercial/industrial areas or at major traffic intersections.Preliminary monitoring of SPM, SO2, NOX and CO has commenced at these 9 locations.

INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Legal instruments. The National Environmental Act of 1980 as amended in 1988 prohibited pollutiondischarge into the environment. Sections 23J and K prohibit emission of pollutants into the atmosphere.The CEA is charged with establishing and enforcing the pollution law through regulatory requirements,and the National Environmental (Protection and Quality) Regulations of 1990 now prohibit the dischargeof wastes into the environment Discharge standards have been prescribed only for liquid wastes, however,so stationary sources of significant air pollution remain difficult to regulate. Moreover, the regulationsdo not address vehicle pollution.

Institutions. Although the CEA is charged with preserving air quality, its expertise in air qualitymanagement needs to be expanded and improved. CEA has designated the NBRO as lead agency for airquality monitoring. Other agencies will also be involved, including the Ceylon Institute of Scientific andIndustrial Research (CISIR), which is capable of monitoring ambient air quality and source emission, andthe Division of Occupational Health, which monitors the workplace environment.

Sri Lanka's limited air pollution controls contrast with the increasingly tight regulations in developedcountries, including stringent emission controls over the growing numbers of vehicles. The United Statesrequires lead-free petrol and (since 1975) emission control devices on all new cars. Japan, Canada, andseveral European countries also have rigorous vehicle emission controls. These measures require newtechnology and efficient inspection and enforcement systems. In the Third World, however, similarinvestment in vehicle pollution control has appeared too costly, even though vehicles cause increasinglysevere air pollution in cities like Bangkok, Cairo, Jakarta and Mexico City.

FUTURE ACTIONS

Development of a comprehensive air pollution control program in Sri Lanka will be a long-term effort.It requires careful planning for industrial siting and transportation. It also requires immediate efforts toobtain data on the health and economic impacts of air pollution and to build cost-effective monitoring andenforcement programs. Control of vehicle emissions demands high priority, given the steady increase invehicles and the lack of any pollution control program.

Health impacts

Data on health impacts of air pollution need to be established, based on analyses of lead content ofurban dust, incidence of respiratory illnesses, and other health data. In recent years scientists have warnedthat even low concentrations of lead cause serious poisoning, affecting urban children in particular.Worldwide, about 90 percent of the lead in urban air comes from motor vehicles. Concern is also growingabout the impacts of the small particulates emitted from diesel engines. Uncontrolled diesels emit about30 to 70 times more particulates than petrol engines. Studies indicate that these particulates have causedincreased tumors in animals and may be carcinogenic to exposed workers.

I

Sources and Effects of Air PollutionCommon pollutants generated by human activities are sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, |ead, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants and suspended

p matter. Concentrations of each pollutant in Sri Lanka are unknown because emissions have not been monitored. Nor do we have information OQcorrelations between ajr pollution an.f) respiratory illnesses or incidence of lead poisoning. The chart below lists the characteristics, sources, and effects qf eachmajor, air pollutan|. r

PRINCIPAL EFFECTSHealth: Some reduced tolerancefor exercise, impairment ofmental function, impairment offetal development, death athigh levels

Health: Aggravation of res-piratory and cardiovascularillnesses, irritation of eyesand respiratory tract, impairmentof cardio pujmonary function.

POLLUTANTCarbon fnonpxide(CO)

•'•< ' ' ''•'• ' ' ' " ' : / '

'". '•*' ' '-' - v ' ' >

Photochemical

• " * ' • ' ' • ' • j . ', *'' i ' •'

'%'y-•'ß•'•]<: ,;• '

CHARACTERISTICSA cojorless, odorlessgas with a strong chemicalaffinity for hemoglobin inblood

Colorless, gaseouscompounds which can gene-rate photochemical smog

PRINCIPAL SOURCESIncomplete combustionof fuels and othercarbon-containing sub-stances, such as inmotor vehicle exhaust;natural events such asforest fires or decom-position of organic matter

Atmospheric reactionof chemicals under theinfluence of sunlight

= ; V " • • •''••

A colorless gas with apungent odor; SO2 canoxidize to form sulfurtrioxide, which formssulfuric acid with water

Combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels,smelting of sulfur-bearing metal ores,industrial processes,volcanic eruptions

Other: deterioration ofrubber, textiles and paints;impairment of visibility, leafdamage and reduced growth ofpremature plants.Health: Aggravation of res-piratory diseases, includingasthma, chronic bronchitis,emphysema; reduced lungfunction; irritation of eyes,respiratory tract; increased mortality.Other: corrosion of metals;deterioration of electrical

Total suspendedparticular(TSP)

Nitrogendioxide (NO?)

Md

Any solid or liquid part-icles (diameter rangingfrom 0.3 to 100 microns)dispersed in the atmos-phere, such as dust,pollen, ash, soot, metals,various metals

' •

At high concentrations,a brownish-red gas with apungent odor, often formedoxidation of nitric oxide

A non-ferrous heavymetal occuring in air asvapor, aerosol or dust

Source: Thailand Natural Resources Profile

Stationary combustiqn,especially of solidfuels; constructionactivities; industrialprocesses; atmosphericchemical reactions;smoking tobacco;forest fires, winderosion, volcaniceruptions

Motor vehicle exhaust,high-temperaturestationary combustion,atmospheric reactions

Available in nature;lead mining, smelting,processing; motorvehicle emissions;manufacture of leadproducts (e.g. batteries)

contacts, paper, textiles, leather,finishes and coatings,building stone; formationof acid rain; leaf damage,reduced growth in plants;impairment of visibility.

Health; Directly toxic effectsor aggravation of the effectsof gaseous pollutants; aggra-vation of asthma or other res-piratory or cardiorespiratorysymptoms; coughing, chest dis-comfort;increased mortality.Others: soiling deteriorationof building materials, other

. surfaces; impairment ofvisibility; cloud formation;interference with plant photo-synthesis.

Health: Aggravation of respiratoryillnesses.Other: fading of paints, dyes;impairment of visibilityreduced growth, premature leafdrop in plants; formation of acid rain.

Health: Accumulation in body organs;anemia; kidney damage;central nervous system damage.

94 Energy Resource


Identifying economic costs

Although vehicle fuel and emission requirements as stringent as in developed countries would requirecostly investments in Sri Lanka, some immediate cost-effective measures may be possible. Modest vehiclemaintenance can easily reduce operating costs and air pollution emissions. An energy conservationprogram of USAID in Pakistan found that simple tune-ups (adjustment of air/fuel mixture and ignitiontiming in petrol vehicles; cleaning or replacement of air filters in diesels) could lower fuel costs by 5percent, while significantly reducing pollution.

Data are needed to determine costs of such tune-ups, including the down-time, for fleets of trucksand buses and the fuel savings and pollution reductions that would result. Vehicle pollution controlmeasures can then be developed that build on these potential economic incentives.

Expanding the data base

Several critical steps are necessary.

• Expand NBRO's monitoring programs to cover other densely populated urban areas in order toproduce the air quality data base and ambient air quality standards needed for the country as awhole.

• Make a thorough inventory of all emission sources, including public and private vehicle fleets andstationary sources, and establish a system of monitoring, testing and surveillance of vehicles foremissions.

• Develop cost-effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms to support any future legal con-trol regime - for example monitoring to focus on the one in ten vehicles causing the most sig-nificant problems.

Unlike many other countries, Sri Lanka's air pollution problem is still manageable. Although growing,it need not become more significant. Efforts to avoid future problems and save lives and resources canbegin through immediate data gathering and analysis, public education, and long-term planning fortransportation and industrial siting.

References

Abeywardene, A. and Siyambalapitiya, T. (1989). The consumptionpatterns of Commercial Energy in Sri Lanka (mimco). read attheseminaron Energy, Science and Society, December 1988.SriLanka Association for the advancement of Science. Colombo.

Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Annual Reports

Ceylon Electricity Board (1985). Trincomalee Thermal project: siteevaluation and selection study. The Ceylon Electricity Board.Colombo.

Ceylon Electricity Board (1987). Trincomalee thermal powerproject. Book 2 : Social and environmental assessment. TheCeylon Electricity Board, Colombo.

Ceylon Electricity Board (1989). Statistical DigestCeylon Electricity Board, Colombo.

1988. The

CEB, GTZ, LIDE and CECB (1990). Master plan for the electricitysupply of Sri Lanka - Project Information.- Sarvodaya VishvaLekha.

Chandrasekera, D. (1988) Petroleum Source and Supply. Paper readat the seminar on Energy, Science and Society, December 1988.Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science

De Silva. A.L.M. and Fernando, Rajen (1987). Public comments onthe proposed coal-fired thermal power plant. EnvironmentalFoundation ltd, Colombo.Fernando, G.B.A. (1987). Review ofenergy plans and strategies in the developing membercountries. Sri Lanka country report to the Asian DevelopmentBank (mimeo). Ministry of Power and Energy, Colombo.

Fernando, S. and Mel, Renuka. Energy demand in the domestic andindustrial sectors: an analysis of the period 1978 -1988, paperfrom seminar on Energy. Science and Society, December 1988.Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science

IIIIIIIIi

Energy Resources 95

Karunasena, A.G. (1989). Analysis of impact of oil price changes• through a macro-econometric model: the Sri Lankan case.

Energy Pricing Options in Sri Lanka, ed. E.N. Wijemanne. RegionalDevelopment Program of the International Labour Organisa-tion.

Knijff, A.V.D. Energy consumption in the tea industry of Sri Lanka.SLEMA Journal, March 1990.

Mel, Renuka. (1988). Sri Lanka energy balance and energy data1988. Energy Unit, Ceylon Electricity Board.

Munasinghe, Mohan (1980). Energy in Sri Lanka. Seminarproceedings, Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement ofScience, Colombo.

Munasinghe, Mohan (1990). Monographs on the Sri LankaEconomy -1 . The Sri Lanka energy sector, trends and futurepolicy options (mimeo). International Centre for EthnicStudies, Colomba

National Science Council (1980). A preliminary study on thefeasibility of Ocean Thermal Energy Conservation (OTEC)Power for Sri Lanka. National Science Council, Colombo.

National Science Council ( 1982). Report of the committee of inquiryon the proposal to use atomic energy for the generation ofelectric power in Sri Lanka. National Science Council, Colom-bo.

Pony, Jaako (1986). Forestry Master Plan for Sri Lanka. JaakoPony International Oy., Helsinki.

Sahabandu, M. Fuel demand in road passenger transportation - bussector, paper from seminar on Energy, Science and Society,December 1988. Sri Lanka Association for the Advancementof Science, Colombo.

Wijesinghe, L.GA. de S. (1984). A sample study of biomass fuelconsumption in Sri Lanka households. Biomass, Vol. 5, pp.261-282.

Wijesinghe, L.CA. de S. (1988). Biomass fuel and its utilization inSri Lanka. RERIC International Energy Journal. Vol. 10, No.1, pp. 67-8.

IIIII

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96

Paddy cuKivation on 760,000 hectares makes rice Sri Lanka's dominant crop in terms of land use and dietary

importance.

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

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j

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r 97

6 Land Resources

Sri Lanka covers about 6.56 million hectares (16.21million acres), of which 1.8 percent includes inlandwaters. But Sri Lanka's land resources are notmeasured by surface area alone; they include varioussoils - critical for productivity — underlying geology,topography, hydrology, and plant and animal popula-tions, and how these resources have been significantlyaffected by past and present human activities.

A rough indicator of demands on land resourcescan be seen from the land-man ratio. In 1871, when SriLanka contained only 2.4 million people, about 2.7hectares were available per person. Today, at about 17million, land has decreased to 038 hectares (about oneacre per person). As Figure 6.1 shows, the land-manratio will decrease further as Sri Lanka continues togrow to its forecast population, levelling off at about 25million after 2036. Competition for land among varioususers and appropriate management of land accordingto its capabilities will, inevitably, become a more

pressing problem. Adding to this challenge are theeconomic, social, and environmental impacts of con-tinued degradation of Sri Lanka's land resources frommisuse and over exploitation.

Part I of this chapter discusses trends in land useover five decades, present land use conditions, focusingparticularly on lands under tea and. paddy, and theimportance of soil resources. It concludes with a dis-cussion of current land resource use and allocationpolicies and institutional responses.

Part II focuses on land degradation problems, par-ticularly soil erosion, landslides, coastal erosion,salinity and waterlogging. It concludes with a briefdiscussion of institutional responses.

Given the breadth of this topic, this chapter cannotbe comprehensive; the chapters on mineral resources,coastal resources, and forestry address additionalaspects of land.

Population

2 0 -

15-

10-

5 -

n -

i •

1871

Land Extent & Land-ManRatios in Sri Lanka

(Millions) Land-Man

_ •

1901 1953 1988

Year

- * - POPULATION - » - LAND-MAN RATIO

Ratio

— - -.

F2-5

-2

- 1.5

- 1

0.5

2000

Figure 6.1

98 Land

Land Use Changes (1956-1984)(in thousands of hectares)

Total Measured Land Use = 6,525,000 ha

A- SETTLEMENTS

B-PADDY

C-TEA

D- RUBBER

E- COCONUT

F-OTHER CROPS

G- UNMEASURED

H- FOREST

I - GRASS,CHENA,SCRUB

J-WETLAND

1956

F 91

E 251D 227

C 258

B 515

I U27

H 2943

1984

C 222D 236 B 758

F 218

G 204

H 2168

990

J 35

I 1570

Figure 6.2 II

IIIIIIIIIIIII

IIpi'

Und 99

PARTILAND RESOURCES AND USE

1956 TO PRESENT

Population increases have significantly changedland uses since Independence, when high growth ratesintensified competition for land. At present,developed agriculture includes nearly a third of theland area, land under forest and wildlife conservationoccupies another third, and transportation, human set-tlements, home gardens, and a variety of other uses,including undeveloped land, account for the rest. In-formation on these present land uses, although imper-fect, comes from land use mapping by the SurveyDepartment, the Irrigation Department, the Land UsePolicy Planning Division, the Agriculture Department,and annual data gathered by the Department of Censusand Statistics and other Departments and local officers.By comparing present information with results of thefirst comprehensive land use mapping effort for SriLanka compiled from aerial photography in 1956 wecan determine significant changes in land use and landconditions over the past 45 years. Land use changes foreight broad categories from 1956 to 1984, and hectares

per person are shown in Figure 63. Highlights of thechanges:

Smaller natural forests. Forests have taken thebrunt of the change. Since 1956 natural forests shrunkfrom 2,900,000 hectares to 2,150,000 hectares in 1984.Assessed against population increases, forests declinedfrom 035 to 0.13 hectares of forest per head.

Dry Zone settlement New irrigated lands broughtover 300,000 families into the Dry Zone including set-tlement of 51,000 hectares of the Mahaweli region,"where 10,000 people moved from the newly constructedMahaweli reservoirs. Population also shifted sig-nificantly into Mullaitivu, Mannar and particularlyVavuniya, following loss of employment from national-ized tea plantations in the early 1970s. Even so, theLand Commission (1990) estimates that about 2.5 mil-lion hectares ~ nearly 40 percent of the country, mostlyin the Dry Zone — remains "developable" in some way.

20

15

10

5

0

No.Thousanda

-

1 1ri 1WP CP

•INO.OF

Encroachments on State Lands1979 - 1985

Extent HA/00

11•_, Ifi11 Mi 11

SP NP

P

1

JLEP

ROVIN

_ 11 1JL

NCP

ICE

1JL

NWP

-

-

I 1"

M M - . 1 1SAB UVA

ENCROACHMENTS O EXTENT ENCROACHMENT

25

20

16

10

5

0

Figure 6.3

100 Land

Livestock Population1960-1986

Millions

4 -

6 0 6 6 70 75

YEAR80 8 6

— CATTLE - * - BUFFALOES - * - QOAT3.PIQ3.3HEEP - * " CHICKEN

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Figire 6.4

Encroachments on state land. The government'sfirst official report on this problem found that by 1979an estimated 500,000 people had encroached on 6 per-cent of the country since well before Independence.Between 1979 and 1985 another 104,000 encroach*ments totalled over 70,000 hectares - a 19 percentincrease - mostly for residences and usually on landreserved by the state along roads, streams, and canals.The highest rate of increase occurred in the CentralProvince. Figure 6.3 shows encroachments perprovince since 1978.

Urban expansion. Urban areas have steadilysprawled into areas still not officially defined as"urban," frequently causing settlement and filling offloodprone lowlands. Urban expansion reduced rub-ber and coconut plantations around Colombo andGampaha by 25 percent. In Colombo, where thegovernment owns 25 percent of the land, an estimated9,000 encroachments occurred since 1979, primarily forhousing along canals and road and railway embank-ments.

Agricultural shifts. Paddy increased from 514,000hectares to 760,000 heaares in 1988, mainly in the newlyirrigated areas of the Mahaweli. Sugarcane, whichbarely existed in 1956, increased to about 20,000 hec-tares with the opening of plantations in the Southernand Eastern dry zone. Other agricultural changes: in-

creased livestock population, and twice as many chick-ens, mostly in commercial farms (see Figure 6.4), andmoderate growth in non-traditional export crops suchas coffee, pepper, cocoa, and in fruits and cut flowers.

Plantations. Tea plantations declined in size byabout 10 percent, but the overall acreage of developedagricultural land — about 30 percent in 1982 - barelychanged. The Land Commission estimates a 10 percentcoconut decline between 1962 and 1982.

Increased shifting cultivation. Lands under shift-ing cultivation (chena) increased from about 1 to 1.2million hectares. But whereas in the mid-1950s about90 percent lay in the Dry and Intermediate Zones, nowthey are found in every region, from Galle to Jaffna,despite government prohibitions. (See box - Whitherchena?)

PRESENT USE

Plantation Agriculture - Focus on Tea

Of the 839,000 hectares under plantation agricul-ture, tea has been the dominant crop and immenselyimportant environmentally as well. The discussionbelow focuses on the environmental and economic con-ditions and trends of tea production.

IIII

i :

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rLand 101

WHITHER CHENA?Chena (anglicised from hena) cultivation, probably Sri Lanka's oldest agriculture, still continues,

primarily in the island's sparsely populated; relatively dry regions. It involves forest clearing and cultiva-tion for a season ortwo;abandonment to fallow which allows the forest to regenerate, and subsequentr e p e t i t i o n o f t h e c u l t i v a t i o n c y c f e . . .. • '.-, •..•,-.:• '•;•'•'•. . : - v - . V ^ V . : • • " ' ' • • • ' • : K . • ; : . - • ? : • . ' : - - ' - ':^ :.:M'. • '•'••^:-

Forest clearing occurs during thedry season before the / m ^ rainfalL Burning follows before the::onset of rains, after which seed beds are prepared for an assortment of crops;including sweet corn, fingermillet, mustard and country vegetables grown under: rainfed conditions* Watch-huts on taUèr trees anlog fences provide protection from wild animals and birds. Harvesting begins toward the end of the rainyseason and continues during; the dry spells thereafter. A sec<nid; season of cfcen»: is often atthe: same land (yala hen} based on the minor rainy seasony wuft more d r o u ^gingelly. This cycle repeats on the same land wthfaUowpënóôf3to 10years. . ' ;. . . : "_ . ' : - - : ' i '.'• • • / • J - - J - - : •'•^••/'":•. ' - ; . ; : , v ' - ' .

"Slash and burn" agriculture may have been practised'since the neolithic age.; Evidence prehistoricman at Bandarawela indicates; the burning of drier nw

Sri Lanka's hydraulic civilization, and: when the European,naval powere arrived ctena cultivation was J

practised everywhere. Even the present Kotahena in the heart of (Älombö City may once Mve been achena. Expansion of plantation agriculture into: the central hiU:<»untryoanirred largely at t ^Kandyan chenas for which no definite titles: could be established Thus, although most tea estates haveEnglish, Scottish or Irish place names,many q | their original deeds retainthe suf5x'henar, indicating thatsome had previously been under chena.

Chena became a land settlement controversy duringthéBritish period. The Grown Land Encroach-ment Ordinance of 1840 created a strong presumption of Grown ownership, but some contended that allKandyan chenas belonged to Kandyan villagers. Conceding that it was "manifestly unfair to presume"Crown ownership, the First Land Commission (1927), which considered the c/iena in depth, argued thatremoval of the presumption would cause villagers more harm than good and bring: "great mischier tocommunity interests. Consequently, chena lands became Crown property;

H.R. Freeman, Government Agent of théNorth -Gentil Province,^Commission a very different perspective-. He recognized that villagere depended one^^low rainfall caused tanks and paddy crops to fail <êna crops provid^ some extra m a r ^recommended protection of reserve lands required for C ï o ^forests, allowing villagers to cultivate crtemr and graze caü

But the Land Commission came to another conclustonr •-.L^&ï.y^-^

Chena cultivation is a primitive and uneconomicfona of cultivations By means of ilivelihood may be obtained with the least amount of sustained exertionv For thiireasoa ittends to demoraüze personswhohabitually practiceitandfendertheniünv?ilh*ng to nndertakeany other forms of manual labour. UnlimkedfaciHtièsfor chena cutth^the villagers neglect paddy cultivation whicKdemand^h^d^

102 Land

Debateson chena continue, but observations of the First Land Commission retain their validity evenafter sixty years. Areas under c/ieno fanning are still considerable. In 1952 the committee on the use ofCrown Lands estimated about .7 million hectares of chena lands in the Dry Zone; fifteen years later theLand Use Committee (1967) reported cAeno at about one million hectares, and in 1984 the Land UseDivision of the Irrigation Departmentestimated chena land at about OinOfion hectares.

For SriLanka's forests the chena, and recent trendsmdicatingltsraNow chena cultivation concentiates on the reinaihin^ thé'

tensity

First Land Conimissiön reféried tösomec^thesame plot after 20 yearsvandmoccurs every 2-3 years orless. Many fanneradänotfällcwreœntsvurcy of c/iena cultivation ùv som

InChena lands produce about eighty percent:óf Sri Lanka'sirainfe^grains,pulsesandvegetablesany given year about 250,000 farm families dependoajchena.fóttheitüveühoodw

But environmental conditions and trends indicateenvironmentally sustainable.

neither: economically nor

about? one hectare. Population; increases mean: that this, ratiacamöfehectares of arable land in the country, a hectare.

Even present cAenff cultivation practices are not sustainable: CftowicultrvaÖpnwas^ditionally asystem of low intensity land use with a aütivaüon btensity range of bnr/5 to 10 percent:Hcultivation of lands wit&greäüy.rû

IIIII

is less than 50 percent: of the potential yield, with possible exceptions for soya beans and gingelly.

By the mid-nineteenth century British colonialpolicies caused clearing of many of Sri Lanka'stropical montane forests in order to plant coffeeand cinchona. Plantation coffee covered 20,500hectares in 1847, increased to about 32,400 hec-tares by 1857, and to 110,500 hectares by 1873.Approximately 20,200 hectares were convertedfrom chena lands (K.M. De Silva, 1981). By thenthe coffee blight was taking hold, and after 1880coffee gave way to tea plantations. Tea cultivationwas extremely efficient, and tea soon became SriLanka's single largest foreign exchange earner. Inconventional business terms the transformation ofnatural forests to plantation agriculture was highlysuccessful.

During the past decade, however, tea's relativeeconomic importance has changed significantly.Government revenue from tree crops (tea, rubberand coconut) fell from 23 percent in 1981 to .04percent in 1988 as the government reduced exportduties and taxes. Further, the proportion of then-export earnings declined from 49 percent in 1975to 25 percent in 1988. After 1980 the value ofindustrial exports exceeded that of tea exports.However, tea remains Sri Lanka's highest netforeign exchange earner, bringing in twice the netforeign exchange earned by textiles and gar-ments, although their gross foreign exchange earn-ings exceeded that of tea by 16 percent.

IIIIIII

Ii

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r Land. 103

Tea Production and Fertilizer Consumption

Tea - Production, Area

260Production Mlllo« Kgs) A T M - O O O M A I

200!

ISO

too

50

3002S0

Fertilizer Consumption

Consumption (Kg NPK/ha)

260

200

160

100

80

200

160

100

60

72 73 74 7S 76 77 78 70 60 81 62 S3 04 85 S« 67 66 69

YEAR

-*- PRODUCTION - * - AREA

National FwillbM- 3*oratahat

72 73 74 76 7« 77 78 78 80 81 62 S3 84 86 86 87

YEAR

- FERTILIZER

Soure*C*ntral Bank Annual RaportaHalloa^ Fa>Hlla> Sawatarlal

Figure 6.5

Yield of TeaState & Private

kg/ha

•HJEDB EUSLSPC

3ouro*iMlnlalry of Plantation Induatrla«

Rgure6.6

I

104 Land

Production. Tea production peaked at 228 millionkilograms in 1965 due lo increased acreage and yieldsper acre. Since then production has declined. Between1968 and 1982 production fluctuated but declined at anestimated rate of 1.87 million kg/ha/yr (Figure 6.5). In1983 a severe and prolonged drought cut production to179 million kilograms — the lowest level since 1965.Although production rose to 208 million kilograms thefollowing year and in 1988 production reached 227million kilograms. In the absence of civil disruption inthe Southern and Uva regions production might haveexceeded that of 1965.

Various factors have contributed to productiondeclines or stagnation: reduced acreage; adverseweather; inadequate replanting and infilling; poormanagement; nationalization following the LandReform Laws of the 1970s; high taxation and depressedprices; increasing age and senility of tea plantations;and declining soil fertility.

Unfortunately there is no accurate information onthe extent of tea. Area under tea, as registered by theTea Commissioner's Division, remained virtually un-changed for at least the ten years up to 1982 (Figure6.5), but data from the Agricultural Censuses show a9.5 percent decrease in area between 1973 and 1982.Area under tea decreased by 20,031 hectares between1983 and 1989, according to records of the PlantationIndustries Ministry. Of this amount 63 percent oc-curred in the mid-country, in part because of landreleased for village expansion, diversification, and set-tlement

Registered tea acreage in 1984 was 227,875 hec-tares but the Remote Sensing Survey, using aerialphotographs during 1981-1984, estimated tea area at201,630 hectares. Apparently because of this uncer-tainty official figures of national yield have ceased to bereported after 1980, even though tea is Sri Lanka'sprincipal agricultural product and data on yield perhectare is a useful index of agricultural efficiency.

Yield data is nevertheless available for the twomajor state organisations, the JEDB and SLSPC, whichtogether account for over 50 percent of the tea area andalmost two-thirds of the country's production (Figure6.6). Private sector yields have been estimated for

comparative purposes, although four-fifths of theprivately owned and managed tea estates are smallholders (under 10 hectares). State sector yields haveremained more or less stagnant, but smallholder yieldshave grown markedly, doubling within a period of eightyears. While this is a remarkable achievement, privateyield levels are still only 70 percent of the state sector.

IIIII

In the private smallholder sector, the three lowest ayielding districts are the midcountry — Matale, Kegalle Iand Kandy. The three highest yielding districts are allin the low country (Matara, Kalutara and Galle) whereaverage yields are higher than those of the state planta-tions (Figure 6.7). Tea growers in the low country havehad the benefit of fertilizer on credit from TSHDA,private factories, higher prices, and higher proportionsof clonal tea. Poor prices of mid-grown tea on the otherhand, have led to a spiralling effect of neglect of lands,degradation, and poor yields.

Soil erosion. The most significant environmental _cost of agricultural production is soil erosion, clearly Ievident for Sri Lanka's tea plantations. Tea is grown onred yellow podzolic soils (RYP), reddish brown _Iatosolic soils (RBL), and immature brown loams (IBL) •in the Wet Zone, of which most is the low-erodible soilRYP. However, because of the greater inherent«erodibility and instability of IBL soils, which occur in •the midcountry, tea lands on these soils are vulnerableto degradation. Even on low erodible soils, and despite Mlow intensity rainfalls, tea in the mid-country and at high Ielevations grows on steep slopes. In the low country,where slopes are less steep, rainfall intensity is high,Thus all plantations are highly prone to erosion.

Soil erosion problems were recognised more than60 years ago. The Administration Report of the IDepartment of Agriculture for 1927 has a modern ring:

The importance of soil conservation in the hillcountry is recognised by all and much has beenaccomplished in recent years. Much however,remains to be done and until every planter in theupcountry realises that this is his main agriculturalproblem the situation cannot be considered to besatisfactory. If soil erosion can be checked andgeneral soil condition and tilth maintained, cropyields will be sustained without the aid of increas-ing quantities of artificial fertilizer and the in-cidence of pests and diseases will also be reduced.

iIII

r Land 105

Small Holding

Districts*

3 lowest yielding districts

(Matale, Kegalle, Kandy

3 middle yielding districts

(Nuwara Biya, Badulla.Ratnapura)

3 highest yielding districts

(Matara, Kalutara, Galle)

* Districts with over 500 ha

Sector Average Yields (1984)

Average Yield (kg/ha)

359

661

1,533

Source : Calculated data from Report of the Census of Tea Small Holdings in Sri Lanka 1984.

Area (ha)

24,205

23,406

27,824

-

Figure 6.7

Little happened, however. Due to the importanceof maintaining weed-free fields and the failure to adoptsound agronomic soil conservation measures, soilerosion continued.

Best available estimates suggest that as much as 30centimeters of topsoil has been lost from upland areasover the last century since tea was introduced,equivalent to an average loss of 40 t/ha/yr. However,soil losses in well-managed tea estates have beenreduced to as little as 3 t/ha/yr. Land under tea is mostprone to erosion during planting and pruning when soilis exposed. With proper drains and the use of mulchesand cover crops, soil erosion could be minimized (Fig-ure 6.12). Weed management techniques are also veryimportant, especially in land with low bush densities,and so is full coverage of the land by the crops. Annualinfilling of vacancies in fields, one routine on estates,was neglected during the late 1960s and 1970s. Thegovernment introduced a scheme in 1978 to pay the costOf infilling^

Soil erosion and land degradation affect largeareas of tea lands that are marginally productive and

uneconomic, predominantly in the midcountry. Theselands could be made economically productive again formixed farming, including spice crops, if, as noted by theLand Commission, concerned agencies work togethertoward that end.

Fertilizer use. Artificial fertilizer is the single mostimportant input in terms of at least short term produc-tivity because tea responds especially well to nitrogenfertilizer. Tea receives the highest input of fertilizer ofany crop in Sri Lanka with possible exceptions forupcountry vegetable cultivation and some other cropsin the Mahaweli irrigation areas. Over the past twodecades fertilizer consumption in terms of NPKnutrients increased from 118 kg/ha, in 1972 to 215 kg/hain 1988, which is 79 percent higher than for paddy(Figure 6-5). Compliance with recommended use in-creased from 73 percent to 97 percent - highest com-pliance rate for the three major plantation crops andpaddy — although cases of overfertilization still occur.

Yield in relation to other countries. The averageyield of tea in Sri Lanka is low compared to othertea-producing countries. FAO statistics record in-

106 Land

4UOO

3000

2000'

1000

YIELD

— ^

-

1

o75 76

SourceiOepartmen

Average

KQ/HA)

77 78 79

Yield of Paddy

i i i i

80 81 82 83

YEAR

—— MAHA —•—

t of Census & Statistics»

(1975 -

i i

84 85

YALA

1987)

- ~ — - " ^ .i ^ T — —f _ - 1 1 .

i i i 1

86 87 88 89

Figure 6.8

Use of Fertilizer in Paddyin NPK Nutrients

120TOTAL'000 MT KG/HA

140

70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 88 87Year

o88

Source: NFS Data

TOTAL USF000 MT

Figure 6.9

KQ/HA

II

IIIIIII

IIIIIIIIiI

IIIIII

r Und 107

creasing yields for Sri Lanka from 1985 to 1988, but theyield in 1988 was only 52 to 64 percent of the yields ofIndonesia, India, Malawi and Kenya. Of the countriesreported, Sri Lanka only exceeded the yield ofBangladesh and Tanzania. The reasons for Sri Lanka'srelatively poor performance:

• Many tea plantations are over 80 years old andbeyond peak cropping potential;

• Low bush densities caused by neglected infilling;

• Slow rates of replanting with high yielding clonalmaterial, well below the targets of 5,000 hectaresper year,

• Low productivity of soils due to degradation.

These factors suggest a critical question: Whatlevel of investment can and should be put intorehabilitation of tea plantations to increase produc-tivity over the long term?

Cultivation — Focus on Paddy

In Sri Lanka, paddy is the dominant crop both interms of land use and dietary importance. Efforts toachieve national self-sufficiency in rice have receivedhigh priority. In 1988 Sri Lanka's rice imports were only10 percent of national requirements.

Production. Paddy output has grown remarkablyin area and yield over the years. Large lands have beenopened up for peasant colonization and settlements inthe Dry Zone. From 1971 to 1982, increases in paddyarea and yield per unit area contributed about equallyto the increase in total production. During this period,particularly after 1976, paddy yields steadily increased,reaching a maximum in 1983. Between 1982 and 1986changes in total paddy production largely resulted fromincreased yield, but after 1986 production increasedmainly because more area was sown. Yields have alsoincreased over the long term, but there appears to havebeen a levelling off since 1985 (see Figure 6.8).

A major factor contributing to increased yields isthe breeding of improved varieties. The new improvedvarieties (HYVs) have a yield potential of 7 t/ha, com-pared to 4 t/ha for the old improved varieties. With the

introduction of NIVs in the early 1970s they are nowtending to replace older varieties.

Inputs. Use of fertilizers and adoption of bettermanagement practices such as weed control, pest anddisease control have also increased yields. From 1965to 1984 the area under weed control increased from 14percent to 78 percent, and pest and disease controlfrom 13 percent to 68 percent. Fertilizer use in paddyhas increased threefold from 42 kg NPK nutrients perhectare in 1970 to 120 kg/ha in 1988, reaching a peakconsumption of 130 kg/ha in 1987 (see Figure 6.9).

Agricultural development over the last 40 years hasbrought most available land and water resources intoproductive use. Given the limitations on increasingpaddy lands, the only option for attaining and maintain-ing self-sufficiency is increased productivity, or theyield per hectare.

Cost and environmental factors constrain this op-tion, also. Modernization of traditional practices of thefarmer have invariably required costly inputs of trac-tors, fertilizers and pesticides. Since 1970 tractors haveincreasingly replaced buffaloes in paddy fields; an es-timated 45 percent of Dry Zone paddy is cultivated bytractor. From 1977 to 1986 the cost of fertilizer andpesticides increased by 72 percent and 150 percentrespectively. Imported inputs, according to data fromthe Hambantota district, amounted to approximately50 percent of the total input cost in 1985.

Despite data problems, scientists have becomeconcerned about long term productivity constraintsassociated with soils that have been farmed for manyyears with ever-increasing applications of chemical fer-tilizers. On one hand Sri Lanka clearly cannot returnto the level of productivity of the ancient sustainablesystems, estimated at only 1.5 t/ha (30 bushels/acre) atIndependence. On the other hand input costs must becontained, and environmental externalities minimized.Increasing costs of tractor fuel, for example, may makeit possible and désirable for more farmers to return totraditional reliance on buffaloes, assuming thatavailability of feed supplies make this economical.With improved data and analyses of long-term fertilizerand pesticide impacts on soils and sustainable produc-

108 Land

tivity, changes in these inputs may be seen as economi-cally necessary as welL

A potentially attractive move towards sus-tainability would be greater use of bio fertilizers (far-myard manure, green manures, compost) to substitutefor chemical fertilizer. Research has shown that the useof rice straw at 3 t/ha could meet all requirements forpotassium fertilizer and part of nitrogen requirements.The Department of Agriculture now recommends ap-plication of rice straw in all agroclimatic zones exceptthe low country wet zone. Chemical fertilizer inputscan also be appreciably reduced when applied in com-bination with green manures such as Gliricidia,Tithonia, and Leucaena. The doubling of paddy fer-tilizer prices when fertilizer subsidies ceased in January1990 is a strong incentive for greater use of biofc rt ilizersby farmers.

Grass lands

Much of Sri Lanka's more than 500,000 hectares ofgrass and scrubland is used for livestock grazing. Onlyabout 20,000 hectares of these lands, mainly in govern-ment farms, are under improved grasses with at leastdouble the fodder yield of indigenous grasses. Yet onlyhalf the local requirement of milk is produced in SriLanka, the rest is imported. Cost of imported milk andmilk products rose about eightfold from 1977 to 1986(Gunasena, 1990 draft). Efforts to increase milkproduction from smaller areas can release grassland toother uses. Improved pasture can also be raised undercoconut.

Forest Gardens

Forest gardens occupy almost a million hectares inrural areas and produce a variety of agricultural crops,timber, fruit, and fuelwood trees in multi-storey arran-gements. The mix of crops varies according to climate,with the widest variety of crops in the Wet and Inter-mediate Zones. A fully developed home garden af-fords excellent conservation possibilities similar to thatof a natural forest. However in most home gardenshaphazard placement of trees and other crops deniesthese benefits; more careful, and more scientific arran-gement of trees and management of canopies can in-crease production. (See box on forest gardens.)

ALLOCATION FOR SUITABILITYAND SUSTAINABILITY

Soils of Sri Lanka

Soil productivity remains a basic factor in deter-mining good land condition and appropriate land use.It is essential to maintain the balance between forests(about one-quarter of Sri Lanka) and crop and live-stock land (about one-third). Sri Lanka's soils arevulnerable to soil erosion, primarily from high intensityrainfall. Soil conservation is therefore a critical com-ponent of long term land management.

Soil is renewable in geologic, not generationalterms. Although local data are not available, tropicalresearch (Young, 1969) indicates a rate of soil forma-tion of 46 milimeters in 1,000 years from consolidatedmetamorphic rocks, and in Sri Lanka erosion canremove up to 5 to 10 millimeters in one year. Thus soillost in one year cannot be renewed or replaced withinone human lifetime. Land and its soil may be reused,but not, for practical purposes, renewed. Theeconomic costs of soils lost or degraded are thereforeexceedingly difficult to measure.

General soil maps reveal the major soil groupingsof the wide soil varieties present in Sri Lanka. Soilcharacteristics and capabilities vary as well, dependingon climate and parent material. Some soils—ImmatureBrown Loams, Non Calcic Brown and Reddish BrownEarths — are highly erodible and need special soilconservation measures. But most stable soils like RedYellow Podsolic and Reddish Brown Latosolic soilsoccur on steep slopes, so they too are prone to higherosion. The crops best suited to the various soils, andthe management requirements, are presented in Figure6.10. The 14 major soil groups are distributed among 4topographic classes: (i) flat to undulating (0-8 percentslope); (ii) rolling to hilly (8-30 percent slope); (iii) hillyand mountainous (30-60 percent slope); and (iv) ex-tremely steep (over 60 percent slope).

Suitability analysis

Wide variations and combinations of soils, climate.and topography and susceptibility of lands to erosion,landslides, or loss of fertility, make evaluation of landcapabilities for various uses exceedingly complex. The

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

.,_~

SuitedSoil GroupReddish Brown Earths

Low Humic Gley

Non Calcic Brown

Red Yellow Latosols

Immature Brown Loams

Solodised Solonetz

Grumusols

Crops And Specific Management Requirements Of The Major Soil Groups.Suited Crops

cereals,pulses,cassava,sugarcane,castor.onions chillies,cotton,tobacco,vegetables,fruit crops,pasture grasses,timber trees.

puddled rice, adaptedpasture grasses

cereals pulses,cassava,sugarcane,castor.onions chillies,colton,tobacco, vegetables, fruit crops,pasture grasses, timber trees.

cereals, pulses, cassava, sugarcane,castor, onions, chillies, cotton,tobacco, vegetables, fruit crops,pasture grasses, timber trees, asparagus

conservation forestry for steep slopes;cereals, pulses, cassava, sugarcane,

castor, onions, chillies, cotton,

tobacco, vegetables, fruitcrops,

pasture grasses, timber trees

for gentler slopes

puddled rice after reclamation

puddled rice

Specific Management Requirementsupplemental irrigation at 1-2 week intervals(furrow, drip,sprinkler); good drainage facilities (main drains 2 meterdeep); timing of tillage to moist conditions; soil conservationmeasures; nutrient supplementation by organics or inorganics

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals (flooded basins);good drainage;nutrient supplementation

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals (furrow, drip,sprinkler); good drainage facilities (main drains 2 meterdeep);timing of tillage to moist conditions; soil conservation measures;nutrient supplementation by organics or inorganics

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals(furrow,drip,sprinkler); soil conservation measures;nutrient supplementation by organics or inorganics(small doses at frequent intervals).

soil conservation most important;steep slopes to be undisturbed because of landslide hazard;

nutrient supplementation; irrigation if available and possible

reclamation by gypsum addition and flushing or repeated

(lushing by calcium rich irrigation water; supplemental irrigation at weekly

interval (flooded basins); good drainage ; nutrient Supplementation,

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals (flooded basins);

good drainage.

nutrient supplementation; soil conservation measureso

Red Yellow Podsolic &Reddish BrownLatosolic SoilsAlluvial soilsa) Levee Soils

b)Back slope &

c)Back swamp soils

Regosols

Bog Soils

Lithosols

Old Alluvial Soils

tea, rubber, coconut, coffee, cocoa,cinnammon, pepper, mulberry,cloves, nutmeg, tobacco, vegetables,fruit crops, pasture grasses, forestryvegetables, cereals, pulses, tobacco,

sugar cane, onions

puddled rice, adapted pasture

coconut,palmyrah,cashew

medicinal products.mangrove

• reeds for basket weaving, nipa palmfor sugar & honey, sonneratia for fruit,

cork & fuelwood, bacopa for vegetation

for multiple use, rice if specifically

adapted.

conservation forestry

sugar cane, groundnuts, pasture,grasses, puddled rice

supplemental irrigation at 1-2 week intervals

(furrow.drip, sprinkler)good drainage facilities;

nutrient supplementation by organics or inorganics

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals

(flooded basins); good drainage; nutrient supplementation;flood control.

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals(drip,sprinkler); soil conservation measures;

nutrient supplementationby organics or inorganics(small doses at frequent intervals).

controlled drainage; flood controls; salinity control; flushing putof acidity; liming to correct acidity; nutrient supplementation

including zinc and copper; prevention of subsidence and

oxidation, conservation

supplemental irrigation at weekly intervals(drip, sprinkler); soil conservation measures;nutrient supplementation by organics orinorganics (small doses at frequent intervals).

Figure 6.12

I

Und 111

suitability of the lands for major land uses in Sri Lankahas been assessed using a generalized geographic infor-mation system. Data on soils, climate and topographyhave been analyzed to arrive at overall land suitabilityestimates for the entire country, regardless of presentuse. These data can be used only to obtain an overallnotions of land suitability for national scale planning.They indicate, however, that thousands of hectares ofagricultural lands are located on marginally suitable orunsuitable lands.

Land use allocation problems and needs

In Sri Lanka, as elsewhere, population anddevelopment pressures demand careful use of landmanagement information and resolution of policy ques-tions regarding land tenure.

Undeveloped lands. The Land Commission es-timated that nearly two million hectares (4.9 M acres)of rainfed lands were available for agriculture, settle-ment, or other development in the Dry Zone. Most ofthis land is now under state forest or wildlife protection.Because of water constraints about one million hec-tares has been ranked low in agricultural potential. TheLand Commission's report highlighted the importantneed to determine how this land should be allocated, towhom and under what conditions.

Wildlife habitat. With approximately 11-5 percentof the country allocated to National Parks or similarreserves, Sri Lanka devotes a higher proportion of itsland to wildlife than any Asian country except Bhutan(World Resources Institute, 1986) - three times theworld average. Yetwildlife management faces sig-nificant problems of encroachment and still un-protected biological resources. Although the twolargest wildlife parks, Yala and Wilpattu, are locatedwithin dry areas unsuited to agriculture, managementproblems arise from the presence of - 2,000 families inWasgomuwa and Uda Walawe. Meanwhile, develop-ment and demographic pressures in the biologicallyrich Wet Zone suggest serious needs for better wildlifeprotection there. (See biological diversity chapter.)

Forest lands. Allocation of forest lands presentssimilar questions. Forests constitute about 24 percentof the country, slightly above the Asian average (21percent in 1965-1982), but these areas include "ecologi-

cally marginal" lands in the Dry and IntermediateZones. Some of these forests are potentially suited toagriculture, whereas in the Wet Zone catchment areasnatural forests may be desirable for long term protec-tion of reservoirs, food and fiber for neighboring vil-lages, and other forest uses, including protection ofbiological diversity.

Urban lands. Encroachment on state lands inurban areas usually occurs on lands least suitable forresidential use, such as stream and canal banks andrailroad embankments, but demands for affordablelow-income housing are high. Efforts to protect waterquality of urban lakes and streams, provide drainage,sewer connections, and the provision of clean drinkingwater from wells or piped supplies, require landmanagement that accounts for encroachment problemsand the housing and other needs that caused them.Areas considered open to development that mightrelieve encroachment problems are often low-lyinglands subject to flooding. Options to anticipate andprevent worsening urban growth problems includerelocation of industries to outlying areas, and plannedlow-rise housing developments with open-space.

POLICIES AND INSTTTUTIONALRESPONSES

As with water resources, the laws and policiesconcerning land use are numerous and replete withproblems of administration, coordination, and policydirection. Underlying Sri Lanka's land use andmanagement practices, however, are policies, laws, andinstitutions affecting land tenure and the distribution ofstate land. These policies reflect concerns about howto allocate land fairly among competing interests — thelandless, land owners, business interests, religious in-terests, and interests of the community at large. Recog-nizing that the topic is large and all encompassing, a fewkey acts and policies are discussed below.

Land Ownership

State ownership has, on balance, remained steadysince Independence at about 80 percent of Sri Lanka —significantly higher than in most European or otherAsian countries. Yet much land has changed intoprivate ownership over the interim — 13 million hec-tares under the Land Development Ordinance of 1935.

I

112 Land.

Trends in Human Population Growth and Forest Cover in Sri Lanka

PO« v.r.e.

20 -I 100POPULATION

FORtST COVER

2000

Pop-Millions; FC Percent of Total Land Area

Source : Department of Census & Statistics; Nanayakkara (1982), Erdlen (1988)

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

About one-quarter of all Sri T .ankans live on landalienated under that law, which reflected a policy favor-ing state land alienation. During the 1970s, however,with the Land Reform Acts, the state nationalized andacquired vast new acreage, mostly large tea plantations,but also, under new land ownership ceilings, many smallparcels, even including 7,600 parcels (average size 12hectares) in Colombo. Net state land ownership hasincreased about .4 million hectares (one million acres)since the nationalizations of the 1970s.

Complex law, custom, and policy, and variouskinds of tenure restrictions resulting from dispositionof state land, make it difficult to grapple with landtenure conditions and trends in Sri Lanka. Data isneeded on the nature (restricted and unrestricted) andextent of land under private ownership by corporations(plantation, industrial, commercial), and individuals.

Major Land Tenure Laws

Land Development Ordinance. Following therecommendations of the First Land Commission of1927 — a commission of inquiry established to makefindings and recommendations on specific landproblems — Land Development Ordinance No. 19 of1935 (revised in 1946, 1955, 1961, 1969) sought "sys-

tematic development and alienation of Crown Lands inCeylon." But the Act did not propose simple land salesto individuals. It provided for lands to be alienated firsttemporarily through a permit given upon payment of anannual rent. Once lands were developed the temporarypermit could then be converted to a permanent grant.The single largest portion of the 830,832 hectares (2.05million acres) of state land given to private ownership(nearly 1 million farmer families) since 1935 fell underthis statute. This included the decision to make legalabout half the encroachments identified in 1979, cover-ing 205,762 hectares.

The Land Development Ordinance also providesfor the Government Agent to "map out," carry out landuse planning for, lands appropriate for village expan-sion, forestry, pasture, human settlements, preventionof soil erosion, buildings, or roads. Supplemented byprovisions of the Crown Lands Ordinance No. 8 of1947, .it established procedures and responsibilities,under a permanent Land Commissioner, for ad-ministering, selling, and developing state lands.

Agrarian Services Act. The Agrarian Services Act58 of 1979 (as an amendment to, and continuation of,the Paddy Lands Act No. 1 of 1958) sought to redressperceived land ownership inequities by giving more I

I

Land

FOREST GARDENS

As Sri Lanka's population increases and arable land becomes more scarce, young farmersfrom the hill country are moving up steep slopes into previously unsettled, marginally productiveland, often belonging to the government The phenomenon is fairly recent, with most settlershaving arrived within the last decades. The farmers grow lucrative annual cash crops such aspotatoes and tomatoes and rely on limited crop rotation or fallowing and heavy application ofchemical fertilizers to maintain yields as topsoil erodes and fertility declines. These farmingpractices exacerbate soil erosion problems, reducing already marginal fertility in the highlandsand increasing the silt load in dams for irrigation projects downstream. An alternative land usesystem for the deforested hills is needed to provide upland watershed protection and income forsmall farmers. One of the most promising options is forest gardens, planted to reforest themountain pa/ana grasslands while producing multiple crops for farmers.

Sri Lanka's forest gardens have been a dominant form of land use on the island for centuries.Similar agroforestry systems are known throughout the tropics. The gardens vary in structureand composition with climate and elevation. What little research has been undertaken on forestgardens in Sri Lanka has focused on those below 1,000 meters elevation — the 'midcountr/Kandyan spice gardens (Jacob and Alles, 1987).

Tn fhft largely ite.fnrp^pA fjn T _qnlfqn highignrfo. nnlifo» traditional agroforcsiry systems in theforest or at the forest edge as in Indonesia and Mexico - forest gardens are begun on the degradedgrassland hillsides. In much of the Uva Basin, the A horizon of the primarily red-yellow podzolicsoil has eroded away. Yet, as villages expand, local farmers can create gardens of trees and shrubson these very marginal sites in just a few years. As neighboring gardens blend together, a village,seen from above, appears as a forest island in a sea of grassland. The "village forest" providesvital refuge for native flora and fauna as the last remnants of natural forests in the highlands fallto illicit logging. As the gardens provide wildlife habitat, they may be appropriate models fornature reserve buffer zone areas, providing a gradual transition from reserve to agricultural landuse.

In Mirahawatte, a slightly larger than average of 600 households, forest gardens account fornearly 50 percent of private land use. Located immediately around the owners' homes, thegardens are commonly one component of the larger fanning system which may also include ricepaddies, vegetable fields and/or plantation crops such as tea. Throughout the year they providea wide variety of food, fuel, fodder, wood, medicinal and cash crops including coffee; bananas,avocados and palm sugar as well as a cool and pleasant living environment Households gather75-100 percent of their firewood from their gardens (the remainder supplied by primings fromnearby tea plantations). The gardens produce such a surplus of jak fruit, a basic carbohydratecomponent of the villagers' diet, that 75 percent of the fruit is left to rot on the trees. Individualtimber and over-mature fruit trees are removed as wood is needed and various new seedlings areplanted in their stead. The gardens are never dearcut and many predate living memory in thevillage.

113

114 Land

On average thegsrdens are one-third hectare in size with over 250 individual woody perennials of 29species (120 species of trees and shrubs were identified in the village). When compared with a typicalagricultural field, the gardens' two-to three-tiered structure — shrubs in the understory, medium sizedfruit trees in a mid-level layer and large fruit and timber producing trees in the canopy - increases thearea for photosynthesis and thus production into vertical space. Structural characteristics of the gardens,including their high density and species diversity, are comparable to measures firom natural forests insimilar elevations and climates. Such characteristics may be used as indicators of vital functions of forestecosystems, including, nutrient cycling and watershed protection, suggesting that the gardens are partialanalog» (Senanayake, 1987) of natural forest systems; The fundamental dynamics of the gardens, whileguided by fanners* economic decision making, also follow processes of regeneration and vegetation changeover time, like those of natural forests.

Farmers* knowledge of these processes of change: makes it possible- to modify the surroundinglandscape with such agroforestry systems. Ifwe can clearly grasp how the fanners use these forest gardensystems, the principles can be applied to similar systems elsewhere. One area for further research isidentification of more high value, sustained yield crops such as spices, fruits; medicines and ornamentalplants and their markets from present garden species or front others which might be integrated into theexisting systems and which for the small farmer, on marginal land could compete in value with annualvegetablecropsw .'...• ......•.; ;....• . ; -•. . .

• Prcpaiedt)yYvomMl&iciett,Neo^thes»Resear^

Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) meeting Sag Francisco, CA» Janoaryy 1989* - in pre» Warna, DJ&, D.

iciisy, Indigenous KnowledgeSystemst 7^ Giltural Dimension* of 'DevelopmentKcegan Paul InternationäL

IIIIIIIII

i.*

IIIIIIIIIIIj

secure tenure rights to tenant farmers in ways thatwould also increase productivity of agricultural lands.Sound management of agricultural activities was to beachieved through appointed Agrarian Services Com-mittees and cultivation officers. The Act provided forvarious land use planning functions to ensure suitablecrops or breeds of livestock.

The Act also required cultivation of only paddyduring the paddy cultivation season on "paddy lands,"interpreted as land presently or at any time previouslycultivated with paddy. Hence, lands in irrigationprojects that might be more suited to other crops thatused less water or caused less waterlogging or salinityin soils must nevertheless be devoted to paddy. Similar-ly, poorly drained lands in coastal regions that wereonce unproductive paddy fields are, legally, required tostay in paddy.

Land Reform Act. The Land Reform Act of 1972established limits on private ownership of agriculturalland, stipulating a per capita ceiling of 10 hectares (25acres) for paddy, and 20 hectares (50 acres) on othercropland such as tea, rubber, or coconut. Limits set forresidences were 2 hectares (one half acre) for anowner, and .05 hectares (one eighth acre) for staffquarters per resident family. Amendments in 1975included acquisition of the large tea estates. The result:state acquisition of 419,000 hectares (over 1 millionacres), including the tea estates of 169,000 hectares(418,000 acres). The Act established a Land ReformCommission with power to acquire and dispose ofproperty. Of the property acquired, only about 10percent went to landless people, 4 percent of it tea land(Report of the Land Commission, 1990, p. 187).

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Ij

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Land 115

Government Responsibilities

Management, disposition, and development ofstate land, and implementation of land use policiesintended to foster small land owner prosperity, arehighly fragmented. On one hand, custody of state land,traditionally with the Land Commissioner, has beengiven to a large number of private and public organiza-tions, including ministries, departments and corpora-tions. None has overall authority over land usedecisions nor powers to enforce conservationmeasures. On the other hand, numerous agencies areinvolved in private sector land use activities, fromagricultural technical assistance to the granting of per-mits for land development.

Land management complexity is indicated by theroughly three dozen agencies within seven or moreministries that directly manage land resources. Manyother agencies affect land directly and indirectlythrough permits and other regulations. The followingsummarizes major governmental roles and respon-sibilities concerning state land management and privateland use and development:

Urban land management and development, in-cluding disposition of state land, is carried out by theUrban Development Authority, the Sri Lanka LandReclamation and Development Corporation, the Na-tional Housing Development Authority, the CeylonTourist Board, the Sri Lanka Port Authority, and theSri Lanka Railways. Coordination of land develop-ment needs and proposals is difficult and often obscure.

The Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and MahaweliDevelopment is responsible for decisions on state landsnot already allocated to other institutions. The LandCommissioners Department, Forest Department andIrrigation Department are Departments under thisMinistry. New Divisions — Water Resources Develop-ment, Forestry Resources Development, Forestry andEnvironment, Irrigation Management, and Land UsePolicy and Planning — have also been established. Thejurisdiction of the new agencies, is often unclear andcan conflict with the mandates of the older operatingagencies.

The Ministry of Agricultural Development andResearch is responsible for paddy, annual crops, sugar

cane, horticulture, and export crop subsectors. Majororganizations under the Ministry are the Departmentof Export Agriculture, Department of Agriculture,Department of Agrarian Services, and the AgriculturalDevelopment Authority. Overlapping responsibilitiesof several of these agencies, particularly among thelatter three have caused confusion among local officialsand residents.

The Ministry of Plantation Industries is respon-sible for plantation agriculture research, developmentand management. Major organizations involved in thePlantation Agriculture sector under this Ministry arethe Janatha Estate Development Board, State Planta-tions Corporation, Sri Lanka Sugar Corporation, SugarCane Research Institute, National Institute of Planta-tion Management, Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation,Rubber Control Department, Rubber Research In-stitute and the Tea Research Institute. The ResearchInstitutes do research and extension work on ways toimprove crop productivity. Other agencies haveregulatory or subsidy payment functions. The TeaCommissioners Department, for example, registers tealands, factories, and regulates tea dealers, among otherduties, and the Tea Small Holdings DevelopmentAuthority issues permits for planting and rehabilita-tion, and gives funds for replanting and infilling. TheMinistry of Coconut Industries, also within the Ministryof Plantation Industries, includes the CoconutDevelopment Authority, Coconut Cultivation Board,Coconut Rehabilitation Board, and the Coconut Re-search Institute. The Coconut Research Institute car-ries out research and extension on conservationmeasures and production aspects. The CoconutDevelopment Authority and Coconut RehabilitationBoard issue permits for planting, replanting, andrehabilitation of coconut plantations. It also grantssubsidies to the private sector, part of which are setaside for soil conservation.

The Ministry of Policy Planning and Implementa-tion controls development efforts in the districtsfinanced by the Decentralized Budget and planned andexecuted by the District Development Secretariats. In-tegrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP) fundedby bilateral donors and the World Bank in over a dozendistricts are a major feature of the regional develop-ment effort. Projects include rainfed agriculture under

116 Land

small holdings, minor export crops, small-scale irriga-tion schemes, livestock enterprises, fuelwood and tim-ber plantations.

The Ministry of Rural Industrial Development,recently took control of animal husbandry enterprisesformerly directed by the Ministry of Agriculture.Primary departments are the Department of AnimalProduction and Health which carries out research, ex-tension and veterinary services and the LivestockDevelopment Board, which operates a number of live-stock farms and promotes livestock development byindividual farmers.

Findings of the Land Commission

The Report of the Land Commission (1990)evaluated the effect of these and other major landpolicies and the ways in which they have been imple-mented. Among its major findings that concern basicland resource policy.

• The long-standing authority of the Land Commis-sioner in administering and allocating state landhas eroded by "increasing political interference inthe selection of allottees for state lands. "(LandCommission Report). Once the sole custodian ofstate lands, the Land Commissioner has authorityto issue directions to Government Agents or LandOfficers, subject to general direction of Ministersin charge of the subject matter. Today manage-ment authority is diffused among a large numberof state agencies.

• Devolution of land and land settlement matters tothe Provinces under the 13th Amendment creates

"an urgent need to develop a comprehensive landadministration system" based on sound scientificpolicy guidance that can be administered by theprovinces.

• Goals sought by the Land Reform Act have notgenerally been achieved. The Land Commissionfound that the Act did not result in significant landredistribution, increased employment, or boosttotal production, although by consolidating landownership it did open new possibilities for moreintegrated planning and development.

The Land Commission conducted a survey of locallevel officials, based on a questionnaire, to determinetheir opinions regarding the present system of ad-ministration and management of state lands in theirareas. The general response: it was not satisfactory.Among the reasons: lack of trained personnel, inabilityto control encroachments, and functional overlapamong agencies. About 80 percent of those questionedrecommended creation of a central coordinatingauthority for all land matters.

The Commission also found that no inventory ofstate land was maintained by local officials in charge^fland, and virtually no land use planning was carried outbefore land was used or approved for a specific use.Despite reinstitution of the "mapping out" require-ments in 1981, little information on scientific landcapability and land use appeared to be applied to landdevelopment decisions.


IIIIÎI '.

IIIII

I

Und 117

Land.

Land degradation on steep slopes contributes significantly to costly earth slides.

II |IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

I

Und 119

PART II

LAND DEGRADATION

i :! ;

II

j

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I

III»IIII

Land degradation denotes all natural oranthropogenic processes that diminish or impair landproductivity. Natural processes include climatic chan-ges and accelerated intensity of winds and waves.Among the anthropogenic factors, over - use of land andwater, deforestation, excessive use of agro-chemicals,and careless disposal of wastes often degrade land. InSri Lanka, man-induced land degradation is more sig-nificant than natural forces. It is manifested throughhigh rates of soil erosion and silt at ion. landslides,floods, emerging problems of salini/ation, coastalerosion, and loss of productivity of agricultural lands.

Problems of land degradation in Sri Lanka havebeen evident throughout her history. Cliena cultivationpractised since prehistoric man undoubtedly con-tributed to deforestation and associated problems atleast locally and temporarily. Abandonment of theancient hydraulic civilization in the Dry Zone may havebeen caused, at least in part, by loss of soil fertility orthe development of salinity in rice fields due to cen-turies of continuous use.

An early reference to land degradation during thecolonial period concerned impact of Dutch canal con-struction on swampy rice fields and fresh water bodiesalong the western coast. Some claim thatMuthurajawela, a flourishing paddy Held during thetime of kings, turned into a salt marsh as a result of suchcoastal development activities.

Significant land degradation began during the past150 years, particularly after the advent of commercialplantation agriculture. In 1900, with a population ofonly 3.5 million, Sri Lanka had approximate forestcover of 70 percent. By 1953, when population reached8.1 million, natural forest cover had diminished toapproximately 44 percent, and when populationdoubled by the mid-1980s, the forest was cut by nearlyhalf, to less than 25 percent. By that time (he man/landratio — a rough measure of natural resource availability

per capita relevant to an agricultural economy --equalled one acre per person.

The well known inverse relationship betweenpopulation growth and diminishing forest cover (seeFigure 6.11) does not reveal the magnitude of the as-sociated land degradation. Deforestation has causedthe most significant impacts in the watershed areas ofthe hill country where forests are most needed. Es-timated forest cover has declined to only 9 percentthere.

Soil Erosion

Serious concerns about soil erosion in Sri Lankahave been expressed since 1873, when Sir J.D. Hookerstressed dangers of indiscriminate plantation agricul-ture. One result was the restriction on land cultivationabove 1,525 meters. In 1931, a Committee on SoilErosion documented the damage caused by plantationcrops. The Soil Conservation Act of 1951, which fol-lowed devastating earthslips in the hill country, in par-ticular in the Kotmale valley, has been largely neglectedsince. As Stocking (1986) observed, 'The reality of soilconservation in Sri Lanka today, is one of muchrhetoric, little action: the concern of some, the disdainof others."

One critical measure of soil erosion and its impactsis sedimentation.In one of the earliest estimates ofsediment transport, based on measured sedimentyields, Joachim and Pandithasekera (1930), estimated132,000-833,000 tons/year (giving a soir loss of 115tons/hectare) for the upper Mahaweli catchment, 55percent of which was under tea. The sediment yield ófthe Mahaweli Ganga was estimated recently ByNEDECO (1984), in collaboration with the IrrigationDepartment. These studies indicated an average 15million tons of sediment, calculated for the period 1952-1982, passed in the upper Mahaweli watershed through

120 Land

Soil Losses from

(a) Mid-country Wet Zone (Peradeniya)

Soil type : Red Brown Latasol.

Old seedling tea (no conservation)

Well managed tea (contour drains)

Kandyan mixed home gardens

(b)Up-country Wet Zone (Talawakelle)

Soil type : Red Yellow Podsol

Bare, Clean weeded clonal tea

One-year old clonal tea with much

(c)Mid-country Intermediate Zone (Hanguranketa)

Soil type : Immature Brown Loam

Tobacco (No conservation)

Capsicum (No conservation)

Carrots (No conservation)

(d) Low-country Dry Zone (Maha Illuppallama)

Soil type : Reddish Brown Earths

Sorghum/Pigeon Pea

Sorghum/Pigeon Pea (with mulch)

Cotton

Cotton with mulch

iii.Field estimates of soil under chena in mid-country

Tobacco in 45 percent slope

Newly cleared chena plot on 45 percent slope at

Panamure (Ratnapura District)

Mean Annual rate of soil loss over a period of 40 years

Source : Stocking (1986)

Cultivated Land

tons/hectare/year

40.00

00.24

00.05

52.60

00.07

70.00

38.00

18.00

21.30

03.90

22^0

02.00

200.00

100.0

Figure 6.12

the Peradeniya gauging station. The Polgolla barragetrapped about 70 percent of this load.

Almost 44 percent of the capacity of the Polgollareservoir was silted by the end of 1988 (Perera, 1989),just 12 years after its commissioning. This samephenomenon is also reflected in the two-thirds reduc-tion in sediment loads now passing below the reservoirthrough downstream gauging stations such asWeragantota.

Other estimates of soil loss due to erosion havebeen reported from different parts of the country.TAMS/USAID (1980) reports soils losses in the Maha

Oya catchment (mid-country) in lands under tobaccoon slopes ranging from 45 percent to 60 percent. Es-timates range from 388 to 913 t/ha/year. Althoughgenerally considered overestimates, thesedemonstrate the dangers of cash crop cultivation onhigh slopes. Contrasts in soil loss from different loca-tions have been estimated by the Soil ConservationDivision of the Department of Agriculture (Stocking,1986) based on small plots on slopes in the 20-40 per-cent range and for chena. Results are summarized inFigure 6.12.

IhIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

I

II

Land 121

IIII!

P

IIIIIIII

YEAR

1930

1947

1947

1952

1957

1964

1970

1973

1978

1979

1979

1981

1981

1982

1982

1982

1982

1983

PARTICULARS OF LANDSLIDES 1930-1985

DISTRICT

Kegalle

Kegalle

Kegalle

Nuwara Eliya

Kegalle

Nuwara Eliya

Nuwara Eliya

Nuwara Eliya

Kegalle

Ratnapura

Kalutara

Kegalle

Kegalle

Kegalla

Kandy

Ratnapura

Matale

Kegalle

LOCATION

Thalawela

Kadugannawa

Aranayake-

Sela-wakanda

Udahewaheta

Pahala Kadugannawa

Walapane

Walapane

Walapane

Bulath Kohupitiya

Wegalla

Kuruvita-Akurana

Kanda

Bulathinhala

Yatiyantota

Polpetiya

Aranayake-Berawala

Mawanella-

Heenalipana Kanda

Pathahewaheta

Paginiwela Kanda

Palmadulla

Pathulpana Kanda

Pikakanda

Pansalatenna

Palindagama

Mawanella

Elangapitiya Kolani

MAJOR/MINOR DEATHS

Major

Major

Minor

Minor

Major

Minor

Major

Major

Major

Major

Minor

Major

Major

Major

Minor

Major

Major

Minor

Not known

40

Not known

Not known

05

HOUSES

DAMAGED

Not known

Not known

Not Known

Not known

15

17 families affected

19

13

03

05

Not known

02

Not known

02

Not known

08

23

Not known

Not known

Not known

10

10

Not known

20

30

03

Not known

15

Not known

15

Figure 6.13

f Land

YEAR

1984

1984

1984

1984

1984

1984

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

Source:

DISTRICT

Kalutara

Badulla

Badulla

Ratnapura

Ratnapura

Ratnapura

Nuwara Eliya

Nuwara Eliya

Kalutura

Kegalle

Kandy

Kandy

Ratnapura

Particulars of Landslides 1930( Continued)

LOCATION

Bulathsinhala

Agalawatta

Matugama

Haliola-Beddegam

Bandarawela-

Livanagahawela

Emhilipitiya

Ih.ila Anduliwewa

Kolonnar Bulutota

Kuruwiia, Ratnapura

Eheliyagoda,

Balangoda

Norton Bridge

Town Division

Matugama Uduwala

Warakapola

Thiyambarahena

Kanda

Galagedara

Bodikulawa

Nawalapitiya

Pemross Est.

Elapatha

Kohombakanda

Social Services Department

MAJOR/ MINOR

Major

Minor

Minor

Minor

Minor

-1985

DEATHS

42

Not known

Notknown

Notknown

02

(40 threats of Minor earth slips

Minor

Major

Minor

Major

Minor

Major

Major

05

Not known

Not known

10

Not known

•

04

Not known

HOUSES

DAMAGED

Not known

02

21

21

05

reported)

Not known

40

Not known

03

Not known

10

46

Figure 6.13

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Land 123

Several other estimates, mainly concerning soilerosion in the tea plantations, have been made by in-dividual researchers (Manipura, 1972; Krishnarajah,1985; Russell, 1980; and El-Swaify, et al., 1983). Theyseem to range from zero erosion rates in mulched andwell-maintained clonal tea plots in the up-country toremarkably high losses of over 1000/t/ha/year in mid-country locations. Such extreme situations, while rare,demonstrate the importance of well-maintainedground cover in controlling soil losses, and how tea canbe grown on steep slopes.

Soil loss occurs in all agro-ecological zones, al-though its intensity can vary according to the climate,slope, and ground cover. The worst affected area —mid-country — falls within elevations of 300-1000meters. At higher elevations, although slopes are steep,rainfall intensities are relatively lower. In the low-country, where rainfall intensity can be high, slopes areless steep. Therefore, with Red Brown loamy soilserosion potential appears highest in the mid-country,where plantation agriculture began.

Erosion from house and road construction sitesmay be extremely high in localised watersheds nearurban areas on steep slopes and at many civil engineer-ing sites (Weil, 1981). Some examples are the Galatasettlement near Gampola, and new road developmentsin the Victoria and Kotmale areas.

Landslides and Related Phenomena

Landslides and high soil erosion often occur in thesame areas, but landslides cause more sudden andobviously damaging, results. Landslides commonlyoccur following heavy rain storms, particularly in thehill country. Available evidence, though not quantita-tive or conclusive suggests that the frequency and mag-nitude of landslides' has increased in recent years,causing serious damage to life and property(Jayawardhana, 1988).

Measures normally adopted for soil conservationwill not usually prevent landslides. Some, like contourditches, may even encourage landslides by allowinggreater infiltration of water to the subsoil and lubrica-tion of unstable soil masses.

Although records of past landslides maintained bythe Social Services Department, are neither systematicnor comprehensive (Wijeratne, Banda, 1985), they aresummarized in Figure 6.13. Records before 1970 ap-pear sketchy, and many landslides have certainly goneunrecorded, like the Kotmale landslides of 1947. Smalllandslides that do not cause much significant damageto life and property are not recorded by the GeologicalSurvey or the Social Services Department. In 1986,however, landslides in the Maturata area displacedover 1,500 families. The NBRO recorded some 136landslides during that year, and the Remote SensingUnit of the Survey Department detected many linearearthslips in 1986 through aerial surveys of affectedareas. The landslides of 1986 left over 25,000 personshomeless, and many villages became totally inacces-sible due to disrupted transport. The appearance ofcracks in the walls of houses, observed along theperimeter of the Kotmale reservoir and at Maturata,indicated the potential for further slipping. Affectedfamilies had to be accommodated in special refugeecamps and later to be relocated at great expense to theState.

In early June 1988, ironically on World Environ-ment Day, Sri Lanka experienced perhaps its worstlandslide damage, which caused over 300 deaths. In theKegalle District 167 people died in the AGA Divisionof Galigamuwa alone (Madduma Bandara, 1989).From reports in Parliament some 225,000 people in tendistricts were affected by floods and landslides thatdestroyed over 15,000 homes. Cost for rehabilitatingthese "environmental refugees" was estimated at about120 million rupees at 1988 prices (Madduma Bandara,1989).

Causes and Remedies, The devastating ex-perience of landslides in the 1980s led to a search forreasons. In the public and academic debate that en-sued the attributed reasons included cultivation oftobacco on steep slopes, impacts of the AcceleratedMahaweli project, high intensity rainstorms, geologicalinstabilities, and aftereffects of the colonial land clear-ing in the hills (Vitanage, 1988; Priyasekera, 1986;Madduma Bandara, 1986; Dimantha, 1986;Dahanayake, 1986).

124 Land

Erosion and Accretion Along the Coasts of Selected Countries

Sri Lanka" World'« Coastline«

Wost Coast, Donmark

r X \ r Accretion

South Shor«. Now Jaraay.USA

Erosion k % | Neutrol

* T h * percentages show «ht «xtramai of th« »itimottd rangt« for Sri LankaCoasts.

Source •• Sri Lanka Mas fr Plan for Coast Erosion Managtmtnt (1986)


Figure 6.14

Conditions which favor landslides fall generallyunder two broad groups: First are the geological, struc-tural, topographical and climatic factors of an area overwhich humans have little if any control; second are theconditions that humans impose on the land throughdestruction of watershed forests by fire or felling,obstruction of natural waterways and drainage lines, or

construction of roads and buildings in vulnerable loca-tions.

What "triggers" most landslides is saturation of theunstable subsoil layers and a build-up of water pressurealong critical zones. Saturation of the soil mass resultsfrom the intense and continuous rainfall so common inthe hill country and the Wet Zone. Landslides begin toappear when such rainstorms exceed a certain

IIIIi ':

II

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I1

Land 125

Sources of( Arrows

Land

Cliff, Dune andBackshore Erosion

Beach Replenishment

Rivers

Dune and Backshore

Storage

Winds *^"(Supply and Deflection)

inlets and Lagoonsincluding Outwash

Mining

Inputs and Losses to the Littoral Sand BudgetIndicate Mean Net Transport of Sand)

. -OQ.COCCO

I— .

Littoral Zone

! CD S

~r~"-- Ô• * - C'• CO• CD: c

o-r— -j

\ \

_ongshore Currents

Tidal Currents

Longshore Winds

Ocean

-—

—*

„-—

s

~~"~\ Onshore-OffshoreTransport

* Submarine Canyon

Dredging

>. Calcium Carbonate(Production and Loss)

'"""Hydrogenous Deposition

Beach Replenishment

Source : Shore Protection Manual ( 1973) Depanment of Army, U.S. Crops of Engineers

Figure 6.15

126 Land

Location and

Name of river

Kelani Ganga

Maha Oya

GinOya

Kalu Ganga

Deduru Oya

Gin Ganga

Nilwala Ganga

SUBTOTAL

Estimated VolumeNumber of

landing sites

181

61

2

67

2

41

7

363

Note : a cube = 100 cubic feet or approximately 3 cubic meters.

Source: CCD Internal Report No.l

of Sand Mining inNumber of cubes*

removed in 1984

222,771

111,720

79,445

46,667

22,896

21,563

2,005

507,866

Sri Lanka, 1984Total

43

21

15

9

4

4

1

97

I: A census of the exploitation of sand seashell resources in the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka (1984).

Figure 6.16

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Coral Collected from Sri Lanka'sSouthwestern Coast in 1984

Total Collection 18,059 Metric Tons

INLAND7.532

COASTAL LAND2.868

FROM REEF2.282

BEACH5.377

CCD Internai raportNo.Ç: Soelo-tconomlcof thoa* angagad In tha coral miningInduatry (from Ambalangoda to Dlkwalla)

* As defined by Coast Conservation Act of 1981

Figure 6.17

II!IIIIIIIIIIIIIII1III

Land 127

threshold leveL Priyasekera (1986) argued that athreshold figure of 350 to 400 millimeters of continuousrainfall during two consecutive days could causelandslides in areas prone to them. Kuruppuarachchi(1987) found a direct correlation between antecedentprecipitation and landslides.

Increasing damage to life and property fromlandslides obviously relates to the spread of humansettlements into unstable areas. Needs for mappingand identification of such areas are now recognized bythe authorities, but response has been slow.

Coastal Erosion

Legends and narratives of coastal retreat in SriLanka go back over 2,000 years, including referencessuggesting supernatural causes. Some geologists haveattributed it to general coastal subsidence while othershave suggested that the island has tilted up in the northand down in the south. Whatever the cause, coasterosion in Sri Lanka is not unusual in terms of worldtrends, as indicated in Figure 6.14.

Coast erosion hazard exhibits both temporal andspatial variability. Erosion hazard is greatest whenmonsoons are onshore. The southwest monsoon (fromMay-September) with its fetch extending over thebreadth of the Indian Ocean, generates waves with highenergy. This monsoon delivers its greatest energy to theareas between Kalpitiya and PotuviL The northeastmonsoon (from November-January) blows over a morelimited fetch of the Bay of Bengal and accordinglydelivers somewhat less energy to the shore. Its effectsare mainly felt along the north coast and on the eastcoast as far south as Potuvil. Spatial variation oferosion hazards depend on an area's erosion suscep-tibility, ocean floor and coastal margin, and the supplyand availability of beach material.

There are several natural defenses against erosion.Although annual monsoons regularly cause muchdamage in some locations, small waves and weak vari-able winds prevail most of the time. Devastatingcyclones are rare and major storms usually affect onlysparsely populated coastal areas of the east andnorthwest. Coral and sandstone reefs that run parallelto most of Sri Lanka's shoreline act as natural break-waters.

Although the beaches are receding in most parts ofthe island, the impact of coast erosion is most severealong the western and southwestern coasts, wheredevelopment and population are most intense. Thehighway and railway are routed through most of thesecoastal sectors.

Along the coastal segment extending 685kilometers from Kalpitiya to Yala National Park, about175,000-285,000 square meters of coastal land are lostannually through erosion. Of this, about 145,000 squaremeters are lost annually from the 137 kilometer coastalsegment that extends from the mouth of the KelaniRiver to Talawila (Kalpitiya peninsula)..

Erosion along Sri Lanka's beaches is highly local-ized, with wide variation in erosion and accretion rates.Whether erosion in a particular sector is viewed as aproblem or not depends on the upland uses. Despiteseasonal erosion or accretion, continuing land loss isevident in some parts along some sectors. Old mapsand survey plans of landed properties in Seenigamaarea indicate that considerable land has been lost to thesea. The small island on which the Seenigama dévalenow stands formed a part of the mainland some yearsago. Information based on qualitative estimates ofcoastal residents suggest that on the average the coastline of Sri Lanka receded by about one meter duringthe last three decades, while accretion was only half ameter.

About 75 percent of the graded hotels in Sri Lankaand 80 percent of the hotel rooms are located incoastal areas. A majority of these hotels have less thana 15-meter setback between buildings and the waterUne. No major hotel buildings have been destroyed byerosion to date because coast protection schemes havesaved the most vulnerable. However, smaller structuressuch as restaurants and swimming pools have beendamaged or destroyed. Several hotels have ex-perienced decreased occupancy attributed to theirdiminished beach frontage.

There is little information available regarding thedamage caused by erosion in economic terms, butpublic and private investments in protecting theshoreline are significant

128 Land .

Although erosion has received public attention be-cause of its impacts along the populous west and south-west coasts, comparatively little attention has focusedon problems caused by accretion. These includeobstruction of outlets affecting: escape of flood waters(the Kaluganga and Maha Oya), navigation (NegomboLagoon, Chilaw Lagoon), migration offish and shellfishspecies between an estuary or lagoon and the sea(Nandi KadaL and Nayaru Lagoon in the MullaittivuDistrict), silting of harbors (Kirinda Harbour) andfishery habitats (Negombo Lagoon), outlets for urbanand industrial pollutants (Lunawa Lagoon), and intakesites for seawater required for salterns. Seasonal ac-cretion in Kandakuliya imposes restrictions on certainfishery activities, such as the Madel fishery.

Accretion is also caused by wind and aggravated byremoval of dune vegetation. In certain areas close toBatticaloa and PotuviL sand blown away during the dryseason is deposited on paddy lands and cocon ut plan-tations.

Causes and Remedies. The major source of beachsand in Sri Lanka is sediment carried down by therivers, but other sources include sediment from erodingcoastal features and offshore sand brought onshore.Broken seashells and corals contribute to a very limitedextent. Under the action of natural processes, such aswaves, currents and winds, sediment moves on and offand along the beaches. If the sand supplied to a par-ticular coastal sector is less than what is carried away,the shoreline will erode. Sources of inputs and losseson the littoral sand budget are illustrated in Figure 6.15.

Natural processes cause most shoreline erosion,but various human activities contribute. The most sig-nificant of these include sand mining from river bedsand beaches, coral mining and destruction of reefs,removal of mangroves and other coastal vegetation, andimproper location or construction of maritime struc-tures, such as shoreline protection works, fishery har-bors, or river outfall training schemes.

Of the human activities aggravating erosion, mostwidespread is sand mining in rivers, estuaries andbeaches. Figure 6.16 indicates the removal of sand inthe western and southwestern sectors in 1984.

Demands for sand are high in and around areas wheredevelopment pressure is high.

Coral mining, is not only a coastal or offshoreproblem. Although it has been restricted largely tocertain parts of the southwest coast, has caused sig-nificant damage to the fringing reefs and is renderingthe coasts more erosion prone. Figure 6.17 indicatesthe removal of coral along the southwestern coast in1984. Coral mining was brought under control on theeast coast in 1978, but with civil unrest in recent yearsit has reportedly become serious again.

Salinity and Waterlogging

Land degradation due to salinity and waterloggingis primarily associated with coastal areas and irrigatedlands in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, which covers overhalf a million hectares.

Because irrigation has been practised in theseareas since Sri Lanka's earliest history, salinity shouldhave been a problem at least in patches of irrigatedlands. The term 'kivula' or 'kivul bim' (or salinity af-fected lands) suggests that the problem did arise.

With development of modern irrigation networks,it was anticipated that salinity would become a problemover the years, as it has in many other countries withlarge irrigated areas. However, because Sri Lanka'sDry Zone is not as arid as most other areas of the worldaffected by salinity, salts that accumulate in top soilstend to flush out with the high intensity seasonal rains.Salts go deeper, as indicated by the increasing salinitylevels in dug-wells in irrigated areas during the initialphase of the rainy season (Arumugam, 1970).

Unfortunately few systematic studies exist on landdegradation from soil salinization in Sri Lanka; we haveno records of the actual extent of lands affected bysalinity or data that indicate its recent trends. Much ofthe available information comes from sporadic surveys.Thus Gangodawila (1990) compared soil salinity levelsin the valley bottom lands of purana villages underminor irrigation with those in the 'H' irrigation systemof the Mahaweli Project. These investigations werecarried out in locations that the farmers themselvescited as being affected by waterlogging and salinity.Results of such studies undoubtedly indicate the


IIIIIIIIII

Land 129

gradual emergence of problems of salinity, particularlyin areas of poor soil drainage like valley bottoms, andsites of old tank-beds converted to irrigated rice fieldsunder the Mahaweli Project. However, it is difficult topredict the significance of long-range salinity fromthese data. The problem of soil salinity exists even inthepurana villages, although not at the same scale as inthe Mahaweli Project areas. There are seriousdrainage problems to be remedied in the Mahawelisystems.

Causes and Remedies. In contrast to salinitycaused by irrigation, salinization of low-lying farminglands due to intrusion of sea water has always been aproblem, stimulated by human intervention in SriLanka's coastal areas. Some development activitiessuch as the construction of canals during the colonialperiod led to such problems (Brohier, 1935). At thesame time a large extent of land was cultivated byproviding pumping and drainage facilities in south-western coastal areas. These areas were neglected inrecent decades due to high costs of fuel for pumpsfollowing the energy crises in the 1970s; it is no longereconomical to grow paddy in once fertile lands. Paddyfields covering nearly 15,000 hectares in the Galle Dis-trict are affected by salinity during high tides that ex-tend their influence 10-15 kilometers into the interiorin some places (Land Commission, 1989). Engineeringstructures built to contain saline intrusions have notbeen effective. In some cases, as at the TangaluWelyaya fed by Kirama Oya in the Hambantota district(HIRDEP, 1989), they have made conditions worse.

Alternative land and water uses, including tourismand sustainable natural fisheries, can make these areasmore productive. Over 70,000 hectares of low-lyingmarshy land around the island have been identified bythe government for reclamation. Some areas locatedcloser to urban areas are now being reclaimed by theSri Lanka Reclamation and Development Corporation.Careful assessments of the hydrologie and environmen-tal impacts of reclamation schemes will be necessary tohelp determine their costs and benefits.

EVALUATING IMPACTSAND PRIORITIES

Some causes of land degradation, such as inten-sified land use and over-exploitation of resources, ap-pear destined to continue in spite of measures tocontrol them. Policy makers need to identify the ac-tivities causing the most harmful long-term degradationand develop methods and incentives that can effectivelyreduce the impacts.

To establish priorities policy makers need ade-quate quantitative measurement of these significantland impacts that can help them compare the costs andbenefits of remedial actions. Unfortunately, quantita-tive measures useful to policy makers are highly inade-quate. There is hardly any information to quantify theprecise impacts of soil erosion. Stocking (1986) madean attempt in this direction on the basis of field obser-vations and anecdotal evidence. He believed that WetZone soils had a relatively high tolerance to erosion,and that the main limitations to land use were theeventual stoniness and limited rooting depth due tohigh rates of erosion.

A key question is how soil erosion reduces produc-tivity from loss of fertilizers, organic matter, and avail-able water capacity. Measurements have been difficultbecause effects are gradual and cumulative, and effectsmay vary with soil type and depth. The mid-country wetzone appears to suffer the greatest productivity impact,as reflected in the low productivity and even abandon-ment of some tea estates. Many Dry Zone soils displaya concentrated nutrient distribution in the top soil anda critical water holding capacity. Any erosion of thesesoils can reduce the crop yields drastically, as is evidentin areas where the chena cycle has become shorter overthe years. More precise measurements of lost produc-tivity throughout Sri Lanka, including productionprojections ten years hence, are needed, given con-tinued erosion trends.

Sedimentation of tanks, irrigation works, and up-country reservoirs directly result from soil loss in catch-ment areas. Experts have differed in judging theseriousness and costs of sedimentation. Althoughsome consultant reports (TAMS/USAID, 1980) con-tend that the lifespan of new Mahaweli reservoirs will

130 Und

r Chena CultivationWith A Difference

Sri Lanka's Co-operative Reforestation, or Chena Reforestation, scheme is modelled on traditionalchena cultivation. Similar to the Burmese taungya reforestation system it consists of leasing state landcontaining low quality or non-productive natural forest to local villagers for them to carry out thetraditional slash and burn followed by cultivation of cash crops. It differs from the traditional chena,however, because lessees must also plant forest species as directed by the Forest Department; and cashcrops are restricted to the intervening space. The Forest Department supplies nursery plants of the forestspecies.

Each lessee obtains up to two hectares and signs an agreement with the Divisional Forest officer toplant the forest species and tend them for three years, during which time he can raise several rotations ofcash crops. If planting and maintenance attains the required standard, the lessee receives a modest rewardby the Forest Department After three years, the lessee leaves the area and the Department assumes fullcontrol over what by then is a young forest plantation. Because a lessee may. obtain one area every year,he can, at any given time, be planting and maintaining three co-operative reforestation blocks»

This scheme gained popularity after the earlylPóOsandatitspeakmcorporatedaroundÔOOhectares.per yean It operated only in the Dry Zone, and the forest species planted was teak. Nearrf altof therteakplantations in the country (estimated at 40,000 hectares) were raised, under dûs progn

Main advantages of the system: ^ ; - •

• It attracted chena cultivators who would otherwise have practised traditional shifting,cultiva-tion and left behind weed-infested fallow land;

• Areas under co-operative reforestation can provide good harvests of vegetables and otherfood crops; •

Reforestation of tow quality natural forests takes place at little cost to the government.

The prograntterminated in the late 1970s in the belief that the hundreds of thousandsi of hectaresofdeforested, derelict land in the Dry Zone required soil working; fertüßatttMiandrother costly inputs thatonly the Forest Department could carry out using hired labor. Yet so far the results of tfds arrangement-h a v e n o t b e e n p r o m i s i n g . . . . . . . . • •••;; .^^•'•• ::;v | ;"^v ! :*' ;;f"?•;i?^Ç : '? ' t ^

The Forestry Master Plan recommends the resumption of the conirjctatrvcreforattatioit scheme. -With the^pressing need to expand the area under industrial woodspeciësv tneFoie^DepartmènÇcannot

.-..;. -••;-< \V '

ignore a scheme that produced singularly successful results

Land 131

not be affected seriously during their first 50 years, suchoptimistic assessments have not considered continuingchanges in upper watershed land use and catchmentcharacteristics. Recent observations of high rates ofsiltation in the Polgolla reservoir emphasize thisdynamic dimension to the problem. In the case of smalltanks in the Dry Zone, a comparison of 1956 aerialphotographs with those of 1982 brings out clearly thehigh rates of siltation resulting from the clearance oftheir catchments for agriculture and settlements. Ex-perience elsewhere — including substantial reductionsin the lives of reservoirs in Pakistan, Colombia, and thePhilippines -- indicates the high economic costs of un-anticipated soil erosion and, correspondingly, theeconomic benefits of sound upper watershed manage-ment (Brown, Worldwatch, 1984).

Sri Lanka, like so many other countries, needs farbetter information on the economic and environmentalrelationship, between soil erosion and land and waterproductivity.

Landslide impacts, being so obvious on thelandscape, are most easily quantified. Figure 6.13provides rough estimates of damage to life and propertycaused by landslides in the past. More comprehensiveattempts to measure total costs of landslides — includ-ing refugee relief, land rehabilitation, and lost produc-tivity— would reinforce the need to prevent or minimizelandslide damage in the future through better land usepractices.

INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES

Allocation of Authority

Over 40 state institutions have functions or respon-sibilities pertaining to land management, allocation,and development that were identified by the LandCommission (1985). Analyses of their functions indi-cate the diffused jurisdiction and uncoordinated ac-tions of individual organizations grappling with someaspect of land degradation.

Certain key institutions have significant shares ofresponsibility. The two key ministries dealing with landmanagement are Agriculture and Lands. Nearly half ofthe 40 land-related institutions fall within these twoministries. The Ministries of Mahaweli Development

and Plantation Industries play an important role incontrolling land degradation and the newly createdMinistry of Environment will also have a primary rolein the future.

Despite the large number of institutions dealingwith land management, when a landslide or flood oc-curs, no single institution takes primary responsibilityto respond, or at least to coordinate the work of others.The aftermath of the 1986 and 1988 landslides andfloods illustrates an interesting pattern of institutionalresponses. Initial reaction came from the GovernmentAgents of the Districts and the Social Services Depart-ment, which rushed humanitarian assistance to the vic-tims. Then many other institutions, including that ofthe Prime Ministers office, became involved: theCentral Environmental Authority, the Geological Sur-vey and the NBRO among them. Committees formedto investigate the problems and reports were preparedand presented (CEA, 1986; IFS, 1986).

Long-term Planning

By planning ahead these responses can bedesigned for greater efficiency. There are many instan-ces where the victims of landslides and floods wereaccommodated in congested refugee camps for severalmonths or years without effective action. Medium- orlong-term planning is essential to mitigate adverse im-pacts. A single organization or an emergency manage-ment agency can be designated and equipped to handleall facets of such an exercise.

But further action, designed to anticipate andprevent or mitigate future events, will also be needed.As in so many other countries, when the floods recedeand fair weather returns, enthusiasm tends gradually tofizzle out, and unpleasant events of the past are soonforgotten. Yet we know from Sri Lanka's history thatnatural disaster will strike again.

The rapid, often devastating landslides and floodsshould be viewed as symptoms of a wider, more in-sidious problem of land degradation. Unfortunately,despite high levels of public awareness, soil erosion andsiltation receive much less effective institutional atten-tion than they require, for several reasons.

132 Land

Providing Resources

Institutions entrusted with soil conservation lackpersonal and financial resources. The history of theimplementation of the Soil Conservation Act asrecounted by the Land Commission (1985) and the "riseand fall" of the Soil Conservation Division of theDepartment of Agriculture provides an interesting caseof institutional responses to the problems of landdegradation. The Soil Conservation Division, resem-bling the same institution in the United States,remained vibrant until the 1960s, had a precarious ex-istence in the 1970s and early 1980s, and finally ceasedto exist after 1989. Serious soil conservation efforts areconducted by a few institutions such as IntegratedRural Development Projects, NADSA, the CeylonTobacco Company, and some plantation corporations.

An underlying problem has been an inability togain voluntary participation of the affected farmers insoil conservation as a matter of enlightened self-inter-est. Subsistence farmers have immediate concerns andcannot be expected to initiate costly conservationmeasures. Government funds and technical assistancewill be essential. Others, however, can be made moreaware of the benefits of mulching, ground cover, andother measures to maintain productivity and controlcosts of fertilizer, pesticides, and labor. Good informa-tion, patience, and adequate budgets are essential.

Inter-agency Coordination

No less essential to soil conservation is coordina-tion among existing agencies with overlapping man-dates. Limited budgets and available expertise requireeffective agency management. One course is tostrengthen Sri Lanka's many existing institutions con-cerned with soil conservation and coordinate theirresponsibilities. Considering this ineffective, the LandCommission (1985) recommended an overallrationalization of their functions and a powerful nation-al-level authority for watershed management. Itsproposal for a Watershed Management Authority wasbased on the premise that major restructuring or evenliquidation of some existing institutions was necessaryas well. Otherwise another institution with overlapping

functions, would be pointless, ineffective, and costly(Stocking, 1986). Five years after the LandCommission's recommendations for reforming water-shed management in 1985, nothing substantial has hap-pened.

The same observations cannot be levelled againstthe institutions dealing with the problem of coastallands. The Coast Conservation Department (CCD),has made some concerted efforts to plan and imple-ment a variety of conservation measures. It has recog-nized that in many areas, erosion is a seasonaloccurrence and becomes a problem only if the beach-fronted land is highly populated or contains heavy in-vestment in terms of railways, highways, or buildings. Ithas also recognized the fact that the erosion is causedby natural processes which man can rarely control butcan mitigate by avoiding costly human actions and plan-ning wise ones. It has therefore gone beyond tradition-al shoreline protection programs to active planning forand management of development within the narrowcoastal zone established under the Coast ConservationAct of 1981.

Much can be learned from Sri Lanka's coastalexperience in designing workable approaches to inlandproblems. One option for control of land degradationin the inland areas and the hill country is a systematicdevelopment of watershed land use programs based oncritical land use information. Gathering and use ofinformation should include high hazard areas, erosion-prone slopes and soils, catchment characteristics,agricultural practices, land lot size and tenure rights,wood lots and forest characteristics, and suitability forsmall hydro or other developments. Public participa-tion in the gathering and application of this informationwill be equally critical, because those with a stake in theplanned outcome are more apt to support it. Similarplans for larger areas can be developed in conjunctionwith watershed plans. Ultimately, national level sup-port will be necessary for watershed and larger land useplans. National support can be backed by governmentagency use of impact assessment mechanisms toevaluate the impacts of proposed development projectson local and regional land use plans.


Und 133

References

Abeysekera, W.A.T. (1986). Changes in producer incentivesin Sri Lanka's paddy sector 1979-85. Summary of a paperpresented at the Annual Session of the SLAAS, Decem-ber 1986. ARTI Report S pp.

Bandaranayake, R. Dias (1984). Tea production in Sri Lanka:future outlook and mechanisms for enhancing sectoralperformance. Central Bank of Ceylon Occasional PapersNo. 7.

Beatty, M.T.; Peterson, G.W.; and Swindale, L.D. (1978).Planning the uses and management of land. AgronomyMonograph 21. American Society of Agronomy, Wiscon-sin.

Beek, KJ. (1978). Land evaluation for agricultural develop-ment. International Institute for Land Reclamation andImprovement. Publication 23. Wageningen.

Betz, Joachim (1989). Tea policy in Sri Lanka. MargaQuarterly Journal 10(4). pp. 48-71.

Bibby, J.S. and Mackney, p . (1969). Land use capability clas-sification. Technical Monograph No. 1. Soil Survey ofEngland and Wales. Rothamsted Experiment Station,Harpenden.Christian, CS. and Steward, G.A. (1964).Methodology of integrated surveys. ProceedingsToulose Conference. UNESCO, pp. 233-281.

De Alwis, KA. and Dimantha, S. (1981). Land suitabilityevaluation and land use study Nuwara Eliya. IntegratedRural Development Project, Nuwara Eliya.

De Alwis, ICA. (1983). Land use planning in Sri Lanka.Economic Review, Vol. 9, No. 1. pp. 30-31.

De Silva, K.M. (1981). A History of Sri Lanka. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford.

Dimantha S. (1984). Land evaluation for land use planning inSri Lanka. Review paper. Proceedings 40th Annual Ses-sions Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science,Colombo.

Dimantha, S.; Fernando, M.HJ.P.; and Sikurajapathy, M.(1984). Rainfed highland farming pilot project, Ham-bantota District An assessment Land Use Division,Colombo.

Dimantha, S. and de Alwis, ICA. (1985). On-Farm Manage-ment for Sri Lanka in some aspects of water resources inSri Lanka. Irrigation Department, Colombo.

F.A.O. (1967). Soil survey interpretation and its use. SoilsBulletin8. F.A.O., Rome.

F.A.O. (1974). Approaches to land classification. Soils Bul-letin 22. F.A.O., Rome

F.A.O. (1976). A framework for land evaluation. Soils Bul-letin 32. F.A.O., Rome.

F.A.O. (1983). Guidelines: lajid evaluation for rainfedagriculture. Soils Bulletin 52. F.A.O., Rome.

Government of Sri Lanka (1935). Land Development Or-dinance. Government Gazette No. 8172. GovernmentPress, Colombo.

Government of Sri Lanka (1989). Second Interim Report of theLand Commission -1985, Sessional Paper No. II - Decem-ber 1989. Department of Government Printing, Colombo.

Government of Sri Lanka (1990). Report of the Land Commis-sion-1987, Sessional Paper No. Ill-May 199a Departmentof Government Printing, Colombo.

Gunasena, HP.M. (1990). Agriculture and livestock sectors.Draft submitted for Natural Resources Profile.

Hamilton, I~S.; BonelL M.; Cassels, D.S.; Gilmour, D.A. (1985).The protective role of tropical forests. A state of knowledgereview. Proceedings Ninth World Forestry Congress.Mexico City.

Higgins, G.M. and Kassam, A.H. (1981). The F.A.O. agro-ecological zones approach to determination of land poten-tial. Pédologie, Vol. 31. Ghent pp. 147-168.

ILO-ARTEP (1986). Employment and development in thedomestic food crop sector, Sri Lanka. Report of the ILO-ARTEP Rural Employment Mission to Sri Lanka, Septem-ber 1984.

Jacob and Alles (1987). Bavappa and Jacob (1981) McConneland Dharmapala (1973).

Joshua, W.D. (1977). Soil erosive power of rainfall in thedifferent climatic zones of Sri Lanka. Proceedings ParisSymposium. A.LS.H. Publication No. 122. UNESCO.

Klingebiel, A A and Montgomery, P.H. (1966). Land capabilityclassification, agricultural handbook 210. U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington D.C

Krishnarajah, P. (1985). Soil erosion control measures for tealand in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Tea Science 54(2).pp. 91-100.

Land and Water Use Division (1976). Agro-ecological regionsmap of Sri Lanka. Dept of Agriculture, Peradeniya.

Moorman, F.R. and Panabokke, CR. (1961). Soils of Ceylon.Tropical Agriculturist 117. pp. 2-65.

NARESA/Dept of Agriculture. Abstracts of papers presentedat the Conference on the Use of Organic Matter in Agricul-ture in Sri Lanka, June 199a

O'Loughlin, CL. (1974). The effect of timber removal on thestability of forest soils. Hydrology 13. pp. 121-134.

O'Loughlin, CL. and Pearce, A J . (1976). Influence ofCenozoic geology on mass movement and sediment yieldresponse to forest removal. North Westland, New Zealand.Bulletin of the International Association of EngineeringGeology 14. pp. 41-48.

Perera, a M A O . et al. (1989). Sri Lanka water buffalo.Science Education Series No. 31. NARESA.

134 Land

Perera, M.B.A. (1989). Planned land use for the tea country.Sri Lanka Journal of Tea Science 58(2). pp. 92-103.

Sandanam, S. (1981). Let's halt the downslide of our primarycapital. Tea Bulletin 1(1). pp. 23-29.

Senadhira, D^ Dhanapala, M.P.; and Sandanayaka, D.A.(1980). Progress of rice varietal improvement in the dryand intermediate zones of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of theRice Symposium 1980. Dept of Agriculture, Peradeniya.

Senanayake, F.R. (1987). Analog forestry as a conservationtooL Tigerpaper, VoL XIV, No. 2. pp. 25-29.

U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (1953).Irrigated land use. Land classification, VoL V, Part 3.Colorado.

U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (1982).Land classification techniques and standards. Series 510.Washington D.C

VS Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (1977). Declin-ing root strength in Douglas Fir after felling as a factor inslope stability, by RR. Burroughs and B J t Thomas. Re-search Paper INT-190, Intermountain Forest and RangeExperiment Station. Ogden.

IIII

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Land 135

!

Iii

irII

136 Land

Sri Lanka's central hills that rise over 2,000 meters intercept moisture-laden monsoon winds and supply water

to her major rivers and reservoirs.

137

7 Water Resources

Historians studying the rise and fall of Sri Lanka'sancient hydraulic civilization have marvelled at its en-gineering technology and water resource managementsystems. Arnold Toynbee noted that ancient Sri Lanka"once achieved the tour de force of compelling monsoonsmitten highlands to give water and life and wealth tothe plains that nature had condemned to lie parchedand desolate."

Sri Lanka has relied on water resources during thelast half century to produce staple food and energy,capped by the Mahaweli Development Project — thelargest development project in Sri Lanka's history at38.26 billion rupees by the end of 1986. The medium-term investment plan (1986-1990) envisaged capitaloutlays of 27,626 million rupees (or about 20 percent ofthe total) on irrigation, power and water supply, equall-ing nearly 30 percent of the Government budgetaryallocations for ongoing projects.

Sri Lanka suffers almost annually from droughts

and floods. These and occasional cyclones and

landslides are problems directly related to water

resources. Total costs of these phenomena - economic

and environmental — are high, but they can only be

roughly extrapolated from disaster assistance expendi-

tures. (See Figure 7.1) In recent years the contamina-

tion of Sri Lanka's waters has added new and still rising

economic and environmental costs, which have not

even roughly been calculated.

Part I of this chapter summarizes available infor-

mation on the nature and extent of Sri Lanka's water

resources, their present conditions, use, and trends,

and current development policies and institutional

responses. Part II describes the problems of water

pollution in Sri Lanka, and what we have learned and

need to know about its present impact and trends.

Average Annual Expenditure ohDisaster Assistance, Sri Lanka,

Period

1950-59

1960-69

1970-79

1980-85

Droughts

(Rs. million)

01.91

01.09

00.03

88.60

Source : Department of Social Services

Climatic1959 - 84

Roods

(Rs.million)

0.73

0.38

0.04

6.35

Figure 7.1

PARTI

WATER RESOURCESAND USE

GEOGRAPHICAL ANDGEOLOGICAL BACKGROUNDSri Lanka's location between 6 and 10 degrees

North of the Equator, and close to the Indian subcon-tinent, gives it a predominantly monsoonal and tropicalclimate. As an island in the northern half of the IndianOcean, Sri Lanka is exposed to moisture-laden windsfrom the southwest and the northeast.

Sri Lanka's highland massif in the south centralpart of the island, standing across the passage of mon-soonal winds is undoubtedly the overriding geographi-cal determinant of water resources. It creates highrainfall in the southwest and relatively dry regions in theeast and north that cover over two-thirds of the country.The central hills that rise above 2,000 meters interceptthe moisture-laden monsoonal winds, particularly on

138 Water Resources

Mean Annual Rainfall

———— Climotic Zon« Boundary

-I9OO- isohyttsinmm.

Mean Annual Dischargein millions of M 3

Source: National Atlas of Sri Lanka

Bottiealoo

Golle

Hombantoia

O 20 4P

km

Figure 7.2

Water Resources 139

River Basins of Sri Lanka

LIQUIDRIVER

BASIN BOUNDARY

BASIN NUMBER

0 20 40

km

Figure 7.3

140 Water Resources

Basin No

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41.

43.44.45.46.47.48.49.50.51.52.

Name of Basin

Kelani GangaBolgoda LakeKalugangaBentota GangaMadu GangaMadam pe LakeTelwatte GangaRatgamaLakeGin GangaKoggalaLakePolwatta GangaNilwala GangaSinimodara OyaWramaOyaRekawa OyaUruhokke OyaKachigala AraWalawe GangaKaragan OyaMalalaOyaEmbilikala OyaWrindi OyaBambaweAraMahasilawa OyaButawaOyaMenik GangaKatupila AruKuranda AraNamadagas AraKarambe AraKumbukkan OyaBagura OyaGirikula OyaHelawa AraWilaAraHedaOyaKarandaOyaSimena AraTandiadi AruKangikadichi AraRufusKulamPannelOyaAm bal am OyaGal OyaAndellaOyaThumpankeni TankNamakada AruMandipattu Aru

River Basins

CatchmentArea Sq. Km.

2278374

26886622

59905110

92264

23396038

223755348220

244258

39959

1165791338

127286

1314646

1218921551

484604422

51225635

184115

1792522

912

100Pattanthe Dephue Aru 100Magalawatavan AruVettAruMundeni Aru

34626

1280

Basin No.

53.54.55.56.57.58.

59.60.61.62.63.64.65.66.67.68.69.70.71.72.73.74.75.76.

77.78.79.80.81.82.83.84.

85.86.87.88.89.90.91.92.93.

94.95.96.97.98.99.100.101.102.

Source : Hydrology Division, Irrigation Department.Colombo. 1 0 3 ,

Name of Basin

Miyangolla 8aMadura OyaPulliyanpotha AruWrimechi OdaiBodigodaAruMandan AruMakarachchi AruMahaweli Ganga

CatchmentArea Sq. Km

2251541

5277

164

1337

10327

Kantalai Basin Per Ara 445PannaOyaPalam potta AruPankulam Ara

69143382

Kanchikamban Aru 205PalakuttiAruVan OyaMee OyaMa OyaChurian AruChavar AruPalladiAraNay AraKodalikallu AmPer AraPali Aru

Muruthapilly AruThoravil AruPiramenthal AruNethali AruKanakarayan AruKalawalappu AruAkkarayan AruMendekal AruPallarayan KaduPali AraChappi AruParangi AraNay AraMalvatuOyaKal AreModeragam AraKalaOya

Moongil AraMi OyaMadurankuli AraKalagamuwa OyaPantampola OyaDeduruOyaKarambalaOya

RatmalOyaMahaOyaAttanagalu Oya

201520

90, 1024

74

3161

18774

374

84

419082

120986

56192297159451

66832560

3246210932

2772

441516

62151215

2616589215

1510727

Figure 7.3

III

Ir

l' ;

I

P

r

IIIi

IIIIfI

Water Resources 141

the steeper western flanks, causing rainfall patterns asshown in Figure 12.

The radial drainage pattern that carries surfacewater down from the high watersheds includes 103distinct natural river basins that cover over 90 percentof the island (Figure 73); the remaining 94 small coastalbasins contribute little to water resources (Arumugam,1969). River basins originating in the wetter parts ofthe hill country are perennial, while many of those inthe Dry Zone are only seasonal. Only a few river basins,such as the Mahaweli Ganga that drains 16 percent ofSri Lanka, carry water from the Wet to the Dry Zone.

Geological formations that largely determine SriLanka's aquifer characteristics can be grouped intofour categories:

• Ancient crystalline hard rocks spread over 90 per-cent of the land. These Pre-Cambrian rocks havepoor primary porosities and their groundwater isoften found in their joints, fissures and cracks (Bas-nayake, 1981).

• Sedimentary formations, that characterize mostremaining areas, which include Miocene limestoneareas of the north and northwest;

• Surface alluvium, consisting of clays, sands andgravels in the riverine and coastal areas; and

• Weathered over-burden in hard-rock areas, whichincludes products of in situ weathering, such as soiland gravelly material that form localized aquifers.

Rates of ground water recharge from rainfall varyfrom one geological formation to another. In general itranges from 10 percent to 30 percent in many areas ofthe Dry Zone (de Mel & Sumanasekara, 1973; Dhar-masiri et al., 1985). At least 10 percent of the irrigationflow which seeps down may be available for recycling(Fernando, 1973,1974; Madduma Bandara, 1980).

PRECIPITATION AND WATERAVAILABILITY

Rainfall supplies nearly all surface and groundwater, supplemented by mist, fog and dew in certainareas. At higher elevations cloud-water also con-tributes to the surface water flow.

The mean annual rainfall of Sri Lanka is around2,000 mm (Anilananthan, 1985) which, distributed overthe surface area of 65,610 square kilometers, gives anaverage volume of 131,230 million cubic meters (m3) offresh water. What does not soon evaporate into the airruns off the surface or percolates into the soil to reachthe sea as riverflow. Average annual riverflow, at 31percent of the rainfall, equals 40,680 million m3 (Bocks,1959). The balance, 90,550 million m3 is used andtranspired by crops and natural vegetation orevaporates from the soil directly to the air.

This simple approximation introduces the consid-erable variations in time and space that affect SriLanka's surface water balance.

Average Rainfall

Average annual rainfall varies spatially from 1,000mm to over 5,500 mm. Maximum rainfall occurs onwindward slopes of the central highlands. A large areaof high rainfall on the southwestern flanks (Figure 7.2)is influenced by the strong southwest monsoon (May-September) with a small area influenced by the north-east monsoon (November-March). These major riversupplies are supplemented by the more widespreadInter-Monsoonal rains, (April-May and September-October). Tropical depressions and cyclones of highinter-annual variability also influence the rainfallduring October-November.

Mean annual rainfall declines rapidly toward thenorthwest and southeast, yielding minimal averagerainfall along these coasts. The same complex topog-raphy of the central hill country that attracts heavyrainfall on windward slopes produces "rain shadows" onthe leeward flanks, such as the Dumbara valley and theUva basin.

Wet and Dry Zones

Rainfall divides Sri Lanka into Wet and Dry Zonesand an Intermediate Zone between the two. (Figure7.2). The Wet Zone of the southwest and central hillcountry averages 2,500 mm of rainfall, mostlythroughout the year, while the remaining two-thirds ofthe country in the north, east and southeast stays com-paratively dry, averaging 1,500 mm, mostly the 'Maha'

142 Water Resources

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

1

III

season (October-January). It remains dry during thefive months of the 'Yala' season (May-September).

The southwestern flanks of the central hill countryform the critical upper catchments of Sri Lanka'slargest rivers. Over 65 percent of Wet Zone catchmentrainfall is discharged into rivers, with Kalu Ganga show-ing maximum discharge of 77 percent. Rivers rising inthe drier eastern half of the hill country haverunoff/rainfall ratios of 20-40 percent

Evapo-transpiration

Data on evapotranspiration are limited, beingmore difficult to determine than rainfall and riverflow.Best estimates in the Wet Zone indicate annualevapotranspiration of approximately 1,500 mm, with anupper limit at about 1,700 mm (Kayane, 1982). In thehighest montane areas of central Sri Lanka, withgreater cloudiness and lower solar energy, it declines to1,000 mm.

In the Dry Zone, evapotranspiration attains similarrates to the Wet Zone during the Malta (October-January) season and lower rates during the dry Yala(May-September) season. But rates vary more than inthe Wet Zone, the annual value being 1,000-1,400 mm.Evaporation values from Dry Zone tanks can reach2,100 mm/yr., higher even than maximum Wet Zonevalues because the comparatively small water bodiesare set in a dry climate.

Inter-annual variability

Elements of Sri Lanka's surface water balance aresubject to substantial annual variability so that con-sideration of averages can be misleading. Variationsare about 10 percent annually in the Wet Zone, 15percent in the Dry Zone, and up to 20 percent on theeast coast. Maha season rainfall is far more variablethan Yala rainfall, due to the weaker Northeast Mon-soon and irregularity of tropical depressions andcyclones during the Maha season. Maximum rainfallvariability along the east coast results from landfalls ofoccasional tropical cyclones.Rainfall variations affectrunoff and evapotranspiration, as illustrated by rainfalland discharge records of a Dry Zone basin between1915-1961 (see Figure 7.4). Discharge is nearly absentin the dry years of 1934, 1946, 195L 1955 and 1958.

Inter-annual variability of the catchment is high and sothe discharge varies even more.

Extremes: Floods and droughts

Floods and droughts constitute the extremeweather forms that disrupt Sri Lanka's economic andsocial life. During the last century two drought years,1950 and 1974, and three flood years, 1891, 1957 and1963, affected 50 percent or more of the country (seeFigure IS).

Serious floods recur particularly in the Kelani,Kalu, and Mahaweli river basins, and occasional floodsoccur in many other major rivers. When intense rainfallfrom cyclones combines with normal monsoons, floodscan devastate lowlands even in the Dry Zone, as oc-curred in 1957 in the Yan Oya basin. Data on majorfloods are provided in Figure 7.6.

Rainfall Probability

Rainfall variations are themselves unpredictable soagricultural planning has relied on simple probabilitylevels. Annual surface water regimes of 25 agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka, defined by a 75 percentprobability of monthly rainfall, give expected surfacewater levels in three years out of four. This analysis hasbeen particularly useful for planning paddy production.

Surface Water

Water that remains from rainfall afterevapotranspiration and infiltration losses may generallybe considered available surface water. Amounts aremeasured in terms of water discharged by the rivers, incubic meters per year (m3/yr) or as units of water depthdistributed over the land surface as hectare meters(HM) or acre feet (AF). Information on surface wateravailable for the whole island is given in Figure 7.7.

Although surface water estimates vary significantly- 4.04 million HM annual runoff (IBRD Mission,1952), 432 million HM (Walker, 1962), and 5.13 millionHM (Bocks, 1959; Arumugam, 1969; Ranatunge, 1985)- Sri Lanka's total annual runoff appears to be roughly5.0 million HM. Much of this now serves irrigation andhydropower projects, and less than 3 3 million HMescapes to the sea. Over 60 percent of the water that

rWater Resources 143

Secular Changes of Annual Rainfall and Annual Discharge forKalawewa Catchment

2300

2000

Figure 7.4

Climatic Extremes, Sri Lanka, 1971-1980

Lo»««l 0 « * » o« twwol INtrftll

— -**oo

IK*

ofo

amp»'

Figure 7.5

144 Water Resources


River

Kalu Ganga

Kelani Ganga

Kirindi Oya

MahaOya

Mahawell Ganga

Malvatu OyaMenik Ganga

Nilwala GangaKuda OyaYan Oya

Source: Navaratne, 1985

Maximum Recorded

Station

Putupaula

Glencourse

Lunugamvehera

BadalgamaRandenigala

Kappachchi

Kataragama

BopagodaKuda Oya

Pangurugaswewa

Floods in Sri Lanka

Water Year

1946/47

1966/67

1966/67

1970/71

1955/561948/49

1957/581943/44

1978/791957/58

Peak Discharge(CU.m)

2547

37941354

19821642

2733

1365

16921852

6031

Figure 7.6

•

Mean Annual Rainfall (mm)

Mean Annual Runoff

(Hectare Meters)

Runoff rainfall ratio (%)

Escape to the sea

(Hectare Meters)

Escape as a % total runoff

Source : Ranatunga, 1985

Surface Water

Wet Zone

2424

2.58x106

65.1%

2.04x108

(%) 78.83 %

Resources of Sri Lanka

Dry Zone

1450

2.55x106

35.8%

1.30X106

51.11%

Island Total

1937

5.13X106

40.5%

3.33x106

64.91% .

Figure 7.7

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Water Resources

Surface Water Potential

WATER DEPTH ( m )

km

Figure 7.8

146 Water Resources


does escape comes from the Wet Zone, which oftencreates flooding and waterlogging in lowlands. In theDry Zone, however, over 50 percent of total runoff wasused by 1972. Recent river basin developments, par-ticularly the Accelerated Mahaweli Programme, havesubstantially reduced Dry Zone runoff.

Efforts to quantify Sri Lanka's surface water poten-tial have been based on available rainfall, streamflow,and reservoir replenishment data. As summarized ona district basis, Figure 7.8 clearly shows spatial variationof surface water potential over the Island; whileKalutara, Galle, Ratnapura, Kegalle and Colomborecord over 2.4 meters in water depth, most of DryZone districts have values below 0.03 meters.

Ground Water

Although information on available ground water indifferent aquifer formations remains incomplete, SriLanka's largest, most studied aquifers lie in the northand northwest. Research since 1966 indicates that theMiocene limestones of the northwest extend over 200kilometers in the northwestern and northern coastalareas, with aquifers becoming increasingly thick as theyreach the coast. They are karstic with a high degree ofsecondary porosity. In the Vanathavillu basin, whichspreads over some 40 square kilometers, the confinedaquifer creates artesian conditions. Estimates ofground water resources available in Vanathavillu basinvary between 5 -20 million cubic meters per year, withthe higher figure indicating the ultimate potential(Henreck and Sirimanne, 1968; Wijcsinghe, 1975;Foster et al., 1976).

North of Vanathavillu, in the Murunkan basin lo-cated between the stream courses of Malvatu Oya(Aruvi Aru) and Nay Aru, deep tube well technologyhas developed over the last fifteen years to supply waterfor irrigation and domestic use under programs ofIRDPs and Water Supply Authorities. A relatively highyielding semi-confined aquifer system has been foundfrom 15-25 meters below ground. The next majoraquifer system, located in the Mulankavil Basin northof Mannar, lies between the Pali Aru and Pal-lavarayankaddu Aru, covering 180 square kilometers.Average yields from tube wells there range from 15-35liters per second (Foster et al., 1976).

Within the metamorphic complex covering over 90percent of the Island, regional aquifers underlie 1-2percent of the land ~ that underlain by quartzites orcrystalline limestone bands within the metamorphicsuite. In the extensive regions devoid of large aquifers,ground water resources depend on local long-termrecharge from rainfall infiltration and irrigationseepage. Unfortunately, we know too little aboutgroundwater in this large area. "[A]nyone attemptingto formulate a national policy on groundwater develop-ment for the metamorphic regions of Sri Lanka is con-fronted with enormous deficiencies in hydrogeologicdata" (Foster et al., 1977).

Estimates of well yields outside the north andnorthwest illustrate the modest ground water potential.In the Vavuniya District they range from 0.1 - 0.6 litersper second (I/sec). In the Colombo district at two siteslaterites have yielded a total of 3.5 1/sec and 1.21/sec;tube wells drilled up to 25 meters deep in Trincomaleeand Hambantota districts recorded yields up to 0.41/sec; wells sunk into quartzite formations as at Mel-siripura (Kurunegala District) and Kebitigollewa(Anuradhapura District) have recorded yields of 0.51/sec for less than one meter of drawdown. Transversevalleys that dissect quartzite formations often createsignificant springs, as in the Matale District.

Ground water quality from limestone andmetamorphic areas have been affected by chemicalconditions. Figure 7.9 indicates the quality of water intube wells constructed up to 1985. In many areas tubewells yield water of reasonable quality, occasionallyaffected by excessive salinity, hardness or fluoride con-tent (Dissanayake et al., 1986).

WATER USES ANDREQUIREMENTS

During Sri Lanka's hydraulic civilization in the firstmillenium, major population centers in the Dry Zoneleft the hill country watersheds largely undisturbed.Under colonial rule this pattern drastically changed;coastal waters became heavily used for navigation andother purposes and hill country forests were progres-sively denuded for plantation agriculture.

Development of irrigated agriculture in the DryZone gradually became the dominant state

I

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Water Resources 147

Tube Wells Constructed Up to 1985

WTER OtMLITT

gic

Figure 7.9

development policy in the latter period of British rule.The Irrigation Department, established at the turn ofthe century, assumed control over most water resourceprograms. Renovation of derelict ancient irrigationworks and new land settlement around them becamemajor concerns in the 1930s and continued virtuallyunchanged after National Independence. Largeschemes such as Gal Oya and Uda Walawe culminatedin the Accelerated Mahaweli Development Project.Nearly all major ancient reservoirs have now beenrenovated.

To facilitate macro-scale planning the island hasbeen divided into four main regions (GOSL, 1977): theMahaweli Project region;- southeast Dry Zone region;western Wet Zone region; and northwest Dry Zoneregion. Today, Sri Lanka's only area with a watersurplus is the Western Wet Zone (see Figure 7.10). Hermost acute water deficit areas occur in thenorthwestern and southeastern Dry Zone. The DryZone region of the Mahaweli basin, however, with anestimated deficit of 199 million m3, may neverthelessbecome self-sufficient under improved water conserva-tion and management.

The Mahaweli basin discharges about 7,650 millionm annually which represents roughly one-fifth of allthe island's river discharge from its watershed of 10,450square kilometers. Development of these waterresources occurred under the Mahaweli Master Flan(UNDP/FAO, 1967) and the Accelerated MahaweliDevelopment Programme, which commenced in 1978.All major Mahaweli projects except in theMoragahakanda are completed or nearly so.

With completion of the Mahaweli project fewfavorable sites remain for major irrigation develop-ment. The proposed Kaluganga Project may be able toconvey water to at least some parts of the southeasternDry Zone, but other river basin projects are possibleonly in the Kalu, Kelani and Walawe basins. In theWalawe Basin the only new project to be completed isthe Samanalawewa reservoir and hydroelectric plant.

In the future Sri Lanka's water resource develop-ment must increasingly focus on augmentation,rehabilitation and improved water management. Thevillage tank rehabilitation program has shown positiveresults, particularly where it has increased croppingintensities (Herath et al., 1988). Any future irrigation

148 Water Resources


expansion will depend largely on small-scale schemesand exploitation of ground water.

Most major hydropower sites have also beendeveloped, as discussed in Chapter S. Small-scaleprojects may become economically attractive, but theirlong-term success will depend on sound watershedmanagement.

Ground water can provide supplementary irriga-tion in many areas of the Dry Zone except the northerndistricts such as Jaffna and Vavuniya (Madduma Ban-dara, 1980). Ground water use has exceeded safe limitsin most areas of Jaffna where sustainable irrigationdepends on maintaining a delicate balance betweenrecharge and extraction (Arumugam and Balendran,1969). Heavy use of agro-chemicals threatens thepurity and utility of the resource.

The quantities of water required for industrial anddomestic uses are not so significant as lor in içaiion andhydropower generation. Total requirements stood at665 million liters per day in 1973 and have beenprojected to increase to 2,820 liters per day in A.D.2000. Quality and investment requirements of watersupply projects for industrial and domestic water usewill assume greater significance as demand increases.

WATER RESOURCESCONDITIONS AND TRENDS

Conditions and trends of water resources aredetermined by natural factors and the impacts of theiruse for human benefit.

Local Rainfall Decreases

Studies of island-wide rainfall trends have beenattempted for several decades without conclusiveresults (Thambiapillay, 1958), but significant localtrends have been observed in the annual rainfall orrainfall during agriculturally critical periods. For ex-ample, Nuwara Eliya has experienced significantdecline in annual rainfall during the last 100 years.(Hamamori, 1968; Madduma Bandara and Kurup-puarachchi, 1988) (see Figure 7.11). The decline coin-cided with deforestation of the hill country for teaplantations, but this fact alone cannot explain a rainfalldecrease of nearly 20 percent in a hundred years. Some

still unknown meteorological change may be respon-sible for this rainfall decline, which also appears to haveaffected rainfall stations such as Abergeldie in theupper Mahaweli Basin.

Data do not support the belief of many Dry Zonefarmers that rainfall has been declining over the pastgeneration or more, adversely affecting agriculturalproduction; analyses of long period rainfall at Anurad-hapura do not indicate significant progressive rainfalldecline in recent decades. On the other hand moredrought years have occurred over the last 30 years thanduring the first half of this century. As Figure 7.12indicates, between 1873-1974, 7 out of 11 years fallingwithin the driest décile came between 1950-1974.Similarly 4 out of the 11 driest Januaries came in theeight-year period of 1973-1980 (Gooneratne and Mad-duma Bandara, 1990).

Increased Runoff

Available streamflow data cover shorter periodsthan those for rainfall and cannot provide meaningfultime series analyses. Nevertheless, the few studies thatexist (Abernathy, 1976) indicate a steady increase in therunoff/ rainfall ratios as expected from deforestation(Figure 7.13). For example, trends in Kirindi Oya basinstreamflow (Madduma Bandara, 1977) revealed thisincreasing trend clearly (see Figure 7.14). Similarlystreamflow data in the upper Mahaweli basin abovePeradeniya (Madduma Bandara and Kuruppuarach-chi, 1988) show an increase in runoff/rainfall ratios ~that is, an increase in discharge during the wet monthsand a decrease during dry months (see Figures 7.15 and7.16). Also, average discharge of the Mahaweli Gangaover the long period (1944-1974) is 10 percent higherthan the estimates of the UNDP/FAO Master Planbased on the twenty years 1944-1964 (Madduma Ban-dara, 1989). Such changes in river discharge trendsstem largely from changes in catchment area land use.Although data available on sediment discharges in therivers of Sri Lanka do not suffice for time-seriesanalysis, in theory, increasing runoff/rainfall ratios in-dicate increased sediment transport from upstreamand eventual increases in reservoir siltation.

High siltation rates are evident in many Dry Zonetanks (Gangodawila, 1988) as well as in such upcountry

IIIIIIIII

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Water Resources 149

Supply / Demand

Total average annualyield

Current Requirements

Surface Water

MahawellProjectRegion

7375

i 1049

Future demand forAgriculture by year 2000 6134

Surplus/Deficit 199

Requirements

South-EastDry Zone

2783

2165

1534

916

Future demand is assessed on the basis of an average duty of 0.480 m/ha

Source: GOSL, 1977

Figure 7.10

(in Million

WesternWet Zone

16,760

-

+2960

(10 Ac. ft/Ac)

m3)

North WesternDry Zone

835

216

1996

1377

Trend Of Annual Rainfall At Nuwara Eliya

2300

- 2400EJ2300

^2200

32100x«2000i 1900

I «00

20 Yr. MOVING AVERAGES

Y« 2314-71-4-98 XY=0.4026

1870 1880 1890 1900 I»K> 1920 1930 I94O I9SO I960 1970

PERIOD OF RECORD

Figure 7.11

150 Water Resources


Occurrence of Years Falling within the Driest Decile atAnuradhapura (1870 -1980 )

Driest in terms

of Annual Total

1873

1876

1893

1905

1950

1956*

1958

1967

1968

1973

1974

Driest

Januaries

1873

1877

1888

1898

1916

1940

1945

1973

1974

1976

1980* (* Driest on record)

Figure 7.12

reservoirs, as Kandy Lake and Lake Gregoryin Nuwara Eliya. A recent study of Polgollareservoir indicated that 44 percent of itscapacity has silted up within less than 12 years(Perera, 1989). Hence, despite conclusions ofthe TAMS consultants (TAMS 1980), the newMahaweli reservoirs, such as Kotmale, Vic-toria and Randenigala may well be seriouslyaffected by siltation within their first 50 years.

Ground Water Exploitation

Temporal data for analysis of groundwater resources trends are altogether lackingexcept perhaps in the Jaffna peninsula wherea network of observation wells was maintainedfor some time by the Water Resources Board.Increased exploitation of groundwater fordomestic use through large numbers of tubewells in hard rock areas of the Dry Zone re-

quires careful monitoring to determine theimpact on adjacent shallow wells and othersurface waters.

DEVELOPMENT POLICIESAND INSTITUTIONAL

RESPONSES

With the completion of the MahaweliProject, government policies appear to be in-creasingly directed towards several new waterresource goals:

• greater efficiency in irrigation watermanagement in existing schemes, throughfarmer participation;

• increasing productivity in existing ir-rigated lands through crop diversifica-tion and higher cropping intensities;

IIIIÎ

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If

II"

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If •

IIIII

i

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Water Resources 151

• rehabilitation of minor irrigation systems;

• ground water development for agriculture anddomestic use;

• development of small-scale hydro-power projects;

• drainage and flood protection improvement; and

• systematic watershed management.

Institutional Authority

Implementation of these policies rests with dozensof agencies and several ministries under scores of par-liamentary acts. Some institutions began at the turn ofthe century, like the Irrigation Department, and othersare more recent, like the Irrigation ManagementDivision of the Ministry of Lands.

The Ministry of Lands and Land Development ~the single most important ministry responsible forwater resources affairs in Sri Lanka ~ covers all threemajor water resources development sectors, land, ir-rigation and forestry.

Within the Ministry the Irrigation Department hadfor decades primary responsibility for water resourceplanning, project formulation, construction and main-tenance. Its groundwater exploration and develop-ment functions were later transferred to the WaterResources Board (established in 1964), which nowcoordinates government water resources functions andformulates national policies relating to the control anduse of water resources.

Since 1979 the Mahaweli Authority has beenresponsible for water resources development in a largearea of the country, not only coming within theMahaweli project region, but also covering many othermajor river basins of Sri Lanka. The Water Manage-ment Secretariat of the Mahaweli Authority has thenecessary technical resources to plan the distributionof water resources under the Authority's jurisdiction.

Other important government institutions includethe Water Supply and Drainage Board -- the leadingstate agency on domestic and industrial water supplyand sewage and surface drainage - and the CeylonElectricity Board, responsible for the generation, trans-mission and distribution of electric power.

But these are only the prominent state institutionsconcerned with water resource management. Scat-tered functions among departments, corporations andministries have often resulted in poor coordination andwasteful duplication. The Water Resources Board hasyet to fulfill its role as the single institution specificallydevoted to water resource coordination and policymaking. The Irrigation Department and the MahaweliAuthority have not yet made the fundamental changesin outlook, staffing and priorities to move from con-struction to water management responsibilities.

Water Resources Legislation

Scores of parliamentary acts cover differentaspects of water resources in Sri Lanka. By 1977 therewere 41 acts and ordinances related to water resources,administered by government departments, public cor-porations and local bodies (GOSL, 1977). Since thennew acts have been passed, governing coastal and in-land waters as well. Among them all, new and old, afew have retained central importance: The IrrigationOrdinance codified ancient customs pertaining to ir-rigation water management to suit changing agrarianconditions, while the Crown Lands Ordinanceprovides for the use and control of all waters in riversand reservoirs.

The Crown Land Ordinance of 1949 defined a"private stream" as any river, creek, or ela, whose sourceand entire course lies within private land. All othersare "public streams" under state ownership. In theabsence of large landholdings, therefore, privateownership can only incorporate micro-catchments fall-ing entirely within private property. Similarly, a privatelake must be situated entirely within the boundaries ofany private property. The right to use, manage andcontrol water in any public lake or public stream vestsin the State, subject to a few limitations. The Act givesa person who occupies land on the bank of any publiclake or public stream the "right to use the water in thatlake or stream for domestic use, livestock or agricul-tural purposes" provided that it is extracted by manualmeans. However, because all beds of public streamsand lakes belong to the State they can only be used bypermit. These provisions of the Crown Lands Or-dinance are implemented through Government Agentsand their deputies.

152 Water Resources

2 .5

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

Yearly Average Increase of RunoffRainfall Ratios in Some River Basins

-^m ^M WE . _•^m jH Ê M JKelani Ganga Nilwala WetZone DryZone Island

Catchment Areas

H i Annual Increase %

Figure 7.13

Kirindi Oya Basin Stream Flow

»CCIIf 5510»

jo i« » i.o» x »nksi>>4.»r

•---o RLMOrr V. T.IJB2+0.9I« >lmSif:2.O7

pcfttoo or RCCORO

Figur» 7.14

II

I

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i ;

Iir ':

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Water Resources 153

Iac

g«5d

YFA

All

ac

ûî<a

1500

1000

500

1939/40

Changing Runoff / Rainfall Ratios of theUpper Mahaweii above Peradeniya

Y=O.56I3+3.7O-23Xr= 0.3969 (95 V.)n» 34

/

1949/50 1959/60 1969/70PERIOO OF RECORD

TIO

2u.o _,

0.7 z<

06 Ulo0.5 53

04 |

1979/80

Figure 7.15

Mahaweii Ganga Monthly Discharge at Peradeniya

S«PtMlt«

<***/** IIS4/S9 !»•«/€»

Ptriod of Rccortf

Figure 7.16

154 Water Resources

III

I

Need for watershed management legislation has Ibeen strongly recognized since the 1960s because theSoil Conservation Act of 19S1 did not provide specific mmeasures for water conservation. The Water Resour- fces Board took some interest in formulating a draft Acton watershed management (Arumugam, 1969) over mtwenty years ago without results. Then in 1980, TAMS |consultants, in their report on the Mahaweli develop-ment, outlined the legislation necessary for a Catch-ment Development Corporation. The PresidentialLand Commission followed with its First InterimReport (1985), which cited needs for watershed •management and provided draft legislation for a |"Watershed Management Authority."

Since these largely unfulfilled recommendations •little has been done to work towards sustainable water-shed management in Sri Lanka. Only the Mahaweli Âuthority initiated watershed management, but on a Ilimited scale in the upper Mahaweli basin, with helpfrom the GTZ (West German) and ODA (British). In _the meantime, the Soil Conservation Division of the IDepartment of Agriculture and the Department's ex-tension services for farmers have essentially ceased to ^function. •

IIIIIIIII

Water Resources 155

156

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Clean surface water is essential to meet the needs of Sri Lanka's growing population in urban and rural areas.

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157

PART n

WATER POLLUTION

With her small cities and industries and plentifulwater to dilute wastes, water pollution problems in SriLanka are not insurmountable, but they are increasingrapidly. They will grow steadily more serious as urbancommunities grow, industry expands, rural areasdevelop, farmers use more pesticides and fertilizers,and forestry, mining, and other development projectsunfold. In varying degrees Sri Lanka's waters willreceive the unwanted effects of all these human ac-tivities. This section discusses conditions and trends ofwater pollution and what can be done to manage theproblem before it gets out of hand.

SOURCES OF POLLUTION

Urban Wastes

About 21.5 percent of Sri Lanka's total populationlive in officially designated urban areas, which cover 0.5percent of Sri Lanka's 65,610 square kilometers.Colombo, Jaffna and Kandy already have seriousproblems in disposing of urban wastes, which includessewage, liquid waste from industrial processes, sullagewater from kitchens and laundries, garbage and in-dustrial solid waste, and urban storm water runoff thatcarries wastes of every description.

The Colombo Municipal Council area with its es-timated population of 625,000 is the only municipalitywith piped sewerage. In 1986 it connected 60 percentof the inhabitants. Sewage disposal facilities within thecity are shown in Figure 7.17. Yet this means that withinthe larger Colombo Urban Area ~ population 1.4 mil-lion in 1981 and over 1.6 million today - sewers serveless than one quarter of the population. None ofColombo's sewage is treated before discharge. Bycomparison, Bangkok treats only 2 percent of itssewage, but Singapore treats 80 percent (WRI, 1988-89).

Colombo's sewered area divides into two districts:the northern covers 2,100 hectares and until recently itdischarged waste water directly into the Kelani Ganga

at Madampitiya; the southern covers 1,000 hectaresand now discharges directly to the sea through an oceanoutfall at the mouth of the Dehiwela Canal. Sewageflow into the Kelani ranges from 67,500-90,000 cubicmeters per day, equivalent to an estimated organic loadof 10,000-26,400 kg BODs/d. Many of the effluentsfrom Colombo's industries, although not connected tothe sewer network, nevertheless reach the Kelanithrough the city drainage network.

Storm water and industrial effluents in the citydischarge into a network of streams and canals (Figure7.18). This drainage system divides into two parts. Thenorth-flowing section discharges through the Mutwaltunnel to the sea near the harbor, and into the Kelanithrough the St. Sebastian canal north lock when itswater level is low. At high water, however, this dis-charge is directed to the west-flowing sections thatopen to the sea at Dehiwela and Wellawatta. A numberof overflows in the sewer system cause further pollutionas sewage enters open water courses.

Problems of waste disposal in Colombo are com-- pounded because 50 percent of the population belongsto the low income category, of which many are slum andshanty dwellers. Occupying marginal lands, they nor-mally have little or no access to sewer services. Theirsewage and garbage are dumped into the surface water,particularly where they occupy stream and canal reser-vations. A recent study identified 76 low income com-munities situated on canal reservations.

Approximately 10-15 percent of the estimated625,000 inhabitants in the city of Colombo dischargedsewage directly or indirectly into the surface waternetwork in 1989. In addition, industrial and otherdomestic wastewater overflows from the sewer networkregularly enter and pollute the canals. Organic pollu-tion from sewage accounts for at least 50-60 percent ofthe total waste load (10,000 kg BODs/d) dischargedinto the canal network in Colombo.

The good news is that the sewer system is beingupgraded and extended to minimize these overflows.

158 Water Resources

Profile of Water Pollution

Although water pollution is caused by hundreds of chemicals, it basically consists of nutrients fromsewage or fertilizers, pesticides from croplands, sediments from cleared lands, and toxic metals fromindustry. In Europe and North America serious pollution of lakes and streams comes from the air throughacid precipitation, but in Sri Lanka, so far as we know, the most significant pollution comes from the land.

It comes from either specific discharge points or diffused, non-point sources. Point sources, mosteasily controlled in theory, include industrial discharges of heavy metals, organic waste, and otherpollutants, or discharge from urban sewers or sewage treatment plants.

Non-point pollution, more difficult to identify and manage, includes urban, agricultural, or any otherland runoff. Urban runoff into lakes, streams or canals includes nearly every pollutant - nutrients, toxics,oils, bacteria, and sediment. Agricultural runoff into streams and rivers usually includes pesticides,dissolved solids, nutrients from fertilizers, organic material, and pathogens. Runoff from forestry, roadconstruction or other land-clearing introduces high levels of suspended solids and various oxygen-demanding loads. Runoff from mines can add sediment, acids, and heavy metal pollution.

We care about water pollution first and foremost because it makes people ill or causes death.

Lack of potable water and sanitation causes the most common tropical diseases, transmitted bymosquitoes, other insects, parasites, and other water-related disease vectors. About 80 percent of allillness in the developing world results from unsafe and inadequate water supplies. Contaminated watercauses cholera in 10 million people each year, and diarrhea that kills 5 million children each year (WRL1988-89).

Pollution reduces food supply by killing fish and destroying aquatic habitat Periodic fish kills in theKelani River starkly illustrate the problem, but more gradual destruction of productive fisheries may bemore difficult to control. In Asia alone, pollution seriously harms major fisheries in the Strait of Malacca,the Andaman Sea coast, the Bight of Bangkok, and Manila Bay. Heavy metal toxics from industrial effluentattack productive estuaries by concentrating in fish and shellfish, making them hazardous for humans toeat. Sediment from upstream agriculture and land clearing has caused turbidity in marine waters byblocking light and reducing Gsh habitat.

Excess nutrients from urban sewage cause lakes and lagoons to die by becoming eutrophic — acommon global problem starkly evident in Colombo's murky and greenish Beira Lake (see box). Nutrientsfrom point and non-point sources cause an aging process - eutrophication — that stimulates plantproduction and algae blooms. As the plants die, settle, and decay, they rob the water of levels of dissolvedoxygen needed for plants and fish, causing the death of formerly productive ecosystems. Eutrophicationfrom human activities not only kills fish but makes waters unsuited to recreation.

To measure water quality we use various indicators.

Fecal Coliform Bacteria (FC) is a traditional, sanitary engineering measure of water pollution fromfeces of warm-blooded animals. They usually arise from discharges of human sewage, feedlots, and grazinglands.

III Water Resources 159

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• Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is one measure of water's ability to support aquatic animal life - a necessarybut not sufficient condition. Low DO levels may result from large amounts of decaying organic matterintroduced by natural causes or from human sewage. Low levels may cause many aquatic organismsto die.

• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) measures the amount of dissolved oxygen that microorganismsconsume as they oxidize organic materials over a given period.

• Measurements of heavy metals, such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd), areimportant because they are toxic to plants and animals. They are neither readily soluble in fresh waternor usually found in high concentrations under natural conditions. High levels indicate industrialpollution and persistent hazards to humans who consume the water.

• High levels of nitrates and phosphorous (P) in rivers indicate pollution from domestic sewage,agricultural fertilizers, livestock wastes, and some industrial wastes. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorousare nutrients that help cause algal blooms and eutrophication. Nitrates are health hazards, especiallyto infants.

ii

i

Sewage Disposal in Colombo CityPercentage of Households Served

Sewer

Pit/Bucket12

Septic tanks22

Sourc«:Cantral Environmental Authority;Tlllakaratn»

Figure 7.17

160 Water Resources


Further, because the ocean outfall at the harbor mouthhas become operational, the northern sewerage systemlonger discharges into the Kelani river at Madampitiya.

Yet questions remain: will an ocean outfall solvethe pollution problem, or simply exchange one problemfor a new one in the ocean and along the coasts? Evenwith new ocean outfalls and new developments withsewage disposal, discharges from the drainage systemsof Colombo will still cause serious water pollution.

Cities smaller than Colombo produce similarurban water pollution problems that often receive lessnotice. Kand/s population of 97,872 (1981 census)largely uses on-site disposal systems for sewage dis-posal, but only 50-60 percent of the houses use septictanks or pit latrines. Low income settlements and highdensity mixed development in the city core dischargesewage and sullage directly into the surface drainagenetwork.

This pattern recurs in all our cities and suburbs;canals and waterways have been turned into opensewers.

Urban waste disposal has affected not only surfacewater but ground water as well. Water pollution inJaffna, which rests on miocène limestone soils, is onesuch example. Sewage disposal in Jaffna occursthrough on-site systems, mainly pit latrines, and thepermeability of the limestone, enhanced by its inherentcrevices and channels, has caused widespread pollutionof the water table.

In unsewered urban areas some major housingschemes and hospitals have waste water treatmentplants. Yet many operate poorly due to lack of aware-ness, technical skills, or interest on the part of respon-sible authorities.

Large urban centers face rising problems in dispos-ing of urban solid waste, both domestic and industrial.Generation of domestic solid waste within the ColomboMetropolitan Council region was 450 tonnes per day in1987 and is estimated to rise to 470 tonnes per day in1992. Disposal and filling is not always sanitary, causingpollution and clogging of surface canals and drains andpollution of ground water. The problem compoundswhen urban solid waste fills lowlands for development

purposes — a common occurrence given increasingdemands for urban land. Housing developments onsuch sites, lacking piped water, may resort to groundwaters that are badly polluted.

Industrial Waste

Industrial wastes in Sri Lanka undergo little or notreatment before discharge. Until recently the laws andby-laws relating to pollution and nuisance have beenpoorly enforced; liquid effluents are discharged direct-ly into surface drainage networks or onto land, whencethey reach the closest water body. Thus, textile dyeingand printing industries have caused widespread pollu-tion in Ratmalana and Moratuwa. One study for theCentral Environmental Authority estimates that inColombo the total waste from industry discharged intothe canal network is 70,000 person equivalents, or 3,900kg BODs/day. A portion of this eventually reaches theKelani Ganga.

Industries in Sri Lanka fall into two categories.One includes large-scale operations which have beenestablished outside the main cities that have essentialinfrastructure and urban services. The second includesthe smaller and medium-scale industries which ofnecessity are established in or near cities where in-frastructure and urban services are, or can easily be,available.

Industrial estates are not numerous. The most wellknown are the Katunayake and Biyagama industrialestates in the Gampaha district within the jurisdictionof the GCEC. Both are equipped with treatmentplants. From 1963 to 1975 only three major industrialestates were established by the government — Ekala,Pallekelle and Atchuvely. During the late 1970s threemini-estates were developed in Horana, Pannala andLunuwila. The Colombo district has two others ~ theRatmalana industrial estate and the LadyCatharineindustrial estate, both established south of Colombooutside its municipal limits. Neither carries out anywaste treatment. The Katuwana estate in Homagama,in the Gampaha district, will commence operationsshortly. In addition medium-scale operations tend toagglomerate, creating areas of predominantly in-dustrial development that are usually designated

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Water Resources

Colombo North and South Drainage Canals

i COLOMBO CITY LIMITS

COLOMBO

KOLLUPITIYA

BAMBALAPfTIYA

Otmatogodo Canal North

Kot f Ela

PANNIPITIYA

Mf. LAVINIA

PILIYANDALA

km.

MORATUWA LoHa

Rgure 7.18

161

162 Water Resource*


Sector

Textile dyeing

Printing

Leather

Processing

Distillery

Waste

No.

124

1

56

5

Load from

Location

District

Colombo

Gampaha

Kurunegala

Colombo

Gampaha

Kalutara

some

BOD5

1,564

1,629

480

734767

421

Polluting Sectors

Waste Load

tons/yr SS tons/yr

472

492

145

510

533

492

HM tons /yr*

11

12

* heavy metals

Figure 7.19

as industrial zones by the Urban DevelopmentAuthority when it produces development plans for aparticular local authority.

Data on industrial plants and pollution has beenlimited, but industrial pollution appears ever moreserious as the information base improves. A 1989 sur-vey indicated that 80 percent of manufacturing in-dustries of all sizes are located in Colombo andGampaha districts. Of the 7,610 medium- and large-scale plants it identified, 60 percent (4,600) were con-sidered likely to have potential for pollution. Of these,291 (6 percent) appeared to have a high pollutionpotential and 1,900 (40 percent) moderate potential.The 1989 survey identified 115 significant polluters, butthe CEA staff now estimate (November, 1990) that wellover 230 plants may be significant polluters, includingstate as well as private companies, and that the numberof the industrial plants is larger than the original surveyshowed.

Figure 7.19 lists the process waste loads from highlypolluting industrial sectors, both state and privatelyowned. Because of their high pollution potential, theextent to which even these small- to medium-sized

facilities have already caused pollution is remarkable.Their size and scattered location makes pollution con-trol costly and difficult. This is particularly evident inthe case of local resource-dependent activities like rub-ber processing. By conservative estimates, up to 28,300tons of BOD5 are discharged annually, polluting watersin the Ratnapura District.

Unlike many developed countries, however, SriLanka has relatively few severe pollution problemsfrom chemical industries, because this sector is largelyrepresented by manufacturers of paints, varnishes, cos-metics, and other chemical products estimated to havea relatively low potential for pollution.

Pollution from purely state-owned industries ismost likely from the medium- to large-scale plantsmanufacturing paper, sugar, cement, steel, andpetroleum. Individually these industries are highly pol-luting, as is the case with the cement factories atKankesanthurai, Puttalam, and Galle, and the papermills at Valachchenai and Embilitiya. In theory, beingfew in number, and having centralized operation, theirproblems can be easily controlled, if the state makes theeffort to do so.

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Water Resources 163

Rural Sanitation

The census figures for rural areas in 1981 revealedthat only 5 percent of the rural population had accessto piped water, 85 percent used wells, and the restdepended on streams and rivers (see Population Chap-ter).

Between 30 and 40 percent of the wells in theHambantota, Moneragala, and Matale districts are un-protected and 25-30 percent of rural populations inMoneragala and Hambantota areas depend on riversand tanks for potable water. If similar trends occurelsewhere, rural sanitation problems will assume grow-ing importance. Lack of sanitation facilities and prac-tices will largely determine the exposure of ruralpopulations to waterborne disease.

Sanitation figures show that 44 percent of the ruralpopulation use pit and bucket latrines, while 36-5 per-cent use no latrine facilities whatsoever. In 7 of the 13predominantly rural coastal districts, 60 percent ofresidents have no sanitary facilities. In these samedistricts over 90 percent of the population use wells,rivers, tanks and springs for water supply. Many watersources in rural areas are also unprotected. The result:a high proportion of the population is exposed to healthrisks associated with fecally contaminated water, eitherthrough ground water pollution or from surface con-tamination. According to one study, "the poor watersupply and excreta disposal systems have resulted in 40percent of the Sri Lankan population being affected bytyphoid, amoebic and bacillary dysentery, infectioushepatitis, gastro-enteritis, colitis and worm infections"(Hydrogeochemical Atlas of Sri Lanka).

Agricultural Wastes

Agricultural waste results from agricultural prac-tices and agro- and livestock-based industries in therural sector. - - - •

Nearly one-third of Sri Lanka's land is cropped,and on it fanners put two to eight times more fertilizerthan other countries in the region, reaching levels ashigh as 77 kg/ha. Certain districts show annual applica-tion rates for paddy in the range of 124 kg/ha. Fertilizerapplication rates for the country in general show anupward trend over the past decade (Figure 7.20).

Fertilizer pollution has become a potential hazard.Intensive agricultural patterns in the Jaffna andNuwara Eliya districts have already caused pollution ofground and surface water by nitrates. Excess nitratescan cause bowel and other diseases in children. Withits extensive sugarcane plantations covering an es-timated 25,000 hectares, the Moneragala district isanother potential recipient of fertilizer pollution. Sevenriver basins drain this district and monitoring of surfacewaters may well reveal the presence of agrochemicalsin some of them.

Pesticide use has also risen steadily. Paddy is thehighest consumer of pesticides (equivalent to 70 per-cent of the imports), and the average rate of applicationbetween 1977-1983 increased from 1,200 grams perhectare to 1,600 grams per hectare.Between 50 and 60percent of the farmers use at least twice the recom-mended dose.

A further consequence of agricultural practices onhilly terrain is the silt carried through the run-off, alongwith the fertilizers and pesticides. Degradation ofLake Gregory has become notorious ~ an oft-citedexample of the impacts of seasonal crop cultivationwith inadequate soil conservation.

Lack of data clouds our understanding of pes-ticides and fertilizer impacts on waterways. No sys-tematic studies have been undertaken and little or nopublished data on monitoring are available on pes-ticides and fertilizer levels in the run-off from cultivatedland. CISIR is presently involved in two monitoringstudies in the Kandy and Batticaloa districts.

Nor have studies systematically measured thepotential pollution impacts of agricultural and live-stock-based industries here, such as pig and poultryfarms. For example, paddy milling capacity increasedby 60 percent between 1980 and 1987 due to new privatesector mills. Although milling has caused localizedpollution in the north central and eastern provinces wecannot yet determine the magnitude of the problem. Wedo know that mills consume substantial quantities ofwater during the milling season, and their high BODscan cause pollution of wells and streams used for localdrinking water.

164 Water Resources.


Trends in Fertilizer Application Rate

700 -,

6 0 0

SOO

300

K 200uiu.

100

TEA

COCONUT

RU88ER

1979 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '6TEAR

'86 '87

Figure 7.20

Natural Factors

Background contributions of geological factors towater pollution cannot be overlooked when analysingwater resource constraints and environmental condi-tions and trends. Geological conditions cause highfluoride levels in water in parts of Sri Lanka. Too muchfluoride causes dental fluorosis, and too little mayresult in high dental caries. Eppawela and Anurad-hapura have the highest groundwater concentrations,reportedly as high as 9 milligrams per liter (mg/1). InPolonnaruwa district 15 percent of tube wells showedlevels of fluoride above 2 mg/1. Excessive levels offluoride that cause severe dental fluorosis among arearesidents result from fluoride leaching into ground

water from the area's fluorine-rich apatite deposit. TheUda Walawe area is also high in ground water fluorineconcentrations, due to serpentine deposits that contain1000 to 2000 ppm fluoride. Pollution of ground wateroccurs through a process of ion exchange.

Oil Discharges

-Oil pollution in Sri Lanka, although low level, isbecoming chronic. The southern coast lies along themain east-west shipping routes that bring oil from theMiddle East to Asian and other ports. Risks of amassive accidental spill are omni-present, but long termbuild-up from chronic pollution is more likely fromdischarge of ballast and bilge water.

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Water Resources

Beira Lake Pollution - Causes And RemediesColombo's Beira Lake is one of Sri Lanka's most polluted waters. At 67.6 ha. Beira is twice

the size of the well known Kandy Lake but it divides into four sections. The pollution problemis conceptually simple; too much pollution comes in and virtually none gets out. Flows out ofBeira are restricted yet it receives city waste from an extensive catchment of 757 hectares and athousand or more outfalls of varying sizes.

A recent study (NBRO, 1989) of 28 of these outfalls shows COD levels varying between 29and 816 mg/1 and SS in the range of 39-330 mg/1. The volumetric discharge in these outfalls variedbetween 7 and 40m 3/ha in dry weather.

The lake is artificially maintained at a level of 1.8 meters msl by a system of lock gates openinginto the St. Sebastian canal and thence north to the Kelani river. These gates allow drainage oflake water into the Kelani on certain occasions and vice versa. Early in the British period theentire Colombo canal network and Beira Lake were an integrated system used extensively fornavigation. Then this system fell into disuse and the rapidly growing city used it as a naturaldrainage outlet.

Lake water quality began to deteriorate in the late nineteenth century. The decrease inquality became exponential and recent studies (NARA 1985) indicate that the "greening" of theBeira is due to algal blooms caused by the blue green algae microcyst. Beira Lake is a fine exampleof eutrophication!

After earlier efforts failed to improve matters a technical committee in 1989 recommendedseveral remedial measures. One is a throughflow system to replenish and circulate the waters ofthe Beira, particularly in the south west section. The initial source of replenishment would bethe waters of the east Beira, but pumping Kelani water through the St. Sebastian canal is alonger-term proposal, estimated at 62 million rupees in 1986. Controlling the pollution inputs isthe other key remedy involving a number of difficult actions: connecting sewers properly so theydo not overflow into the Beira; removing or eliminating all other sources; settling shantypopulations away from the banks; dredging the lake bottom; and working with all major pollutersto control their pollution. It will take time and money; both will be necessary to restore BeiraLake to the kind of urban amenity that can again please tourists and residents alike.

165

These discharges already pollute some southernbeaches with tar balls. A different concern is oil andpetrol washout from the 100-odd service stations andlarge garages in Colombo. These discharges may becarried to the Kelani estuary or the beaches aroundColombo. Actual pollution loads must still be com-puted even to begin to understand the problem.

TRENDS IN WATER QUALITY

Comprehensive water quality data on surfacewater, ground water, estuaries and coastal waters arenot available in part because of diffused resources

management responsibilities. The Irrigation Depart-ment, Water Resources Board, National Water Supplyand Drainage Board (NWS & DB), National AquaticResources Agency (NARA), Mahaweli Authority, andCoast Conservation Department (CCD) all managewater resources and collect data. Many independentwater quality studies by universities and internationalagencies have also been carried out with no cohesiveforce guiding the search for information or its ultimateuse. With data scattered, unpublished, or available inunprocessed form, analysis becomes onerous, whenpossible at all.

166 Water Resources

IIIiiiiiiiiii

An attempt is made here to project some coherenttrends based on data for the Kelani and Mahawelirivers, several important urban water bodies in citiesand health resorts, ground water in the Jaffna penin-sula, areas subjected to pollution and salt water in-trusion, and coasts and estuaries.

Kelani Ganga

The Kelani Ganga, the second largest river in SriLanka (1443 kilometers), drains an area of 2,278square kilometers in the west zone that contains someof the country's most densely populated districts. How-ever most of its organic pollution comes in its last SOkilometers before it flows into the sea at Mattakuliya.

Colombo receives most of its potable water fromthe Kelani Ganga. The intake point is at Ambatale, 14kilometers from the river mouth. In turn, the Ketanireceives a substantial portion of Colombo's sewage anddrainage. Until 1990 the Madampitiya pumping stationdischarged 68,000-90,000 cubic meters of sewage andindustrial waste into the Kelani each day. Charac-teristics vary between 250-500 mg/1 COD and 16-45mg/1 TKN, which means that from this source alone thédaily load entering the Kelani was 10,000 kg BODs/d.

Among the many water quality parameters that canbe measured, most significant for the Kelani are organicmatter from the large volumes of sewage and organicindustrial effluent, and nitrates from sewage and fer-tilizer runoff. Heavy metal contamination also occursmainly from tanning effluents in the lower reaches andto a lesser extent discharge from metal finishing andprocessing industries, but no precise discharge data areavailable.

Pesticide contamination may not be serious yetbecause much of the Kelani catchment drains throughplantations where pesticide use has been much lowerthan in irrigated agriculture.

Estimated contributions from the major wastesources most likely to affect the Kelani are displayed inFigure 7.21 and Figure 7.22. Figures do not includenon-point sources. The St. Sebastian canal, one ofColombo's drainage outlets, enhances pollution levelsperiodically when the Kelani is sufficiently low to allowthe discharge of canal water through the North lock.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the canal are zero, andthe BODs levels are around 350 mg/1. As can be ob-served, recent operation of the northern ocean outfallfor the city sewage, diverting it from the Kelani, willvastly improve water quality.

Monitoring of water quality in the lower Kelanifrom 1973 to 1974 (see Figure 723) measured dissolvedoxygen — a good indicator of the river's health. Even in1973 the last 12 kilometers of the river that drains themost industrialized section had DO values of only 20to 30 percent saturation, whereas 60 percent saturationwas observed at Kitulgala, about 96 kilometersupstream from the river mouth. Low values of DOdownstream indicate how quickly a large influx of pol-lution can cause anaerobic conditions. Sudden fish killsthat occur in the river illustrate one of the severe effects.The highest values of suspended solids and totalnitrogen are also occurring in this stretch. More recentdata from a single monitoring station 20 kilometersfrom, the river mouth and upstream of the Ambatalewater intake show water quality within levels deemedacceptable (Figure 7.24).

Heavy metals and pesticide levels have not beenstudied extensively in the Kelani. Levels in excess oftolerance limits for fresh water have been noted forcadmium (9 ppb), copper (11 ppb), and lead (9 ppb),which are the only elements monitored (Dissanayake,Weerasooriya, 1986). Discharges from local tanneriesmay well cause chromium pollution, but no data areavailable.

A reliable picture of the pollution conditions and Ä

trends requires sustained monitoring of sediment pol- •lution as well as surface water pollution.

Impacts of sandmining in the Kelani have beenextensive in the lower reaches. As a result, the Kelani'slowered river bed has allowed the intrusion of saltwater. Conductivity and chloride measurements madeby the Irrigation Department have shown that the salineplume is steadily extending further inland and willpresently reach the Ambatale intake.

Mahaweli Ganga

The Mahaweli, Sri Lanka's longest river (325kilometers), with an annual discharge of 7,650 million

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Water Resources 167

I

I

Waste SourcesBefore Ocean

Sewage pumping ^ ^ ^ H10000 ^^^M

AffectingOutfalKKG

ftIMIIlu

the KelaniB0D5/d)

1§SN§sf Oil refinery •! C ^ ' 860

Food, vegetable oil1900

Tanneries700

Figure 7.21

cubic meters also has by far the largest catchment area(IO327 square kilometers), covering one-sixth of thecountry. Under the Mahaweli development programover 16 percent of this catchment will be irrigated forpaddy and home garden cultivation. By 1984 theMahaweli water quality monitoring program was un-derway to assess project impacts of these and otherchanges.

For approximately half its length the Mahawelitraverses the Wet Zone, passing through densely popu-lated towns, including Kandy and Matale. From Kandyalone it receives substantial untreated urban wastewater through the two main waterways draining the city- the Meda Ela and the Hali Ela, which togetherreceive a load of 712-1,507 kg BODs/d from dense citycenter developments.

shown in Figure 7.25. A comparison of heavy metalsconcentrations for the two major rivers indicates thatlevels are still well within the fresh water norms (Figure7.26).

Nitrate concentrations have shown a definite in-crease along the direction of flow. Sewage also con-tributes to increased nitrate levels, but population inthese areas is relatively low. The Mahaweli River is aclear case of agrochemical usage in the catchment con-tributing to elevated nitrate levels.

Without recorded data on pesticide residues wecan only estimate the pollution caused by thesematerials. Increased pesticide levels may occur as theriver flows downstream.

Low levels of industrialization have kept industrialpollution of the Mahaweli below that of the Kelani, yetexpansion of the agricultural and agro-based industrialsector will require careful impact assessment. Resultsof a hydrogeochemical survey from August to Decem-ber 1983 documented the variation in a number ofmetallic and non-metallic constituents in the water.Monitoring data covered the area from Nawalapitiya toGallela. Ranges for some of these parameters are

Other Rivers,Waterways and Water Bodies

Wastes from townships often discharge into smalladjacent streams or rivers and ultimately reach themajor waterways. Most of this waste is organic andcould cause anaerobic conditions in some places.Rivers like the Uda Walawe have also been subjectedto industrial wastes from a single factory. Such condi-tions can be corrected relatively easily, however.

168 Water Resources

Water Pollution Impacts on the Keiani RiverBefore Ocean Outfall

COkOMBO

Figure 7.22

Water Quality of Lower Keiani RiverMinimum values observed

TSSmg/l 15.6 28

Total Nmg/I 1.0 2.51

CODmg/l 0.8 1.9

DO% Sat 21 28

Modéra Mattakuliya

Distance

from mouth Mouth lKm

TSS = Total Suspended Solids

Total N = Total Nitrogen

COD = Chemical Oxygen Demand

DO = Dissolved Oxygen

69

1.57

1.7

36

Madampitiya

U K

During 1973-1974

26 11.6

0.71 0.63

1.12 1.2

53 18

Kelaniya Ambatale

12K 14.6

2.9

1.26

1.0

68

Kitulgala

96 Km

Figure 7.23

Water Resources 169

Ground Water

Ground water is increasingly used for potablewater, especially in small towns and rural areas. Theten year plan launched in 1980 envisaged drilling 20,000deep wells and constructing or rehabilitating 25,000dug wells. By this means 50 percent coverage for therural population was to be achieved by 1990, althoughthis target has not yet been reached.

Estimated ground water potential for the countryis 780,000 hectare/meters per annum. For this water toremain safe, water extraction must not exceed theaquifer's replenishment capacity. Otherwise the wellwill run dry or, in coastal areas, invite brackish waterintrusion.

This problem has occurred in northern coastalareas and the northwest agricultural belt where groundwater irrigates rice and cash crops. Demand fordomestic water from ground water is rising in Puttalam,Mannar, Paranthan, Kilinochchi, and Mullaitivu areas.To supplement surface water irrigation 130 tube wellswere built over four years to tap the Murunkan lime-stone aquifer. Subsequent unregulated ground wateruse led to rapid salinity intrusion. Salt water intrusioninto ground water has occurred in the Hambantota areadue to seepage from rainwashed dissolved solids.

The most serious threats to ground water comefrom nitrate and bacterial (fecal) contamination.Nitrate pollution is due as much to extensive use ofagrochemicals as to the disposal of sewage effluentfrom pit latrine soakaways and septic tanks, whichcauses bacterial contamination of ground water.

River and canal pollution also affects groundwater; analyses of well waters from Thotalanga near apolluted stretch of the Kelani, and from the banks ofthe Meda Ela in Kandy, highlight the influence of pol-luted surface waters on wells. This problem is criticalin urban areas where ground water provides most of thepotable water.

Data on distribution of nitrate in ground water isavailable for the northern and northwestern coastalareas that largely comprise miocène limestone.Limited monitoring in the Kalpitiya peninsula, inten-sively cultivated and irrigated, has shown considerable

aquifer contamination by nitrates in fertilizer. Peakseasonal concentrations there reached four times theWHO guideline; concentrations in the ground waterbeneath unfertilized land were substantially lower.

Similarly, in agricultural and non-agriculturalareas in the Jaffna peninsula, nitrate concentrationsover 200 mg/1 of NO3 have been recorded. Widespreadwater contamination in the peninsula results fromagricultural washouts and pit latrine soakaways.Within the urban limits of Jaffna and Point Pedro highnitrate concentrations in some areas range from 122 to174 mg/1, which can be attributed to sewage pollutionfrom pit latrines. As noted above, the karstified lime-stone enhances the possibilities of such pollution. Ofthe wells monitored in one study 80 percent showedunacceptable bacterial quality due to sewage.

Leaching of pesticides into ground water may alsooccur in these agricultural areas, but no analyses havebeen carried out due to lack of facilities and funding formonitoring.

The Moratuwa urban council area, extendingbeyond Ratmalana, still uses ground water for potablewater, although pipeborne water from Colomboreaches the town center. Sewage disposal is by septictanks or latrines. The population of 135,000 inhabitantsoccupies an area of 13.1 square kilometers — makingthe area second in density to Colombo (Figure 7.27).Not surprisingly, fecally contaminated ground water(95 percent of samples studied in an area covering 1.5square kilometers) has been reported in certainlocalities.

Differences in population densities affect nitrogenlevels in ground water. Figure 7.28 shows the nitrogengenerated by different population densities and theconcentrations likely to reach ground water in areasusing on-site waste disposal.

Where towns are rapidly expanding and densehousing communities develop, on-site sanitation sys-tems are often favored, even though their potable watercomes from ground water. Water treatment systemsare simply too expensive and ground water offers themost cost-effective alternative. Hence, ground waterprotection has become a development imperative.

170 Water Resources


—I

Parameter

Dissolved oxygen mg/lConductivity (microsiemens)

pH (acidity)

Suspended solids mg/1

COD mg/1

(chemical oxygen demand)

Nitrate mg/1Free ammonia mg/1

SAR(sodium absorption ratio)

Source : NBRO (1989)

Water Quality

Average

7.2

34.8

6.5

9.1

19.7

0.12

0.61

0.38

at Ambatale Intake

1988-1989

Range

6.2-13.2

27-44

5.9-7.0

0.4-40

4.6-50.6

0.02-0.2

0.04-6.07

0.1-2.3

1973-1974

. Range

1.5-8.7-

5.1-7.5

11.6-180

1.2-3.9

0.25-2.65

0.08-1.8

Figure 7.24

Estuaries and Lagoons

Sri Lanka's 1,585-kilometer coastline is broken byextensive lagoons, bays, brackish water lakes, and wet-lands. (See Coastal Resources chapter.) Brackishwater bodies include 80,000 hectares of estuaries andlarge deep lagoons, and about 40,000 hectares of shal-low lagoons, tidal flats, mangroves, and swamps. Of thesmall lagoons, especially along the southwestern,southern, and southeastern coasts, only a few are opento the sea and then only for short periods. Large-mouthed lagoons at Negombo, Puttalam, and Jaffna areperennially open to the sea, and a few others, likeBatticaloa, Kokkilai, and Nayani, form sand bars acrosstheir mouths during the dry season.

Pollution monitoring data on the numerouslagoons and estuaries are virtually nonexistent. Lowerreaches of the Kelani have received some attention, butno detailed pollution studies have been made of theestuary .The same can be said for the Mahaweli estuaryand other lagoons and coastal water bodies. In part thisneglect stems from priorities favoring study of areasmost seriously affected by pollution from large popula-tions. No major lagoons, except at Jaffna, are linked tourban centers with populations over 60,000, and nocoastal towns are heavily industrialized except around

the Kelani estuary. No other large riverine or basinestuary receives industrial waste. Consequently, withthe assimilative capacity of the sea, pollution loads haveso far been absorbed.

Pollution of the small lagoons and bay estuaries ismuch more serious, however. Lunawa Lagoon, theBolgoda-Panadura riverine estuary, and ValachchenaiLagoon show how urban and industrial waste disposalaffects the marine environment.

The Lunawa Lagoon receives water from streamsand rivers and is opened to the sea by human interven-tion every three to four weeks to prevent lowlandfloods. On the average it receives 81 tons COD and 43tons SS during each year from surrounding residentialand industrial development. Sewage and industrialwaste have made the two main feeder streams (five inall) completely anaerobic. The northern lagoon iseutrophic and exhibits higher levels of nutrients andpollutants (Figure 7.29) than in the southern section.Lagoon pollution has caused sediment buildup, al-though sediment quantity and quality data are not avail-able. Eutrophication has set in and the lagoon has lostmuch of its value for recreation and prawn and fishculture.

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Water Resources 171

Some Constituents

Water

Parameter

Copper (Cu)

Zinc (Zn)

Lead (Pb)Cadmium (Cd)

Chloride (CI)Nitrate (as nitrogen) (NO3-N)

Phosphate (P04)

of Mahaweli

Range ppb

4-37

2-2701-4

1-2

11-27

480-3100

37-473

Source: Oissanayake and Weerasooriy a t'966)

Average Metal Contents in

Mahaweli and Kelani

Constituents Mahaweli (ppb) Kelani (ppb)

Cadmium

Cobalt

Lead

Zinc 58 53

Source : Dissanayake and Weerasooriya (1986)

Figure 7.25 Figure 7.26

Population Densities in Major Urban

Centers

Colombo

Moratuwa

Kolonnawa

Dehiwela —Mt. Lavinia

Kotte

50 100 150

i^H Density (pop/ha)

Figure 7.27

200

172 Water Resources.

The Panadura-Bolgoda estuary, which alsoreceives urban and industrial waste, showed BODvalues ranging from 10-100 mg/1 during spring tide.Background levels are relatively high even for marinewaters.

The Valachchenai Lagoon receives its waste froma single industry ~ a government paper factory whosedischarge causes significant pollution. Waste loads of18,000 kg suspended solids and 9,000 kg BOD5 reachthe lagoon daily.

Figures showing fishery declines caused by es-tuarine and coastal water pollution are not available butisolated cases of such pollution leading to economiclosses have become increasingly common. The sea canassimilate large quantities of industrial wastes, but likeevery other recipient it too has limits. Coastal marinepollution has become an increasing problem aroundthe globe, and Sri Lanka can be vulnerable, too. Rapideconomic development envisaged for the future, withattendant rise in tourism, will require immediate atten-tion to the impact of pollution o

Other Forms Of Water Degradation

Throughout the country, each watershed is likelyto have its own peculiar mix of water degradationproblems. Along with water pollution from industrialfacilities and urban communities, other other adverseimpacts on water quality may be significant as well.The mineral chapter discusses sand and gem miningimpacts in riverbeds leading to bank erosion andderegulation of water flows. Land clearing, deforesta-tion, and steep slope cultivation cause soil erosion andsiltation that contributes to sedimentation and destabil-ized seasonal water flows in rivers.

IMPACTS

Economic, social, health, and biological impacts ofwater pollution interlink and cannot be viewed in isola-tion. All impacts cannot be quantified but efforts canbe made to improve our ability to measure the long- andshort-term economic costs of water degradation andthe lost benefits of water quality.

The high economic costs of water pollution in SriLanka have not been, but can and should be calculated.

Pollution of surface and ground waters requires costlytreatment to meet potable water demands of expandingpopulations. Pollution of inland and estuarine waterssupporting fisheries has resulted in heavy economic andsocial loss to fishermen. Pollution of water bodies andwaterways in our cities contributes to a loss in aestheticvalue, and may reduce diversity in plant and animalspecies in fresh and estuarine waters. (See Biodiversitychapter.) Most of these impacts can be quantified, andmany can be put into economic terms: they include lostfisheries, lost income to fishermen, tourist companiesand guides, costs of pollution controls, water treatmentfacilities, and so forth. Such measurements, howeverimperfect, offer rational ways to rank priorities foranticipating and preventing, as well as treating, waterpollution problems.

Water-borne diseases caused by polluted water,although not precisely evaluated, have increased costsof health care in cities, small towns, and rural areas.Despite some improved health care, the numbers ofpeople affected by water-borne diseases have in-creased. The frequent outbreaks of such disease areevidence of the increased water pollution.

LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONALRESPONSE

Heightened concern about environmental pollu-tion has come recently, but because water is one ofhumankind's primary needs, early legislation sought toprevent water pollution; in 1861 the ThoroughfaresOrdinance made it an offense to throw rubbish intorivers and canals. Since then Parliament has passednumerous acts administered by different agencies, fromthe purely advisory and coordinating scheme of theWater Resources Board Act of 1964 to the regulatoryapproach of the National Water Supplies and DrainageBoard Act of 1974, dealing with aspects of pollutioncontrol. (See Figure 730.)

Only the laws enacted after 1980, in particular theNational Environment Act, reflect the view that wateris a resource to be protected and managed for the useof future generations. The National Environment Actof 1980 with its Amendments of 1988 stands as the mostimportant single piece of legislation on environmentalprotection and management Pollution control is to be

Water Resources 173

Ground Water Pollution In JaffnaBeneath the Jaffna peninsula and the islands in northern Sri Lanka are sedimentary limestones more

than 50 meters thick, and within these Karst formations are large quantities of ground water that serve thepopulatiori~and its agriculture. Pollution now threatens its long-term value and sustainability.

About 30 to 32 percent of Jaffna's rainfall - 1,255 mm annually - recharges its groundwater, whilethe rest evaporates or runs off. Recharge to groundwater in the peninsula depends almost entirely onrainfall percolation. The water table fluctuates in response to the rainfall, rising in the wet season andfalling in the dry season. Fresh water forms lenses up to 24 meters thick, and these overlie the salineground water that connects with the sea.

Ground water is the peninsula's only potable water source, exploited mainly through large diameterhand-dug wells. Of the more than 100,000 such wells, over 25 percent are for irrigation. Since introductionof mechanical pumps, largely in the 1960s, pumping in excess of safe yield has led to over-extraction. Mostof the water pumped comes from the storage below sea level. As a result the fresh-salt water interfacecontinues to rise. Storage is replenished during the monsoonal rains, when water levels rise and thefresh-salt water interface is lowered. If annual recharge to the aquifer is less than annual discharge thelong-term position of the interface will be higher and wells will become increasingly saline.

The major problem with ground water quality is high chloride concentrations. Data from the WaterResources Board indicate a sharp increase in ground water chloride concentration as one goes deeper,from less than 400 milligrams per liter to more than 900 milligrams per liter. Areas of the peninsulaexperiencing high chloride concentration generally occur where pumping from wells has caused a rise inthe lower boundary of the thin fresh-water lens that overlies saline water. About 23 percent of thepeninsula now experiences or is prone to receive saline water in the dry season. This declines to 10 percentin December. About 15 to 22 percent of the peninsula receives moderately saline water.

Salinity distribution in the peninsula is very much related to population density and land use. Averagepopulation density of the peninsula is 430 per square kilometer, compared to national density of about250 per square kilometer, and 1170 per square kilometer in the Western Province. About 60 percent ofthe peninsula is occupied by residences and home gardens, 13 percent is under subsidiary crops, and 12percent lies under paddy cultivation. The island lagoons take up about 10 percent and the balance remainsundeveloped and largely unused.

Intense urban development and agricultural activity in the densest western peninsula (800-1,200people per square kilometer) has resulted in ground water overdraft far in excess of replenishment. Theserious implications of these trends — a peninsula essentially devoid of fresh water, at least in the dryseason — require restrictions on new wells including careful regulation of size, diameter and the distancebetween wells.

Intensive agriculture with increased chemical inputs also raises fears of ground water pollution - aproblem compounded by urban sanitary conditions. Most Jaffna residents lack sanitary toilets, and a largenumber of septic tank systems contribute to the deteriorating water quality.

Ground water of the Jaffna peninsula has the highest nitrate content in Sri Lanka. Nitrate levelsdirectly relate to population density and organic pollution.

Jaffna's nitrate levels exceed WHO limits by 100-150 percent. A detailed study of the ground watercontamination based on case studies in the Jaffna peninsula (Gunasekaram, 1983)found that 80 percentof the wells yielded water of poor bacteriological quality with high levels of fecal coliform. Among themajor factors responsible:

174 Water Resources

• Discharge of human excreta. Soakage pit/septic tank effluents discharge directly underground. Indensely populated urban areas the distance between soakage pits and wells is as short as 6 meters.

• Excessive use of agricultural fertilizers. Farmers mainly use urea, which contains 46 percent nitrogen.Excessive use of urea on crops such as chillies and onions is common everywhere. In additioncattle-manure is often used as a fertilizer, which adds more nitrogen to ground water.

• The ready solubility of urea. Urea easily reaches the shallow ground water table, and under normalconditions about 75 percent of the nitrates applied reach the ground water body.

The abundant nitrogenous waste from human excreta and synthetic and animal fertilizer easilypercolates to the shallow ground water table through the cavernous limestone aquifer. Geologicalconditions are ideal for the excessive accumulation of nitrates.

Ground water pollution and over-pumping in the peninsula result from various activities. Theincreasingly urgent need to protect and enhance supplies of fresh water in the peninsula requires carefulmanagement that only peaceful conditions can create.

achieved through permit regulation under the CentralEnvironment Authority (CEA). All stationary sources,existing and new, that emit any form of waste-causingpollution will require environmental licences to meetlegally binding pollution standards.

The CEA's pollution control program has onlyrecently begun. Polluting industries will be issued an-nually renewable licenses by CEA. Local authorities orProvincial Councils will be delegated the authority tolicense small- and medium-scale enterprises under thelicence system initiated on 1 July 1990.

With proper enforcement, liquid effluents fromindustries and other stationary and point sources canbe controlled through these regulations, but they willnot control pollution from non-point sources such asrunoff from cultivated or cleared land or urban streets.Other strategies will have to be adopted within theframework of a comprehensive environmental policy.

Water quality monitoring, analysis, and researchwill be essential to support the permit system and toidentify water quality conditions and trends. Legalresponsibilities for these activities vest in several dif-ferent agencies operating in local or regional areas -such as the Mahaweli Authority in its jurisdiction,Greater Colombo Economic Commission (GCEC) inits. Nationally, the CEA has water authority, along with

its regulatory responsibilities. The Coastal Conserva-,tion Department (CCD) has authority to make waterquality findings in the coastal zone and to regulatedischarge within it.

NARA has the broadest national responsibilitiesfor scientific, research on aquatic resources — definedas "all living and non-living resources contained in orbeneath the medium of water." Its authority includesthe collection and dissemination of aquatic resourcedata, and the conduct of research on development,management and conservation of aquatic resources. Italso has the authority to prepare an Aquatic ResourcesManagement Development and Research Plan, al-though without any specified regulatory or manage-ment authority. NARA carries out water qualitymonitoring for industries regulated in the free-tradezone by the GCEC.

KEY ISSUES

Domestic Waste Management

Integrated environmental management for pol-luted waterways and water bodies in Sri Lanka's citiesis essential. Urban areas cause and suffer from themost serious water pollution, although by Asian andworld standards even Colombo is not a large city.


Population

per ha

50

100

250

Source : Lawrence (1988)

Chemical

Nitrogen

kgN/ha/yr

250

500

1000

Pollution of Groundwater

Maximum leachate concentration

mg/N03/l assuming following

% of N In Human waste are mobilized

10% 30%

55 166

110 330

220 660

70%

388

775

1550

Figure 7.28

DOmg/l

CODmg/lSSmg/l

Nor-N mg/l

Total P mg/l

Source : NBRO

Pollutant levels in

Northern

0.7-15

20-140

50-170

<0.10.3-3.4

(1989) Water Quality Monitoring Data at Ambatale

Lunawa Lagoon

Southern

7-10

50-100

50-60

<0.1

0.2-1.3

Figure 7.29

Urban management programs for sewage and garbagedisposal require high priority, and relationships be-tween water supply and waste disposal systems must berecognized in urban planning and project development.Impacts of urban commercial developments, housing,and roads on water pollution - from surface run-off,canal drainage, and ground water seepage — must be-come the concern of local authorities, central agencies,businesses and banks, and the donor community. Inter-grated environment management plans for pollutedwaterways and waterbodies in the major cities is thefirst essential step.

The feasibility of sewerage schemes for major citiesis being explored by the NWS&DB. Options like a citycenter sewerage network combined with on-site sanita-tion for peripheral areas can be studied to minimize

cost only if urban authorities keep population densitiesbelow a critical level. Yet careful planning for highurban densities may be necessary to relieve pressureson critical rural resources, including forests, habitat,and prime agricultural lands.

All aspects of the problem must be incorporatedinto management programs. A common failing in thesystem of approving buildings is that issuance of certifi-cates of conformity has become a mere formality. As aresult many illegal sewer connections, and connectionsfrom household sullage drains to storm drains, even-tually discharge into surface waterways. No less impor-tant are impacts from the informal sector. Sewage fromlow income settlements can no longer be considerednegligible and ignored.

176 Water Resources

Industrial Waste Management

Industrial water pollution is within manageablelevels because levels of industrialization have so farbeen low in Sri Lanka. For CEA's pollution controlstrategy to be successful, state-owned industries as wellas large scale private sector industries must adopt pol-lution control measures. Small- and medium-scaleoperations will often need to control pollution throughcommon facilities that bring economy of scale. Plan-ning such facilities for scattered existing industries willbe difficult but future siting of such industries in estateswill facilitate common treatment. The priority for ex-isting industries is to encourage as much low-costprimary treatment as possible prior to discharge.

Facilities must be provided for disposal of toxicindustrial chemicals, including chemical sludge fromtreatment plants containing toxic wastes. Controlledlandfills or incinerators must be provided.

Expertise on industrial waste treatment technologyis badly needed. It is not readily available in Sri Lanka,and some must be imported.

Recognizing the limited funds available for direct,government research and development, incentivesmust be given to the private sector to encourage invest-ment in programs that will bring them, and the com-munity at large, long-term benefits. Increasingnumbers of environmentalists and economists em-phasize the need to design legislation that not only setsoptimal quality standards and allows careful monitor-ing and rigorous enforcement, but also incorporateseconomic incentives and allows industrial managers todetermine how best to achieve pollution control goals.Pollution can be minimized by making it costly to pol-lute and profitable to change production processes orinstall pollution controls.

Economic incentive schemes to reduce pollutionwill require careful monitoring of effluent quality.Quality standards are necessary, based on the pollutionlevels a water body and its biological systems can as-similate and sustain over time, and what is necessary toprotect human health. As in any approach, dischargeof highly toxic pollutants will need to be prohibitedentirely. To ensure that industries internalize the costsof their environmental impacts, fees might be estab-

lished for industrial effluent, and penalties carefully setand rigorously enforced.

Agricultural Waste Management

Agricultural waste disposal and pollution frompesticides have not become major environmentalproblems because agro- and livestock-based industrieshave not yet fully developed. Problems need notdevelop so long as management and control of theseimpacts occur along with agro-industrial development.Strategies for agricultural waste management shoulddepend on the type of expansion and activity planned.Small- and medium-scale livestock-based industries,for example, might stress size and dispersement criteriafor waste management, because waste treatment tech-nologies may be too costly. Large-scale developmentsmay require centralized pollution control managementmade feasible through economies of scale.

A coordinated program for collecting data onvarious agro-industrial sectors, with particular em-phasis on their water pollution potential will establishbases for future strategic planning. Similar data collec-tion is needed on agricultural practices relating to landand chemical use.

Ground Water Management

Ground water assumes major importance in SriLanka because of its potential as an abundant, cleansource of increasingly necessary supply, yet contamina-tion threatens this development in urban and ruralareas alike. Once polluted, ground water may be im-practical to clean up. The economic and social costs ofcontamination are unusually high.

Long-term ground water management is alreadynecessary. Systematic monitoring of ground water is afirst, essential requirement, and a monitoring networkmust be established and coordinated by an agency.Ideally, the agency should also be responsible forground water protection and use.

Research and Data Generation

Future pollutioncontrol requires much bettergeneration, and collection of all water-related data.Methods of identifying and obtaining environmentaldata require study and major reform. An idea worth


I

I

IIj :

II

II

IIi •

I

PI

Environmental Legislation relating to Water

Name of Legislation Pollution

Thoroughfares Ordinance x

and Act (1861)

Irrigation Ordinance (1900) x

Colombo Muncipal Council

Waterworks Ordinance (1907) x

Crown Lands Ordinance (1947) x

Water Resources Board Act (1964) x

National Water Supply and

Drainage Board Law (1974) x

Sri Lanka Ports AuthorityAct (1977) x

Agrarian Services Act (1979)

National Aquatic Resources and

Development Agency Act (1981) x

Coast Conservation Act (1981) x

Marine Pollution Prevention Act (1981) x

National Heritage and Wilderness Act (1988) x

National Environmental Act(1980)

and Amendment (1988) x

Resource

Management

Figure

exploring is the establishment of environmental unitswithin each relevant agency, to provide such informa-tion to a centralized coordinating agency. Researchrequirments in the field of water pollution control willreadily emerge from such an exercise.

Surface Water Quality Monitoring andControl

A surface water quality monitoring network is longoverdue and must be established without delay. Unlikeground water, still a source of untreated water supply,surface waters have become heavily polluted and aresecondary sources of untreated water even in villagecommunities. Declines in surface water quality areincreasingly neglected, perhaps because they reflect

7.30

expected trends.But as the developed world haslearned to its peril, most recently in Eastern Europe,surface water pollution can quickly become an uncon-trolled major health and biological hazard. A networkis essential to ensure that basic human health standardsand ecological processes are maintained as law re-quires.

Within the framework of such a program,monitoringof the Colombo city sewage outfalls mustalso be undertaken. Only through such monitoring canchanges in coastal water quality be recorded andremedial action taken.

178 Water Resources

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Waste Reduction Technologies

For developing countries in particular, economicgrowth and environmental protection require cost-efefective waste reduction technologies. Manycountries, including Sri Lanka, have experienced theadverse economic effects of expensive and complex

pollution control equipment that cannot be well main-tained and efficiently used. Small-scale industries withlimited access to speialized skills require appropriatetechnological responses that may be unlike those oftenemployed in developed countries, yet far too little at-tention has been given to these particular neds.

ReferencesArcwgodaM.G(l987). Pollution due to heavy metals in i he Kclaniya

area. Some aspects of the chemistry of the en imminent of SriLanka. Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science.Colombo. 161-167 pp.

Central BankofSri Lanka,Statistics Department ( I''M) Consumerfinance and socio-economic survey l'JKl I -s2 Sn I.anka.Colombo.

Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Statistics Depart me m i ; ^"i I lonomicand social statistics of Sri Lanka, vol. X. (.•!..mix. HIK pp.

Central Environmental Authority (1981). Imluvm.il ;>.>iiuiion inRatmalana and Moratuwa area • a preliminary •.udi

Central Environmental Authority (1983). Insniun.n.iitive framework in the field of environment MI 1

legisla-

Central Environment Authority (1985). Indusirul pollution in theKelani River. Colombo. 205 pp.

Central Environmental Authority (1986). Water pollution surveywith an ultra light aircraft. Phase I. Colombo. 77 pp.

Centraj Environmental Authority (1987). Water pollution surveywith an ultra light aircraft. Phase II. Colombo. 4<> pp.

Central Environmental Authority (1987). Environmental study ofNuwara Eliya. Colombo. 88 pp.

Central Environmental Authority (1989). Survey of stationary pol-lution sources. Volumes 1 and 2. Colombo.

Dassanayake, N.H.; Perera, R. and De Alwis, P. Water quality of theBelihul-Oya at Horton Plains. National Aquatic ResourcesAgency. 4 pp.

Dassanayake, N.H. et al. : Estuarinc studies-vanutions of somephysical chemical and microbiological parameters in threeselected systems. National Aquatic Resources Agency. 7 pp.

Dassanayake, N.H. et al. Nuwara Eliya Lake preliminary results ofan environmental survey. National Aquatic Resources Agency.9 pp.

Dissanayake, C.B. ( 1990). Use of gcochemical duiuhunks in monitor-ing natural environment-a case study from Sri I -jnku. Environ-ment International.

Dissanayake, C.B. and Weerasooriya, V.R. (1986). l"he environmen-tal chemistry of Mahaweli Rjver, Sri Lanka. Intern Journal.Environmental Studies, 28. pp. 207-223.

Dissanayake, C.B. et al. (1986). Heavy metal pollution of the midcanal of Kandv; an environmental case study from Sri Lanka.Environmental Research, 41.12 pp.

Dissanayake, C.B. (1988). Nitrates in the ground »j i trm Sn Lanka-implications for community health. Journul of the GeologicalSociety of Sri Lanka, 1. pp. 80-84.

Dissanayake, C.B. (1988). Nitrates in the ground »aicnn Sn Lanka-implications for community health. Journul of the GeologicalSociety of Sri Lanka, 1. pp. 80-84.

Dissanayake, C.B. Environmental geochemistry and its impact onhumans.

Dissanayake, C.B. et al. Heavy metal abundance in the Kandy Lake:an environmental case study from Sri Lanka. Department ofGeology, University of Peradeniya.

Elvitigala, S. (1983). Bibliography on the environment (Sri Lanka).Colombo. 88 pp.

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (1988). Use of pesticides and healthhazards in the plantation sector. Colombo. 105 pp.

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (1989). Pesticides in Sri Lanka. Colombo.255 pp.

Geological Survey Department (1970). Groundwater in Ceylon:Mineral Information Series, No. I. Colombo.

Gunawardhana, H.D. (1976). Water quality in the Mahaweli Areas.Presented at the seminar on "Mahaweli after ten years" or-

f inised by Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science,ri Lanka

Gunawardhana, H.D. (1976). Studies on the Quality of IrrigationWaters in Kalawewa Area. J. National Science Council SriLanka Area. Vol. 9(2). pp. 121-148.

Gunawardhana, H.D. et al. (1989). Monitoring of water quality inthe Ratmalana-Moratuwa area. Chemistry in Sri Lanka. Vol. 6(D-

IRDP Office Kachcheri, Moneragala (1989). Environmental StudyMoneragala District. 101 pp

IRDP Office Kachcheri, Ilambantota (1989). Environmental StudyHambantota District. 106 pp.

Jeyarai, E.E. (1984). Some examples of environmental assessment inSri Lanka. Proceedings of seminar on environmental analysisand assessment: WHO/University of Moratuwa, X-l to X-20.

Kandiah, S. (1981). Grounwater pollution in the north of Sri Lanka:an analysis. Phyta Vol. 2 (1). pp. 9-12!

Lawrence, A.R.; Chilton, P J.; and Kuruppuarachchi, D.S.P. (1988).Review of the pollution threat to grounwater in Sri Lanka.Journal of the Geological Society o f Sri Lanka, 1. pp. 85-92.

Middleton, John. T. (1977). Air and water pollution in Sri Lanka:Report of UNDP Task FOrce on Human Environment. SriLanka.

Motha, S. (1985) . Bibliography on chemical pollution in the SriLanka environment. University of Colombo Department ofZoology. Colombo. 88 pp.

Mubarak, A.M. (1987). Pesticides and their impact on the environ-ment. Some aspects of the chemistry of the environment of SriLanka. Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science, pp.89-99.

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p

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III

Water Resources 179

I

National Aquatic Resources Agency (1985) . ßeira Lake Colombo.44 pp.

National Building Research Organisation (1989V Effluent monitor-ing of major storm water outfalls entering Beira Lake. Colom-bo. 7 pp.

National Building Research Organisation (1989V Water qualitymonitoring data at Ambatale; Environmental Division.

National Building Research Organisation (1989). Water qualitymonitoring data, Lunawa Lagoon; Environmental Division.

National Science Council Sri Lanka (1976). Environmental manage-ment in Sri Lanka, Sub-Committee Report. Colombo. 65 pp.

National Water Supply & Drainage Board (1984). Groundwaterinvestigations for community water supply source in MannarIsland.

National Water Supply & Drainage Board/WHO (1985). Nationalworkshop in environmental health research at country level SriLanka. An inventory of research and studies on environmentalhealth at country level.

National Water Supply & Drainage Board (1988). Study of the canaland drainage system in Colombo, Vol. 1. Executive Summary.Colomba

National Water Supply & Drainage Board (1988). Study of the canaland drainage system in Colombo. Vol. 2. Final Report. Colom-bo.

NORAD/Colombo (1989). Environmental study of Sri Lanka.Colombo. 207 pp.

People's Bank Research Department. A census on the exploitationof sand and seashell resources in the coastal zone of Sri Lanka.Colombo. 87 pp.Picris, N.D. (1984). Water policy adopted byNational Water Supply & Drainage Board for Sri Lanka.Proceedings of seminar on environmental analysis and assess-ment. WHO/University of Moratuwa. V-l to V-5.

Pieries, N.D. (1984). Waterpolicy adopted by National Water Supplyand Drainage Board for Sn Lanka. Proceedings of seminar onenvironmental analysis and assessment. WHO/University ofMoratuwa. V-l to v-5

Ponnanibalam. M. (1987). Chromimum in the environment - a sur-vey. Some aspects of the chemistry of the environment of SriLanka. Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science, pp65-78.

Ragava, Rao K.V. ( 1984). Overviewof ground water problems in SriLanka. Proceedings of seminar on environmental analysis andassessment, WHO/University of Moratuwa. XVIII-1 toXVIII-10.

Sivabalasundaram (1984). Groundwater pollution and quality.Proceedings of seminar on environmental analysis and assess-ment. WHO/University of Moratuwa. XX-1 to XX-17.

Sri Lanka, Department of Census and Statistics, Ministry of PlanImplementation (1986). Sri Lanka Census of Population andHousing - 1981, Colombo District Report, Vol. 1, Part 1.Colombo. 212 pp.

Tillakaratna, K.A. (1984). Environmental dimensions of groundwater extraction in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of seminar onenvironmental analysis and assessment. WHO/University ofMoratuwa. V-l to V-5.

UNEP (1986). Environmental problems of the marine and coastalarea of Sri Lanka: national report. Kenya. 99 pp.

Weerasooriya, S.V.R. et al. f1982). The environmental impact ofnitrate distributions in the lake-effluent canal system in Kandy,Sri Lanka. Journal of Environmental Management. 15. pp.239-250.

Wickramasinghe, R.H. (1987). Legal and institutional aspects ofenvironmental management. Some aspects of the chemistry ofthe environment of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Association forAdvancement of Science, pp. 179-186.

Wijayadasa, K.H J. and Ailapperuma, W.D. (1986). Survey of en-vironmental legislation and institutions in the SACEPcountries. Sri Lanka. Central Environmental Authority,Colombo. 50 pp.

WHO(1982). Rapid assessment of sources of air water and landpollution. Geneva. 95 pp.

Î

Î

Small gem pits like this one produce gemstones unique in qualrty and variety. Gemstones are the country's

most important mineral resource.


IIIIIIIIIIIJ

IIIIIIIIII

181

8 Mineral Resources

Sri Lanka, for its size, is reasonably well endowedwith mineral resources (Figure 8.1), and mineral ex-ports account for about S percent of the nation's exportearnings (Figure 8.2). There are abundant gems, suffi-cient non-metallic minerals and modest quantities ofmetals.

The only fossil fuel consists of 50 million tons ofpeat, in the Muthurajawela marsh north of Colombo,whose low calorific value makes it uneconomic as a fuel.Exploration for offshore oil deposits beneath the north-ern continental shelf since the mid-1970s has, so far,yielded no promising results.

Many minerals are not presently economical tomine. These include several nuclear raw materials inthe Ratnapura District and along the southwest coast,iron ores in Puttalam and near Trincomalee, and cop-per-magnetite-apatite at Seruwawila, south ofTrincomalee.

Beach mineral sands in the northeastern, southern,and southwestern coasts form a major ceramic mineralresource: these include ilmenite and rutile, used toextract titanium and in producing light alloys; zircon,used for ceramics and many alloys; and monazite, aphosphate containing the nuclear raw material tho-rium.

Among non-metallic minerals are sizeable depos-its of graphite, clays, mica, phosphate, and limestone.High quality graphite is still mined from veins in Bogala,Kahatahaha, and Kolongaha for export, to be used forsuch items as pencils, lubricants, electrodes and carbonrods. Sri Lanka has no significant graphite based in-dustries. Clays for ceramic, paper, and cement indus-tries are abundant. A deposit of kaolin (china clay), inthe suburbs of Colombo is estimated at 1 million tons.Deposits of refined kaolin and ball clay have recentlybeen discovered with 350,000 and 500,000 metric tons.Silica sands needed for the glass industry are found inreserves of about 6 million tons.

GEMSTONES

Sri Lanka has been known for over 2 500 years forgemstones unique in quality and variety, and today theyare the country's most renowned and important min-eral resource (Figure 83). Of the 5 percent mineralexport earnings, 60 percent comes from gemstones(Figure 82).

Gemstone deposits lie within a geologically narrowzone (240 by 64 square kilometers). Recent geologicalsurveys suggest that the potential for gemstones is about50 percent higher than hitherto expected and many newgem fields have been located in the central highlandsand southwestern geological formations.

Gem minerals are obtained from eluviaL alluvialand residual formations. The Sabaragamuwa Province,with Ratnapura as its leading center, contains approx-imately 80 percent of the gem mines, but gem potentialis also high in the areas peripheral to its main gem fields.

In their natural state, the gem minerals occur inthin layers of gravel and sand termed "illam" (Sinhala)in river beds and alluvial flood plains, as rounded peb-bles and worn fragments. Most gem pits contain sev-eral layers of illam that lie above the underlyingdecomposed bed rock termed "Malawa".

Gem Mining

Most gem mining has changed little in Sri Lankasince it began. The most common method is small-scale pit mining with lateral tunnelling. Riverbed min-ing is also common. Large-scale surface mining, usingmechanized earth moving, was begun, but is not pres-ently carried out.

Pit mining, by far the most common method, in-volves construction of vertical mines as deep as 30meters, with horizontal tunnels averaging about 10 me-ters in length. Gem gravel is removed from the illamand washed and sorted it in wicker baskets placed in

182 Mineral Resources

Mineral Resources

Miocene Limestone O 8eoch Mineral Sonds

Moin Graphite Anas <3> Cloy(8rickfTile,Ceromic)

Gem Bearing Area © Cement Row Mottriol

Crystalline Limestone ® KaolinDolomitlc _

Pearl Banks D MicaSilica Sands

[ceci Corals

Ouartzit«

H Vtin Quartz

• Fcldspor

9 ' Copper-Magnetit«

^ Green Marble

Kocnchikad« H>

M i ntfioço won öo

Gall«CC km.

Oondra H»oa

Figure 8.1

Mineral Resources 183

IIII

I

Mineral Export

R«. Million3OOO -

2600-

2000-

1500-

1000-

600-

Vjrrw

mÊÈË

Value 1981-1988

% of Total Export

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987Year

S33 Gems • • Others

Source :- Customs Sri Lanka, Air LankaLtd^ (Central Bank Annual Report 1985,1988)

- Ö - * ol Tot. Exp. Ear

Earning

wm•III- 4

- 3

- 2

- 1

1988

Figure 8.2

iii

•

Year

1985

1986

1987

1988

Variety

Blue SapphireStar SapphireRubyStar RubyCat's EyeAlexandrite



Blue SappireStar SapphireRubyStar RubyCat's EyeAlexandrite

Varieties of Gem ExportsWeight in carats

47,260.71192,154.74

1,834.154,445.76

24,486.83832.12

53,917.19249,746.23

1.396.833,499.65

28,371.09624.40

51,191.14186,781.98

1,617.204,349.19

27,978.63585,2720.00

56,552.30191.431.19

2,14.195,694.23

26.845.32650.16

Source: State Gem Corporation

Amount in R*.M.

126.072.55.9

19.879.214.4

173.291.8

9.311.2

126.419.6

363.3177.0

18.917.4

221.0

419.9231.7

25.536.0

235.430.2

Figure 8.3



water. The swirling motion during washing separatesunwanted lighter materials from the heavier gem mate-rials that are then collected and identified. Mechanicalequipment is largely limited to the pumps required forremoving water that accumulates in the gem pits. Rel-atively inexpensive and easily available labor has madethis simple, almost primitive mining method viable formany decades.

Streambed mining involves the damming ofstreams and small rivers by logs, sand bags and othermaterials. Workers use long shovels and mamoties todrag streambed material above the dam, there to sepa-rate out and store the heavy mineral fraction, whichincludes gemstones, for later washing and sorting.Stream banks are also subject to removal.

Large-scale mechanized mining was authorized bythe Cabinet in 1985 on 666 hectares of state land in theMatale district, close to Wasgomuwa National Park andthe Kalu Ganga. The mining plan allowed the lessee tomine separate blocks of 20 to 30 hectares carried out inlong trenches of 100 meters by 20 meters, reaching adepth of 5 meters — well above groundwater levels —with separate removal and stockpiling of topsoil, sub-soil, and gem bearing gravel (illam) layers. Mam wouldbe mechanically washed with water from new reservoirsrecycled through settling ponds and gems removed bya final manual sorting. Tailings ~ 60 percent of thevolume of the gravel layer removed for washing - wouldthen be placed back in the pit, followed by subsoil,topsoil, contouring and revegetation. Mechanical min-ing has evaded controversy over its environmental andemployment impacts and has been carried out on alimited basis in Sri Lanka.

The Gem Industry

As highlighted by the National Export Develop-ment plan for 1983-1987, gems and jewelry ~ the latterrequiring imported gold or silver — have high potentialfor foreign exchange and employment generation.

The State Gem Corporation, established by Parlia-ment in 1971, regulates gem trade by issuing licences tominers, gem auctioneers, traders and lapidarists. Thegem trade is largely carried out by the private sector.

Despite great potential for a thriving gem industry,export stagnation or decline has occurred recently,primarily due to smuggling and drops in tourism. Ap-proximately 80 percent of the value of gems exported isnot accounted for through official channels. Smugglingresults from several factors: high demand for foreignexchange, desires to avoid income taxes, and the easeof transporting small gemstones that might bring aprofit of 500 to 1,000 percent. An added incentive forgemstone exporters to engage in smuggling is to avoidcumbersome bureaucratic procedures for legal export.

Emerging Market Trends

The gem industry could benefit from an expandingmarket coupled with rising prices. Asia has emerged asthe world's largest and fastest growing market for col-ored gemstones, with demand strongest in Japan andTaiwan. Expanding business in many Asian countrieshas prompted many dealers in Europe and the UnitedStates to establish centers in Asia. In 1987 Japan re-placed the United States as the world's largest importerof colored gemstones. Japan buys at higher prices thanbuyers from the U.S-A. or Europe. Taiwan is alsoemerging as a leading gem buyer for rare and expensivestones, and in South Korea, Indonesia and the Philip-pines the prices of most colored gemstones have shownan upward trend.

With its adequate supplies the Sri Lankan gemindustry can benefit from these markets if it can over-come a number of serious technical and policy prob-lems, including environmental hazards. There appearsto be a greater demand than supply for good qualitystones, particularly for gemstones such as ruby, emer-ald, sapphire, alexandrite,- aquamarine, pink tourma-line and blue topaz. Recent discoveries of topaz haveopened up further possibilities for the gem industry ofSri Lanka because the blue topaz market has recoveredfrom a slump in the mid-1980s caused by a radiationscare. (Topaz stones receive their brilliant blue colorfrom radiation treatment, a process not carried out inSri Lanka.)

There is a ready market in Japan for high andmedium quality sapphires in all sizes, priced from 300US dollars per carat, but supplies in Sri Lanka are low.The supply of fancy (non-blue) sapphires from Sri

I

IIIi

iiiii\

iii

iiiiii1


Estimate of Average Annual Employment

O)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

Jewelry & Lapidary Industry

Licensed miners

Illicit miners

Licensed Gem Dealers

AssistantsUnlicensed Gem Dealers

Licensed LapidaristsAssistantsJewelry Manufacturersmainly connected with thegem industryStaff of the Gem Corporation

(1972-

60,00040,000

2,25011,25030.000

3702,230

2,000500

in the Gem,1984)

Total

100,000

13,50030,000

2,600

2,000500

148,600

Figure 8.4

Lanka has increased, however. Another gemstonepopular in Japan is alexandrite, but finds are rare.

Geuda to Sapphire -The Addition of Value

If Sri Lanka can add value to its gems, earnings canrise even without more production. To realize the fullpotential of the gem and jewelry sector, the Sri LankaExport Development Board has sought to reduce ex-port of geudas in unprocessed, uncut form.

The term "geuda" refers to stones in the corundumfamily - to which sapphires and rubies belong -- thathave a smoky, milky or murky appearance and whichcan be heat-treated to improve color and clarity. Theyconstitute about 30 percent of the stones in the corun-dum family, as do the "ottu" and silk yellow sapphires.Gemologists have observed that heat treatment cantransform some geuda corundums into high qualityblue sapphires, which could dramatically increase min-ing yield of exportable stones. Guneratne (1981) hasdescribed the variety most likely to produce good bluesapphires as those "having a very faint powder blue tint,

display a milky white sheen and when held against alight source give the colour of clear thin honey."

The science of heat treatment of these geudastones and high value addition has been mastered byThais who buy them in Sri Lanka in massive quantitiesto be sent to Thailand for heat treatment. Implementa-tion of the Thai-Sri Lanka Geuda Agreement in 1987sought to regulate the geuda trade. During its first yearthe agreement brought in 18 million US dollars, whichproved to be substantial, when compared to the earn-ings from gem export. However, in spite of the seem-ingly positive trends in the geuda export, smugglingcontinued and the better quality stones appeared to beillegally channelled out. Geuda trade undoubtedlyhelped Thailand to become the 'Gem Centre of theWorld' particularly in the blue sapphire market, and SriLankan geuda stones contributed enormously. Hencethe Government decided in mid-1990 to terminate theThai Geuda Trade Agreement and plans to establish aGem Research Institute, entrusted with the task ofcarrying out research in the successful local conversionof the geuda to sapphire.

I



Annual Soil Extraction from Average Mine (Cubic Meters)

20

16-

10-

30

Karavita OalaturaKara vita Paradia*

Illegal Mln*a

A = l - 2 8 B = 2 8 - 5 6 C = 5 6 - 8 4 D = 84+ E = Unable to Estimate

Source : Field Study, Ratnapura District 1985/1986 (Jayanthi de Silva • 1987)

Figure 8.5

Environmental Impacts

Along with its relatively high economic return andsocial benefits, gem mining can cause environmentaldamage, depending on the type and location of themine. Surface, pit, and stream-bed mining involvedifferent types and amounts of waste gravel, water use,and reclamation costs.

Large numbers of mines, contribute to the environ-mental problem of gem mining. The State Gem Cor-poration issues about 3,400 gemming licences eachyear, allowing each licence holder to dig from two tofour gem pits at a time. Approximately 10,000-15,000gem pits operate legally in the Island; an equal numberare illegal. Traditional gem pits are worked by sixpersons so approximately 60,000-90,000 persons areengaged in gem mining. Adding the illegal mines, thetotal number of people directly involved in gem miningis about 135,000. Figure 8.4 gives an estimate of theemployment in the gem industry.

A detailed study of the environmental impact ofgem mining in the Ratnapura District, the main gemproducing region of Sri Lanka, has revealed usefulinformation on mining impacts and controls. Gem min-ing is one of the chief contributors to soil erosion and

sedimentation in the Ratnapura District. Among theinterrelated factors are:

• stream bank mining,

• removal of vegetation cover for gemming,

• the process of washing gem Ulam in water bodieswhere clay and silt particles are added to rivers,streams or canals.

• deposit of sediments in rivers, streams and canalswhen mine waters are discharged from workingmines, and

• erosion of soils from unstable soil heaps (minespoils) that are accumulated around gem pits.

Estimates have been made and the quantities ofsoil extracted from an average gem mine in theRatnapura District (Figure 8.5). Each mine in Karavitaunearths over 56 cubic meters of soil annually. Nearlyhalf the legal miners -- and probably most or all of theestimated 60 percent of local miners operating illegally~ leave most of their soils as heaps around the mines(Figure 8.6). Rain and floodwater carry this sand, siltand clay to nearby streams, rivers, low-lying areas, orpaddy fields, causing sedimentation. Discharge ofwater pumped from mines adds to these impacts (Fig-

IIÏ Mineral Resources 187

n The Proportion of Excavated Soils that Remain as Soil Heaps Around Gem Pits

No. of Minn

20

15

10-

5 -

C

0

• • £ • • •

0 | iïl

c

r

==

=

E

B

1C O

1 t =KaraviU

No. of Minn

Paradis«Legal Mines

Galatura

15-

10

KuniU Paradis«

Illegal Mines

A =1-25 B =26-50 C = 51 - 75 D = 76 -100 E = River Bed/River

Source : Reid Study Ratnapura District 1985/1986 (Jayanthi de Silva -1987)

Figure 8.6

No. of Minn

1 5 -

1 0 -

Methods Adopted to Discharge Waters in Gem Pits

Paradin

Legal Mines

A = Directly To River

D = Along Paddy Reids

20-No. of Minn

IS -

10-

nKaraoiU

8 = via Canal

E = To Und

G = River Bed Mines

Paradin

Illegal Mines

C = Via Drain

F = To Gem Pit

Source : Reid Study Ratnapura District 1985/1986 (Jayanthi de Silva • 1987)

Figure 8.7

Calatura


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIII

ure 8.7). The field study highlighted a number of ad-verse environmental effects caused by soil erosion andsedimentation during gem-mining:

• deposit of sediments in streams and canals,

• adverse effects on aquatic life,

• deposit of sediments in fish-spawning grounds,

• raising of stream beds that reduces the capacity ofrivers to absorb flood waters,

• reduction of irrigation efficiency in canal systems,and

• water pollution.

Despite the unfortunate lack of comprehensivedata on these environmental and economic effects, fieldobservations testify to the environmental degradationcaused by erosion and sedimentation from past andexisting mines. It is clearly visible in muddy streams,eroded banks and increased flooding.

A highly visible environmental effect is the changeof the landforms. Vast areas are pockmarked with cra-ters, often filled with turbid water and collapsed andsubsided terrain. Stream banks have caved in due tothe construction of horizontal tunnels. Mine filling isvirtually never done properly. As a result land subsi-dence and water pools occur in areas nearly 300 metersin diameter. Stream banks in some instances have beenexpanded laterally by as much 38 meters. The extentand impact of these changes on land productivity needmore precise measures to assess preventive and reme-dial action.

There is circumstantial evidence that gem mininghas contributed to a resurgence of malaria in SriLanka. Abandoned gem pits that form stagnant poolsof water are breeding grounds for the mosquito.Quantitative data on the problem are still lacking, butresurgence of malaria in the main gem mining areas ofElahera and Ratnapura does not appear coincidental.

Regulation and Controls

Prevention and control of these environmental im-pacts suffer from many impediments. Environmentalregulations for the large number of legal mines are

inadequate and, in any event, unenforced. The StateGem Corporation's law enforcement staff of approxi-mately 25 is clearly inadequate to enforce permit andbonding requirements. So is the level of public under-standing of the problem by local residents, miners andofficials, despite the fact that the locality itself incursthe costs of environmental degradation.

No less important is the proliferation of illegal,unpermitted, gem miners. Illicit mining continues de-spite enforcement provision, and there appears to beno sign of abatement. Among the major reasons forillicit gem mining are:

• Licence fees of 750 rupees per pit and 1,000 rupeesfor each additional pit. The fee for a pit in a ricefield is :L500 rupees.

• The need to share profits among participants, in-cluding the land owner, water pump owner, licenseowner. A miner very often receives about 5 per-cent or less from the total earnings of the pit. Illicitminers avoid many of these payments, along withenvironmental fines.

Among the measures that could bring about aneffective and acceptable balance between gem miningand sustainable environmental management are con-servation techniques to restore depleted gemminglands, incorporation of environmental factors intoplans and permits for gem mining, continuous moni-toring of compliance and of environmental conditions,and educating the local residents to the needs andbenefits of environmental protection.

The best planning and management will fail wheremining is illegal, so incentives to operate illegal minesmust be removed or reduced. In other countries thesekinds of abuses have been addressed through stream-lined permit procedures, economic bonuses for legalmines, controls over corruption, community education,and high-level involvement in enforcement. Carefulanalyses may be necessary to assess the problem ofillegal mining, and what can practically eliminate orreduce it.

Unlike traditional pit mines, large-scale open pitmining by heavy machinery disturbs large areas, butadverse impacts on soils and water can be minimized


Thousand MT

m

o

4

2

0

!

I1fLU1979

Graphite Production & Sales

itl1%LU19B0

1981

4*Ji

1982Ji

1983

11984

•1L J 1

1985

fJi

1986

J

. 1987

j1

1988

YEAR

• PROOUCTION S SALES

Source : State Mining and Mineral Development Corporation

Figure 8.8

30

25

10

5

0

Source :

Thousand MT

i%Ji1980

i-iLU1981

Phosphate Production

i-iLU1982

-iLU1983

iJi

1984

1Ji

1985

YEAR

& Sales

iJi

1986

iJl1987

1LU

1988

M I

• PROOUCTION E 3 SALESState Mining and Development Corporation

Figure 8.9

190 Minerat Resources

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

i

through careful planning, monitoring, and implementa-tion. At the outset, new access roads must be con-structed to prevent erosion and minimize destructionof vegetation. Mining operators must control overbur-den disposal and drainage to arrest soil erosion andsedimentation, and ensure that water and settlingponds minimize surface and ground water pollutionand water habitat for malaria-transmitting mosquitos.Reclamation requires precise replacement of overbur-den layers to reduce, if not prevent, future subsidence.To facilitate adequate moisture content for tree root-ing, replaced subsoil must be carefully segregated fromthe gravel layer. Even after the surface is properlycontoured it may remain, or become, uneven and un-suited to agriculture. Revegetation requires fast-grow-ing cover crops and tree species, monitored and caredfor to assure success. Long-term rehabilitation forwildlife or other uses may also become important.

Mechanized gem mining allows substantially moreefficient exploitation of gems and potentially more ef-fective enforcement of environmental requirementsthan traditional gem pits. On the other hand, its socialimpact can be more significant because it employs farfewer people and has been perceived as threateninggem miners' future employment.

SAND MINING

Sand that comes down in rivers is necessary tomaintain coastal beaches. When a section of the beachloses sand by littoral drift and other phenomena, thisloss is made good by sand transported by rivers. Henceif sand mining from the bed of the Kelani and otherrivers exceeds their annual deposit, coastal beaches willnot receive their necessary replenishment. It has beenestimated that the total quantity of sand coming downthe Kelani annually may be around 1.4 million tons,while a 1984 survey estimated the annual sand extrac-tion at 916,000 tons.

Environmental impacts

Uncontrolled mining of river sand often leads tothe collapse of river banks. Large-scale sand mining inthe Badulla District has eroded-river banks and af-fected the stability of bridges. In coastal areas thedeepening of the riverbed below mean sea level creates

conditions for an influx of salt water. In the case of theKelani river, this salt water wedge may even reach theintake of the Colombo city water supply at Ambatale.A National Sand Study with Netherlands assistance hasbeen proposed to ascertain the amount of sand whichcan be safely extracted annually, with minimal environ-mental impacts, covering river systems of Kalu Ganga,Kelani Ganga, Maha Oya and relevant adjacent coasts.

GRAPHITE

Sri Lanka has also been renowned for its graphite- the world's major source of high quality microcrystal-line carbon material. The purity of Sri Lanka graphiteis unparalleled at over 99 percent. The occurrence ofgraphite as massive veins occupying natural fissures inrocks allows relatively easy mining. Nearly 6,000 shal-low pits and small mines operated during the two WorldWars, and about half that number operate today, scat-tered throughout the country, particularly in the centraland southwestern regions. The State Mining and Min-eral Development Corporation (SMMDC), whichcontrols the graphite mining industry of Sri Lanka, nowdepends on two main underground mines at Bogala andKahatagaha.

Graphite mining has existed for about 165 yearsand was once perceived as of equal importance to tea,rubber, coconut and other exports. During the last fewdecades, graphite exports declined and since 1983 it hasdropped to sixth place among Sri Lanka's exports.Graphite exports peaked during the two World Warsat 14,000 metric tons in 1916 and 28,000 metric tons in1942, but in the last eight years production has averagedabout 7,000 metric tons In 1982 traditional buyers ofSri Lankan graphite switched to other sources causingheavy losses, particularly in 1984. With the subsequentreduction in graphite prices, demand increased andnet profits increased marginally.

Graphite production of a mine depends heavily onthe width of the vein encountered in mining. Lack ofproper equipment needed for this purpose results inpoor prediction of vein width and subsequent drop inproduction. A major reason for low production ofgraphite in 1988 (Figure 8.8) was the destructive sub-versive activities in the months of November and De-cember.

I

II


Î .

j I

!

II

I

IIIIII

Year

19841985198619871988

19841985198619871988

19841985198619871988

MINERAL SANDS PRODUCTION

Ilmenite

97,040114,954129,907128,49074305

Rutile

6,4678,6058,4437,2385,255

Zircon

3,7084,061

910

(MT) 1984 TO 1988

Monazite HITI Ilmenite

1478018

5,0087,7343,9663,9383,702

MINERAL SANDS EXPORTS (MT) 1984 TO 1988

130,957147,66695,298

106,72291,879

MINERAL

52,68686,911

102,098146,627145,783

No production of zircon

Source

4,61283747,249

:13,759

3,3294,548

34(Bags)l,700(Bags)

606397

SANDS EXPORTS VALUE (Rs.'OOO)

34,03873,07675,531

147,353

6,82710,921

47110,255

and monazite from March

2,4921,691

17,625

5,207

20,511

9,103

1986 due to lack of fresh water

: State Mineral Sands Corporation and Ministry of Industries

Figure 8.10

Despite high purity levels, Sri Lanka's graphiteproduction activity is limited to sorting, grinding andscreening to different particle sizes. Production of ar-ticles of value such as crucibles, carbon brushes orcolloidal graphite have failed due to inadequate tech-nical competence and lack of suitable markets.

ROCK PHOSPHATESri Lanka imports its required fertilizers at a cost

of about 40 million US dollars annually. Fifteen to

twenty percent are phosphates — rock phosphate andsuper phosphate. In 1986 26,000 metric tons of rockphosphate and 55,700 metric tons of triple super phos-phate were imported. Local production of rock phos-phate was 15,000 metric tons in 1986.

Sri Lanka discovered a major phosphate reserve atEppawala (see Figure 8.1) in 1971 with a firm reserveof 30 million tons of high quality phosphate rock (aver-age of 38 percent ?2 Os) and inferred reserves of 60million tons. Figure 8.9 illustrates the production and



Production of Mineral & MineralProducts in The Cement Industry

1200Metric Tons

1984 1988

Limestone

Source : Sri Lanka Cernent Corporation

Dry Clay Packed Cernent

Figure 8.11

sales. Despite the high potential of the phosphate de-posit, optimum use has still not been obtained, mainlydue to the lack of technical know-how and machineryto convert it to soluble phosphate that plants can ab-sorb. Chemical research is now underway in Sri Lankato address this need. Analyses of environmental im-pacts of phosphate mining and processing will need toproceed in conjunction with any development plan.

CERAMICS

The ceramic industry is the country's largest indus-trial concern dependent on local mineral raw materials.Ceramic raw materials include quartz, feldspar, lime-stone, dolomite red or ferruginous clay, zircon, ballclay, kaolin and graphite, and they are available inamounts adequate to meet ceramic requirements overthe next two or three decades.

Sri Lanka has an old ceramic industry where theearliest products were unglassed items made fromplastic clays, such as bricks, tiles, crude earthenware

and ornaments. The state-owned Ceylon CeramicsCorporation mines and processes kaolinite and oper-ates refineries at Boralesgamuwa near Colombo, andMitiyagoda (Galle District). The Corporation also in-cludes four subsidiary companies: Lanka PorcelainLimited (producing 1400 tons of porcelain tablewareper year for export), Lanka Wall Tiles (Pvt) Ltd andLanka Tiles Ltd. (15,000 tons and 10,000 tons for ex-port) and Lanka Refectories (Pvt) Ltd (1,500 tons).The Ceylon Ceramics Corporation also has one ballclay plant, one lime plant, a quartz-feldspar mine, ninetile factories (25 million tiles per annum) one or-namentalware unit and two ceramic factories (earth-enware -- 3,700 to 4,000 tons (crockery); --electroporcelain ~ 350 tons; and sanitaryware — 1,300tons per annum). A modern Ceramic Research andDevelopment Centre (CRDC) has also been estab-lished by the Corporation with UNIDO assistance(Herath, 1988).

A cottage industry provides much of the country'sbrick and roofing tile needs. About 100 small units

IInitiiI

r

iiif !

IIi

Ift

c • • •

II •

iiI


produce 80 million tiles per year. Over 85 percent ofSri Lanka's brick requirement is produced by 2,000units scattered throughout the country.

The state supports the cottage ceramic industry bythe establishment of pottery centers, and incentives forthe export of ceramicware and manufacture of or-namentalware in the Free Trade Zone. The publicsector ceramic industry records revenue of around 700million rupees compared to private sector revenue ofaround 500 million rupees per annum. To realize fur-ther development the ceramic industry will requireremedial measures. These include:

• Detailed geological survey aimed at locating rawmaterial,

• Reliable estimates of individual deposits,

• Further research into the nature, quality, proper-ties and feature uses of these mineral materials,

• Proper analysis of marketing aspects,

• Analysis of environmental impacts of all aspects ofthe ceramic industry and,

• Development of practical operating, monitoringand enforcement measures to ensure environmen-tal management.

MINERAL SANDS

The beaches of Sri Lanka are rich in sands contain-ing minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, monazite and zir-con. At Pulmoddai, 77 kilometers north ofTrincomalee, a beach place deposit along about 8 kilo-meters of the coast contains about 6 million tons of rawmineral sands containing 70-72 percent ilmenite, 8-10percent zircon, 8 percent rutile, 0 3 percent monaziteand 1 percent sillimanite. Among several other con-centrations of mineral sands scattered along variousbeaches in the country, the most significant are atKailawela, Polkotuwa and Kudremalai point. Largemineral sand deposits may exist south of Trincomaleeand off the shores of Beruwala, where a large depositof monazite has been discovered by NARA.

The production and export figures of the CeylonMineral Sands Corporation, which is responsible for

the exploitation of mineral sands, are shown in Figure8.10. Lack of a constant supply of fresh water hashampered production, particularly in 1986.

Despite these valuable mineral sands Sri Lanka hasno extraction industries that use them. Ilmenite con-tains 50-60 percent of the oxide of titanium, and rutilehas nearly 95 percent, but this material is exported inits raw state mainly to Japan and Europe.


Although we have no comprehensive assessmentof environmental impacts of sand mining, coastal ero-sion is one danger. A 27-meter shoreline recession wasnoted during operations of the Mineral Sands Corpo-ration at the large extraction site at Kokilai in themid-1970s (Second Interim Report of the Land Com-mission).

CEMENT

Sri Lanka has seen considerable growth in manynew development programs. To meet high demand forcement the Ceylon Cement Corporation has two majorcement factories, at Kankesanthurai in the north, andat Puttalam on the west coast. The two plants manufac-ture about 600,000 metric tons of portland cement peryear using the dry process. A grinding plant at Galleuses limestone derived from Kankesanthurai or im-ported material. A joint venture between a local pri-vate firm and a Japanese company has developed acement complex for exports at China Bay, Trincomalee.After additional faci l i t ies are instal led atKankesanthurai, cement production should reach 1million metric tons.

Limestone resources are available in the JaffnaPeninsula and in a belt stretching to Puttalam, South-west Aruwakalu, and the Dutch Bay region. Inlandcoral limestone, suitable for cement manufacture existsin the southern coastal areas that could, if properlymanaged and reclaimed, support the Galle cementplant. No living coral is needed and none is permittedto be used. Figure 8.11 shows the production OJ mineraland mineral products in the cement industry.




At the Puttalam cement factory, environmentaldegradation occurs during mining of limestone andprocessing of cement. Significant air pollution has re-sulted from poor maintenance of the installed electro-static precipitators, which were out of order for manyyears. Discharge of large quantities of dust into thesurroundings has caused poor crop yields in nearbycoconut plantations and damage to other trees andplants from the settling of dust on the leaves.

FUTURE MINERAL PROSPECTS

The discovery of a copper-magnetite deposit atSeruwila in the Tnncomalee area, the first base metalfind in Sri Lanka, has opened up a new area for explo-ration. Location of these base metal ores between twomajor lithological zones — the Highland Series and

Eastern Vijayan Complex -- indicates that this bound-ary is a potential target area for further base metalinvestigations. There are also promising indications ofuranium mineralization in certain areas. With the ex-tension of maritime boundaries following the Law ofthe Sea convention Sri Lanka now has a vast offshoreterritory that can be explored for high mineral poten-tial.

Mining and quarrying contribute 3.5 percent of theGDP and account for one-tenth of total employmentand one-seventh of export earnings. Lack of technol-ogy and expertise has retarded development and effi-cient use of valuable mineral resources, includingphosphate, salt, ceramic, cement, graphite and mineralsands. Political stability, a favorable economic climate,and integrated environmental planning at every step ofthe way, can, however, open new possibilities for min-eral development.

References

Bangkok Gems and Jewellery (1989) : 2. pp. 53-64.

Clark, G. (1983). Sri Lanka's industrial minerals • much potential tobe realised. Industrial Minerals. Oct. pp. 61-71.

De Silva, J. (1987) The environmental impact of gem mining in theRatnapura District. Report submitted to the Central Environ-mental Authority of Sri Lanka. 66 pp.

Economic Review (1977). Publication of the Research Departmentof the People's Bank of Sri Lanka. Vol. 3, No. 6. pp. 1-33.

Economic Review (1984). Publication of the Research Departmentof the People's Bank of Sri Lanka. Vol.10, No. 1. pp. 1-33.

Economic Review (1988). Publication of the Research Departmentof the People's Bank of Sri Lanka. Vol. 14, No. 6. pp. 1-34.

Guneratne, H.S. (1981). Geuda sapphires • their colouring elementsand their reactions to heat. j . Gemmol., 13. pp. 58-61.

Herath. J.W. (1986): Mineral based industries of Sri Lanka. ScienceEducation Series No. IS. Natural Resources, Energy and Sci-ence Authority of Sri Lanka. 87 pp.

Herath. J.W. (1988). Ceramics in Sri Lanka. Bull. Ceramic Res. andDev. Centre, 1. pp. 1-27.

Jewellery News Asia (1989). No. 57.

Munasinghe, T. and Dissanayake, CB. (1980). Is the Highland-eastern Vijayan boundary in Sri Lanka a possiblemineralised belt? Econ. Geol. pp.1495-1496.

Sri Lanka Export Development Board, National Export Develop-ment Plan 1983-1987. Vols. 1 and 2.

Sri Lanka, Ministry of Industries and Scientific Affairs. Review ofActivities 1987-1988. 152 pp.

Sri Lanka, Ministry of Mahaweli Development (1988). Mechanisedgem mining in System F of the Mahaweli Accelerated Devel-opment Programme: Environmental impact study. 54 pp.

Sri Lanka (1989). Second Interim Reoport of the Land Commission198S, Sessional Paper No. II - December 1989. Dept. of Gov-ernment Printing, Colombo.

Sri Lanka, Sub Committee of the Parliamentary Consultative Com-mittee on Finance and Planning (1985). Report on theviabilityof the State Gem Corporation being run as a businessventure and the viability of liberalising the gem industry.

State Miningand Mineral Development Corporation (1988). Perfor-mance Report 1980-1987.

Waidyanatha, W.G.B. (1988). The socio-economic impact of thegeuda trade and the Thai-Lanka Geuda Agreement. J. Gem.Assoc Sri Lanka, 5. pp. 12-24.

I1

Ii

Mineral Resources

I

This pinus is among tens of thousands of hectares of forest plantations.

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

I

9 Forest Resources197

Sri Lanka was once a land of rich tropical forests,nurtured by abundant radiation, high temperatures andrainfall, and long growth periods. In pre-colonial timesthese ecosystems provided local people with most oftheir daily needs. Over the last century much of thisheritage has been destroyed, along with many of itsmaterial benefits. Rich forest diversity was, we nowknow, highly vulnerable to misuse. Deforestation hasnow seriously diminished timber supplies, made soilsless productive, water supply more erratic, and floodsmore frequent and severe. Management of what is left,and reestablishment of new forests, will require con-certed planning and strong political will. These actionsdepend on broad public understanding of the benefitsof reforested watersheds, mixed farmland forests, vil-lage groves, shelterbelts, and sustainable natural forestecosystems.

Forest Cover Today

Climate, the main determinant of forest distribu-tion, does not preclude the presence of forest in anypart of this island. Except in a few locations limited bysoil factors, the entire land area of Sri Lanka was oncecovered with forests. Conditions today are very differ-ent.

Along the coastal fringe, tidal mud flats had man-grove forests much more extensive than today's. Untilthe early part of this century the higher sandy soils alsohad strips of littoral woodlands, but these have nowalmost completely disappeared.

The wet southwestern region and the central high-lands have the most luxuriant plant cover. The lowlandarea, up to an elevation of about 900 meters (m) has aclimax vegetation of Tropical Rain Forests, where thecrowns of dominant trees form a closed canopy at 25 mto 30 m with émergents rising to about 45 m. Theseforests have a relatively sparse undergrowth but are richin epiphytes and lianas. They gradually give waythrough Sub-Montane Forests, at 900 m to 1350 m, to

Wet Evergreen Montane Forests at the higher eleva-tions. The latter have a lower canopy and a denserundergrowth. Their stems are often covered with li-chens, bryophytes and other epiphytic plants.

The transition zone between the Wet Zone and DryZone ~ the seasonally dry northern and eastern plains- has Tropical Semi-evergreen Forests with their owncharacteristic species as well as some common to theadjacent zones.

The major part of the Dry Zone has Tropical DryMixed Evergreen Forests. In these the dominant spe-cies now present often do not form a closed canopy andseldom exceed 20 m in height. The extreme southeast-ern and northwestern regions of the island, which havevery long dry periods, are covered with Tropical ThornForests with low trees and an undergrowth mostly ofthorny shrubs.

In the Dry Zone intensive felling and a form ofshifting cultivation locally called chena cultivation hasbadly degraded the forests. During fallow periods sec-ondary successions lead to the development of scrub orlow jungle, but where successions are prevented byfrequent clearing or burning the result is formation ofdamanas, savannah with fire resistant trees, or talawasand some diypatanas, which are dominated by coarsegrasses.

Some edaphically determined natural grasslandsare also present in the island. These are the villus onseasonally submerged depressions in the Dry Zone, andthe welpatanas in certain boggy highland areas.

Plantation forests in Sri Lanka consist mostly ofeven-aged monocultures of teak, eucalyptus or pine. Afew mixed plantations of broad-leaved tree species,such as jak and mahogany, have also been established.

198 Forest Resources

IIIIIIIIIIIIII

80

60

40

20

ft of

-

r

•

1860

Natural

Land Natural Foraat

1880

Forest

\

1900

— % of

Cover in Sri

1966Year

Natural Forest

Lanka

^ .

1983 1990

Figure 9.1

NATURAL FORESTS

During Sri Lanka's hydraulic civilization beginningmore than 2,000 years ago, agricultural development inthe Dry Zone required transformation of natural eco-systems to agro-ecosystems. Wetlands in valleys andflood plains became rice fields, and clearings on highground became multilayered home gardens. Fromabout A.D. 1200, invasions from India and the spreadof malaria, among other causes, forced populationshifts to the central highlands, where similar villagesettlements were established, in the valleys and lowerslopes of the hills. Forest cover on the ridges, upperslopes, and hilltops remained undisturbed.

During the time of the British colonial governmentshifting cultivation and forest exploitation for timbersupply sharply increased. By 1881, the forest cover wasestimated at 84 percent of the land area, and in 1900,70 percent.

The first comprehensive forest survey of the coun-try was conducted after Independence in 1956-1961.The survey found that the total area of forest was 2.9million hectares, or 44 percent of the land area. Eventhen over-exploitation had so spread that as much as 42percent of all natural forests were classified as non-pro-ductive. In 1982-1985 the FAO carried out a secondinventory to obtain data for the Forestry Master Plan.

According to this inventory Sri Lanka's forest cover was1.76 million hectares and the area of scrubland was625,000 hectares. The aggregate figure of 2.385 millionhectares, or 36 percent of the land area, is often citedas the area of forest land. However, this figure includesscrub that consists mainly of early secondary growthafter deforestation, and hence these areas cannotrightly be classified as forest. The aerial photographson which the FAO survey was based were taken in 1983.Assuming that deforestation has occurred at the rate of30,000 hectares per year since then, the 1989 estimateof forest area should be 1.58 million hectares, or 24percent of the land area as natural forest (see Figure9.1).

In addition to high forest and scrub, chena cultiva- •tion occupies a large area, mostly in the once forestedparts of the Dry Zone. As the population expanded,more high forest came under shifting cultivation withshorter rotations. In 1956 the total area exposed toshifting cultivation was one million hectares, or 15 per-cent of the country's land area. Since then chena areashave been absorbed into permanent agriculture or oth-erwise developed, while more forests have been clearedfor chena. At present, shifting cultivation covers about1.2 million hectares, or about 18 percent of the country,forest 24 percent, and scrub 9.2 percent of the country.Figure 9.2 gives more information on the natural for-ests, based on the 1982-1985 forest inventory.

IIIIII

rForest Resources 199

The Natural Highforest Area of Sri Lanka -1983 Position

[ | Dry a Arid ronts

ll-lgg&l Wet, Iniermediote ft Montan« zones

I. All-island

| [ Forest Deportment •

K:jïA|"J wild Lite ConservationVIVKVI 11 oepariment

2. All-island

3. Dry a arid zones

| | Non tore«!

jgggjj Forest

4. Wet.intermediate Ö montane zones

1. Zonal Distribution 2. Controlling Agency

3 . & 4. Forests As A Percentage Of The Land Area.

Figure 9.2.


Total Dry

Dry Zone Natural Forest YieldData From 1956 - 1961 Inventory

Low Yield ^^•^'^'^^r77ZP777>>^

\ : : • • : • • : • : : :

V//X/Jä^^^L Medium Yield 6.1%

i :

NiiiiiijF

Nonproductive 434%

Zone Natural Forests - 2,507,926 ha.

Figure 9.3a

Dry Zone Natural Forest Standing VolumeData From 1956 - 1961 Inventory

Volume of Trees (m3/ha)80 i

60

40

20

Medium / ie io NonproductiveLow vieio

CategoryVol. Trees 10cm Diam Y//A Vol. Trees 30cm Diam

Figure 9.3b

r Forest Resources 201

3-5-

as

Past Position & Probable Future Scenario of the Dry Zone

A-Medium-ylald8-Low-yi«ldC- Non-productiv«

I9OO Ywr 2020

Figure 9.4

Forest Ownership

Over 95 percent of Sri Lanka's forests have beenstate-owned since British times. Following the ForestOrdinance of 1885 some forests were proclaimed Re-serves. Because of time-consuming legal and adminis-trative procedures for establishing reserve forests,several more areas were set apart as Proposed Re-serves, also under jurisdiction of the Forest Depart-ment. Village Forests were placed under the districtGovernment Agents, and other Crown Forests were atvarious times transferred from the Forest Departmentto Government Agents and vice versa.

In addition to these categories, National Reservesand Sanctuaries were established for protection ofwildlife. There are five types of national reserves:Strict Natural Reserves, National Parks, Nature Re-serves, Jungle Corridors, and Intermediate Zones (thelast mentioned not to be confused with the climaticzone of the same name). These areas, categorizedaccording to degree of protection or location, all comewithin the jurisdiction of the Department of Wild LifeConservation.

The Forest Department must protect forest re-serves and proposed reserves under provisions of theForest Ordinance. As clearing of forests continued,illicitly and under state land settlement and agricultural

schemes, however, the Forest Department has given uplarge areas. Deforestation from 1956 to 1983 averaged41,500 hectares per year, largely due to shifting cultiva-tion.

Since 1970 the Forest Department has established40 biosphere reserves within the reserve forests or pro-posed reserves. They vary from 10 to 55,000 hectaresand total 120,000 hectares. This program began as anactivity under IUCN's International Biological Pro-gramme and later continued under UNESCO's Manand Biosphere Programme. Biosphere reserves haveonly administrative status, but the Forest Departmentaccepted the proposal to designate selected areaswithin the forest reserves as biosphere reserves to helpprotect some natural forests from forest exploitationand clearing.

In the natural forests of the Dry Zone, under theForestry Master Plan deforestation and exploitation fortimber supply will continue everywhere except in the"protected areas" under the Department of Wild LifeConservation and the biosphere reserves under theForest Department. These areas total around 600,000hectares. However, even within these areas encroach-ment and illicit felling continue.


Wet Zone Natural Forest YieldsData From 1956 - 1961 Inventory

Low Yield 46%

Medium Yield 20.9%

High Yield 5.2%

Nonproductive 28%

Total Wet :_c.-9 Natural Forests » 227,850 ha.

Figure 9.5a

Wet Zone Natural Forest Standing VolumeData From 1956 - 1961 Inventory

3 0 0

250 -

Volume of Trees (m3 /ha)

High Yield Medium Yield Low Yield Nonproductive

CategoryH H Vol. Trees 10cm Diam Y//A Vol. Trees 30cm Diam

Figure 9.5b

I

ri


Mean Annual Increment of some Forest Plantation Species&of Natural Forest

13

12

nIO

a

IA - Taafc In dry zon«B - Dry ion« natural torvstC - Plnm eorlbo«o k» v—t xortaD - W«t zon« natural forwtE - Eucolyptu» mtcrocory»< mouton« «on«)F - Mahogany ( jntarnwoaat«son«)

Figure 9.6

Expected Yields of Industrial Wood from Existing Forest Plantations

Figure 9.7

r


IIIIIIIIIII

Availability & Demand of Industrial Logs(in 000 m per Year)

2500

1986-90

Nat. Forest

Rubber & Palmyrah

1991-95 1996-2000 2001-2010Year

2011-20

Existing Plant

Demand

Non-forest

Other

Figure 9.8

In the Wet Zone (low country, mid-country andmontane region) the forest is estimated at 278,000hectares. In the low and mid-country and in theMahaweli catchment the area of forest is now down toapproximately 8 percent of the land area. Because ofthe unfavorable forest-to-land ratio in the Wet Zone,no forest alienation would be permitted under the For-estry Master Plan. However, selective felling isplanned in the high yield forests at middle and lowelevations.

Timber Yields from Natural Forests

In terms of potential industrial wood yield SriLanka has two main types of natural forest. Most ex-tensive is the Dry Zone mixed evergreen forest, orMonsoon Forest. The second, far less large, is the WetZone evergreen forest, or Tropical Rainforest.

'Dry Zone ' - Historical Trends

The dry mixed evergreen forest is the typical natu-ral vegetation of the Dry Zone which accounts for

three-fifths of the land area of the country. Among thetrees in this forest are several species of hardwoodswhich produce timber of the highest quality. Theseinclude Oxloroxylon swieteniaJE: satin; S: burutha),Berrya cordifolia (E: Trincomalee wood; S: halmilla),Manilkara hexandra (S: palu) and Diospyros ebenum(E: ebony). As a result of highly selective exploitationover the years these prime species, which were onceplentiful, are now very rare.

Large scale timber harvesting has gone on in theDry Zone since the early 1800s. At first it consisted ofselective felling of large trees of the prime species, andsome of this timber was exported to Britain. Govern-ment officers were responsible for the control of timbercuts, but historical records indicate widespread illicittimbering even then.

Timber export continued until it gradually tailedoff after the 1960s but exploitation for local demandsincreased. With rapidly rising demand many previouslyuntouched species became exploited, along with treeswell below the silviculturally desirable size. Illicit felling

IIH

II| "II

i

t :

i

i


continued unabated through the 1970s along with selec-tive exploitation of natural forests by contractors en-gaged by the Forest Department and later by the StateTimber Corporation. So did widespread clearing ofDry Zone forests for shifting cultivation (chena). In theearly 1980s large areas of Dry Zone forests wereopened up under land development, particularly for theMahaweli program. Yet deforestation trends weresuch that these forests were likely to have rapidly dis-appeared even without that program.

The forest inventory carried out in 1956-1961 iden-tified 23 million hectares of natural forests in the DryZone (including the arid regions). They fell into one ofthree recognized timber yield classes: medium, low,and non-productive. No high yield natural forests ex-isted in the Dry Zone. Figure 9.3 gives data from thisinventory.

Two important points are not reflected in Figure93. First, at the time of the inventory, only 35-40 pejcent of the standing volume was in species normallysuitable for industrial wood. Drypetes sepiaria (S:Wira), the most widespread tree species in the DryZone, has a poorly formed trunk only suitable as fueland accounted for 25 percent of the standing volume.Second, nearly all the Dry Zone species used for indus-trial wood are slow to grow. As a result the annualincrement of utilizable wood was found to be very low.The 1956-1961 inventory states that the Forest Depart-ment estimated the annual increment to be as low as 0.2cubic meters per hectare.

The next major forest inventory was carried out bythe FAO in 1982-1985. (Five complete districts andparts of two others in the north of the country wereunable to be covered by field sampling, so data fromthe rest of the Dry Zone were extrapolated to theseareas.) Significant highlights of this inventory:

• The loss of forest cover in the Dry Zone since 1956averaged 38,100 hectares per year.

• No medium yield-forests were identified in the DryZone (see Figure 9.3). Medium-yield forests exist-ing in 1956 had been so exploited as to move themto the low-yield or nonproductive category. Somemedium-yield forests may have been cleared alto-gether.

• Average standing volume per hectare of trees of allspecies over 30 cm diameter at breast height (dbh)increased nearly 50 percent (from 26.1 to 38.8 cubicmeters) in the low-yield forests, and by nearly 140percent (from 7.9 to 19.1 cubic meters) in thenon-productive forests.

The yield data represent the average for all theforests in each yield class. It is not possible to drawprecise conclusions regarding the increase in standingvolume because in the interim period many forests,owing to exploitation and clearing, moved from theiroriginal yield class to a lower category, and some forestswere cleared altogether. Nevertheless, because in-creases also occurred in Wet Zone forests, there wasapparently a net accretion of wood in some of theforests. Hence, even in lowest quality forests, recoveryis apparently possible under the right conditions andwhere soils are conserved, even after heavy exploita-tion.

Dry 2k>ne' - Future Trends

The Forestry Master Plan (FMP) deals with theDry Zone natural forests on the basis of likely defores-tation rates in the next few decades. Leaving out theareas under the Department of Wild Life Conservationdesignated as protection forests, it presents two alter-native scenarios:

(a) deforestation continuing at 30,000 hectares peryear until 2020, when all Dry Zone forests outside theprotection areas would be cleared, and (b) deforesta-tion curtailed to 10,000 hectares per year.

The Plan estimates the volume of wood that wouldbecome available in the two cases. It proposes thatforests should be cleared for timber at either one rateor the other in order to pre-empt clearing by illicitfellers. Supplies are also expected to come from whatis called "selective felling" in the areas still remaining inforest. Surprisingly, in each scenario the yield forecastof industrial wood from 1986-2020 is identical. Undereither rate, in two to three decades all Dry Zone naturalforests outside the protection areas, comprising nearlyall Dry Zone forests now under the Forest Department(900,000 hectares), will be totally exploited and de-graded to scrubland (see Figure 9.4).



A more efficient, environmentally sustainable pol-icy alternative exists for managing Dry Zone forests,however. The FAO inventory of 1982-1985, from whichthe Master Plan draws its data, states that deforestationis likely to decrease after completion of clearings underthe Mahaweli development scheme. It provides evi-dence of significant increases in standing volume in thelow yield and nonproductive forests in the period fol-lowing the earlier inventory. It recommends that ade-quate areas of over-cut natural Dry Zone forests be setapart for recovery. As a result, if these forests areadequately protected — a critical management problem- they can enhance ecological stability in the Dry Zone,and, several decades from now, provide indigenous DryZone timbers on a sustained yield basis.

'Wet Zone? - Historical Trends

Natural forests of the Wet Zone typically have amuch higher standing volume than Dry Zone forests.Untilthe 1940s many species remained unharvested,but thereafter, with Dipterocarpus zeylanicus (S:hora)accepted for production of railway sleepers (or ties),and with light hardwoods required for veneer, manynew Wet Zone species entered the market.

Figure 9.5 gives some data on the natural forests ofthe Wet Zone according to the 1956-1961 inventory.

For several reasons, data on natural forests of theWet Zone (including the wet montane zone) in theFAO inventory of 1982-1985 are difficult to collate withthose of the earlier inventory. For example, the "mon-tane forests" of the earlier inventory comprise a rela-tively small area of stunted forests found at the highestelevations, while the upcountry region of the later in-ventory appears to have a much lower elevation limit.Again, the intermediate zone forests are separatedfrom the Wet Zone forests in the earlier inventory, butcombined in the subsequent inventory. However, tak-ing the Wet Zone, montane zone and the intermediatezone together, the later inventory indicates a loss offorest cover of 3,400 hectares per year since 1956.

Wet Zone' - Future Trends

The 1982-1985 inventory concludes that total forestarea in the wet and intermediate zones (including thewet montane region) comprises 278,000 hectares of

which 120,000 hectares lies in the low and midcountryand 158,000 hectares in the upcountry. Of the totalarea, the Forestry Master Plan apportioned 159,000hectares for protection and 119,000 hectares for timbersupply. The 119,000 hectares are further divided into47,500 hectares with adequate stocking for sustainedyield management, 37,500 hectares with poor stockingwhere no selective cutting is recommended in the nearterm, and 34,000 hectares where the stocking is so lowthat no cuttings should occur until the year 2020.

The Wet Zone low and mid-country natural forests(120,000 hectares) represent ecosystems with high lev-els of biodiversity and endemism. These forests havebeen subjected to heavy overcutting and consequentdegradation, and there are now strong appeals fromscientists, NGOs and the informed public to set asidefor conservation a good part of the 47,500 hectaresearmarked for selective felling. "Selective felling" hasitself often meant heavy overcutting in accessible for-ests.

The total area of well-stocked and sparsely-stocked Wet Zone forests taken together, may, accord-ing to some experts, total only 35,000 hectares - justover 40 percent of the Master Plan estimates (85,000hectares). If further analysis supports this conclusion,the Plan's proposals for felling will need revision.

Well-stocked forests are estimated to yield' 28cubic meters per hectare of industrial wood and 55-117cubic meters fuelwood. Each year the Plan proposesto harvest 1,580 hectares or a thirtieth of the well-stocked area -- that is, a 30-year felling cycle. Interme-diate felling, halfway through the felling cycle, is alsoproposed. The question remains: Can these levels ofexploitation sustain good quality Wet Zone naturalforest, or will the remaining forest be lost to futuregenerations?

Given widespread concern about exploitation ofWet Zone natural forests in the low and mid elevations,the Government has decided to re-examine the man-agement plans as related to the preservation of biolog-ical diversity, conservation of soil and water, and theenvironmental impact of proposed felling rates andintensity.


Forest Plantations for Shelter

Afforestation in the Uva Basin shows how forestry can improve environmental and

social conditions. The Uva Basin lies in tha central highlands at an average elevation of

about 1,200 meters bounded on the south and west by the mountainous central massif

that rises to 2,400 meters. In the north and eastfthe Basin slopes down to the lowland

plains of the Dry Zone. Near the cêateçoÙherËasiaus th&town of Welimada. . ,'

The Uva Basin comprises undulating country devoid of natural forests except in

small, sheltered pockets. Dry montane grasslands, drypatanas, cover much of the area

where no tea has been planted. When the island comes under the influence of the

southwest monsoon, from May to August, rain falls oh the western slopes of the central

hills, leaving the now-rainless monsoon winds, to sweep across the Uva Basin. These

desiccating winds frequently reach gale force, and the harsh conditions have made much

of the area desolate and uninhabited.

Afforestation of the patanas began in the late 1930s. Eucalyptus grandis; E.

microcorys and E. robusta were raised in compact blocks on the crests of ridges and

hilltops. When successful the plantations served as windbreaks and greatly improved

living conditions. Hamlets soon sprang up nearby.

Encouraged by these results, in 1954 the Forest Department selected two severely

windswept, desolate areas, PaJugama and Harasbadde, to raise shelter belts. Palugama

produced spectacular results. Its gently undulating land was hospitable to shelter belts

planted in a lattice pattern — primary belts (20 meters wide) at right angles to the wind

direction, and secondary belts (10 meters) at right angles to the primary belts. Distance

between the shelter belts in both directions was 115 meters. Belts consisted of an outer

TOW of Acacia mollissima, followed by alternate rows ofEucalyptus grandis and Cupressus

macrocarpa. Although the Cupressus remained stunted, the other two species grew well,

and the belts acquired a pyramidal shape in profile.

Within five years the shelter belts began to ameliorate windy conditions. Within ten

years, after more growth and continued improvement in the environment, population of

the area began to grow. The name of the village, Palugama, meaning 'desolate village'

was no longer considered apt and it was changed to Keppetipola, after a famous Sinhala

Chiefl



FOREST PLANTATIONS

Historical Development

Reforestation in Sri Lanka has a long, importanthistory. The government of Ceylon perceived that theexploitation of natural forests could frustrate sustainedproduction of timber a century ago. This prompted theforest officers at the time to raise forest plantations,although at first on a very limited scale. Teak (Tectonagrandis) an exotic species to Sri Lanka, was perhaps thefirst species to be raised as a forest plantation. This wasdone at different sites, mainly in the Dry Zone. An-other exotic species, Swietenia macrophylla, the broad-leaf mahogany, was also planted towards the end of thelast century in the intermediate zone lowlands aroundKurunegala. From then until the 1950s plantation trialswere carried out with numerous species, and those thatshowed promise were planted on a management scale.Most trials were carried out in the montane zone tomeet fuelwood demand of households, the tea industryand the railway. Eucalyptus species received the great-est attention. Although originally raised to producefuelwood, the wood of some eucalyptus species waslater found suitable for industrial use. In the 1950seucalyptus species were introduced to the lowlands ofthe Wet and Dry Zones.

In the early forestation activities in the montanezone, besides the various species of eucalyptus, otherexotic hardwood species like Cedrella spp. Tristaniaconferta. Acacia melanoxylon and Acacia mollissimawere planted. Several softwood species were also triedand, of these, Pinus panda, P. caribaea and Cupressusmacrocarpa were extended to management scale plant-ing. In the 1960s Pinus trials reached the lowlands, andin the 1970s appropriate varieties of Pinus caribaeabegan to be planted extensively in the low and mid-country Wet Zone and the montane intermediate zone.Meanwhile, from the late 1950s onwards, extensiveplanting with teak in particular was carried out annuallyin the Dry Zone. Forestation in the Dry Zone wascarried out under the Co-operative ReforestationScheme, the counterpart to the Burmese Taungya sys-tem. It came to an end in the late 1970s (See Box ).

Recently, in the Wet and Dry Zone lowlands,planting trials with several hitherto untested species

have been carried out, and two species of Acacia thatyielded good results are now included in the forestationprogram.imbcr and Fuelwood Production

Timber and Fuelwood Production

Dry Zone natural forests are poorly stocked andmost of the valuable species grow slowly. Until re-cently, forestation favored teak. Although the teakplantations fall into the lower classes of the Indian yieldtables, its growth has been outstanding in relative terms;the average Mean Annual Increment (MAI) exceededthat of the industrial wood species in Dry Zone naturalforests by 30 times (see Figure 9.6).

The natural forest of the Wet Zone has a MAIhigher than its Dry Zone counterpart. Notwithstandingthis, and despite the fact that the species is raised onlyin impoverished sites of the Wet Zone, Pinus caribaeahas an average MAI almost 15 times that of the usablespecies in the natural forest.

The Forestry Master Plan concludes that the totalarea of productive plantation forests (1982-1985 inven-tory) is 97,650 hectares. Of this, 77,000 hectares con-sists of industrial wood plantations, comprising teak(54.4 percent), Pinus (24.1 percent), industrial woodspecies of eucalyptus (11.4 percent), and others (10.1percent). Expected yields from these plantations up tothe year 2015 are shown in Figure 9.7.

Although the Forest Department regularly con-ducts forestation it often neglects silvicultural opera-tions needed to reach maximum levels of productivity.Thinnings, especially early non-commercial thinnings,rarely occur. As a result the expected increment rates(Figure 9.6) will not be realized. The proposed invest-ment program in the forestry sector has been designedto correct the understaffing and lack of adequate finan-cial resources that largely cause this situation.

The Forestry Master Plan recommends forestation(with industrial wood species) at 2,130 hectares peryear to 1995, and 4,260 hectares per year thereafter.Because plantations will be the main source of indus-trial wood in the future, this rate of forestation may notbuild adequate wood reserves for the next century.More important than increasing the area under forest-


!

i

H

P

ation, however, are regular, dependable silviculturaloperations.

To meet future fuelwood deficits, the ForestryMaster Plan recommends raising block fuelwood plan-tations (2,700 hectares per year) and farmers' woodlots(progressively increased from 700 hectares to 4,500hectares per year). Block fuelwood plantations are tobe raised by the industries requiring the fuel. In addi-tion, the Forest Department could also raise fuelwoodplantations in areas where deficits arc likely. This willbe necessary, for example, where farmers' woodlotschemes fall behind schedule.

Ecological Considerations

Many ecologists and environmentalists object toraising monoculture plantations especially of non-in-digenous species. Ecologically, a mixture of species ispreferable to monoculture. The resulting diversity hassubstantial long term benefits. Yet forest plantationsmust meet basic needs for industrial wood and fuel,while providing adequate safeguards for conserving soiland water.

Forestation requires cost effectiveness. The suit-ability of a species to a site, the quality of the wood itproduces, the establishment costs, and the wood incre-ment rate must all be considered. Plantations produceseveral times more timber than natural forests and areoften the only way to relieve pressure to exploit naturalforests. Sri Lanka has raised tens of thousands of hect-ares of forest plantations, and reduced hundreds ofthousands of hectares of natural forests to scrubthrough deforestation and overexploitation. Objec-tions to forest plantations of exotics must recognize howplantations can help conserve natural forests.

Pinus caribaea, a cause of much controversy, isplanted in degraded Wet Zone sites of grass and scrub.It has succeeded after years of failed afforestation trialswith other species. Pinus caribaea has shown phenom-enal rates of growth. With proper management andsupported by silvicultural trials it should be possible tointerplant with broad leaf species when the pine isthinned.

Yet there is an urgent need to strengthen researchon the biology and silviculture of indigenous species in

order to identify the endemics, as well as exotics, thatare ecologically preferable to species now used in for-estation. The volume of research now conducted is farfrom adequate but until more ecologically acceptablespecies are found, forestation programs must continuewith the species now in use.

TIMBER AND FUELWOODDEMAND AND SUPPLY

Industrial Wood - Past Trends

Industrial wood is used in Sri Lanka primarily forbuilding construction, packaging, railway sleepers,telegraph and electricity poles, furniture, and matches.Newsprint and wood pulp for writing paper are largelyimported.

Although nearly all the forests are state owned,industrial wood from state forests provides only a frac-tion of what is supplied and consumed within the coun-try. The 1956-1961 forest inventory estimated that thecountry consumed 855,000 cubic meters of timber andfuelwood. In 1985, consumption of industrial wood wasestimated at 980,000 cubic meters, with 960,000 cubicmeters supplied locally and the balance imported. Ofthe local total, natural forests supplied about 44 percentand forest plantations about 8 percent with the balancefrom rubber wood, coconut, palmyrah wood, and mis-cellaneous other non-forest species (see Figure 9.8).

Industrial Wood - Future Trends

Forecasts of industrial wood demand and availabil-ity for the next 20 years (Figure 9.4) suggest an annualsurplus if timber from rubber, coconut, and palmyrahare included. Small quantities of these species are nowused for timber but further research and developmentis required to improve the quality of the wood and thetechnology of use. In the light of declines in coconutand rubber plantations over the past four decades,pricing and other policies will be necessary to promoteuse of these species.

If harvests in the natural forests of the Dry and WetZones are reduced by conservation programs seekingsustained yields, what can be done to ensure adequatesupply of timber? One option for compensation is to


The Forestry Development Program

When the Forestry Master Plan was released in 1986 ecologists and non-governmental scientific andenvironmental organizations soon criticized its proposal for continued exploitation of remaining naturalforests. Over-exploitation had been so severe, they argued, that of the remaining 1.2 million hectares ofnatural forests managed by the Forest Department, only 47,500 hectares existed in the Wet Zone. TheDry Zone had no areas where stocking was sufficiently high to allow sustained timber production.

In response the Forest Department created an Environmental Division, invited forestry consultantsto re-examine the fellingproposals, and commissioned studies on the biodiversity of the Wet Zone naturalforests. Pending the outcome of these studies (still in progress as of October 1990), the Departmentsuspended all forest felling. Similar studies are proposed for natural forests in the Dry Zone, where naturalareas may be set apart as permanent reserves under long-term management.

Under the forestry development program for the next five years (mid-1990 to 1995) the ForestDepartment plans systematic thinning of 60,000 hectares of plantations and to raise new plantations ofindustrial wood and fuelwood species. A special reforestation program will address the erodible uplandareas in the Mahaweli catchment, where the forest cover is down to 8 percent of the land area, funded byBritish ODA. The development program will emphasize tree planting through a Participatory ForestryProject to develop silvi-pastoral and agroforestry systems mainly for the large, areas of deforested, unusedland in the Dry Zone. '

To remedy the serious lack of skilled manpower the Forest Department will substantially increaserecruitment of forest officers and accelerate training. It will also strengthen research units in the ForestDepartment and the State Timber Corporation. Support for the forestry development program isexpected through aid grants and loans from the World Bank, British ODA, FINNIDA, UNDP, and ADB.

Assuming sustained political will, generous inputs from the government, and supplement financial,support from foreign agencies, by the end of the five-year period the forestry sector should be able to carryout sustainable forest management that conserves Sri Lanka's natural forests for future generations.

increase the use of non-forest species. Other measuresinclude greater economy in the- use of timber and sub-stitution of other materials wherever possible. Re-cently, for example, the government decided to useconcrete instead of wood for railway sleepers; onceimplemented this will significantly reduce industrialwood demand.' Likewise, wood could be totally re-placed by concrete for electricity and telegraph poles.The National Engineering Research and DevelopmentCentre has demonstrated that a low-cost house can beconstructed without the use of timber. Technologicalimprovements in sawmiDing could reduce the hugewaste that now occurs when converting logs into sawntimber. To make a difference, these and other mea-sures will need to be adopted quickly. Greater empha-sis will also be necessary on raising forest plantations of

industrial wood species and silvicultural'operations in

the plantations that increase yields.

Fuelwood - Past Trends

Biomass fuel is the source of heat for most house-

hold cooking in Sri Lanka, and the vast majority of rural

households gather this fuel themselves. From surveys

we know that only about 25 percent comes from the high

forest. We also know that the slow, steady trend in the

1950s and 1960s from fuelwood to commercial energy

(mainly kerosene) for domestic cooking was reversed

in the late 1970s in response to the fuel crisis. (For

details of consumption, sources, etc, see Chapter 5.)

rForest Resources 211

Fuelwood - Future Trends

The proportion of biomass fuel coming from highforest is, in future, likely to increase. Fuelwood willcontinue to be available over much of the Dry Zonearea for several years to come, owing to the presence oflarge areas of degraded forest. However, in the largesettlement areas of the Dry Zone, shortages have al-ready occurred. Transport of fuelwood over long dis-tances will make costs prohibitive. The proposal toraise farmers' wood lots for fuelwood, poles, utilitytimber and so forth, as recommended in the ForestryMaster Plan, would help solve this problem. So wouldaction of the Forest Department to raise fuelwoodplantations in strategic areas to provide supplies tosales outlets in the towns.

Biomass fuel supplies could also drop in the WetZone. If, as expected, more rubber wood is diverted foruse as sawlogs, supplies of fuelwood from this sourcewill drop, and scarcity will develop in Colombo and theother southwest coastal towns. In addition, any reduc-tion in the cutting area, or cutting rates, in Wet Zonenatural forests will also produce lower fuelwood yieldsthan forecast in the Master Plan. Increased planting offuelwood species, use of improved fuelwood cookers,transport of fuelwood from surplus areas, and use ofalternative fuels are possible responses. (For furtherinformation on biomass fuel, refer to Chapter 5.)

KEY ISSUES

Severe deforestation and degradation of naturalforests have afflicted Sri Lanka for decades. Becausenatural forests originally covered most of the island,virtually any development invariably causes some forestclearing, but deforestation has been far more extensivethan development has required, and much of the clear-ing has been illicit. Over the past four decades, defor-estation has slashed natural forests by 50 percent.

Forest degradation, while often less obvious, hasrelentlessly followed exploitation to meet growing de-mands for industrial wood. Nearly all the natural forestthat remains is non-productive or low in yield. And aswith clearing, forest degradation has often been illegal.

Why have these trends developed?

Public concern about deforestation and environ-mental degradation has never been higher in Sri Lanka,as elsewhere in the world. Sri Lanka has laws to protectforests, most importantly the Forest Ordinance, theFauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, and the re-cently enacted National Wilderness Act. Yet the ab-sence of firm and clear forest policy to mobilize publicsupport and enforce forest laws has contributed toforest management failures.

Articulation of sustainable forest management pol-icies requires difficult economic choices in the shortterm. To achieve effective policy reform the economicand social values of natural forests, and the pendingthreats to national welfare, need far deeper andbroader understanding.

For example, the forest sector has been said tocontribute only 1.7 percent of the GDP, but these fig-ures grossly undervalue the multitude of direct andindirect services that forests provide to people and theeconomy. Forests regulate stream flows, stabilize steepland, control soil erosion, reduce flood intensities, pre-vent land desiccation, and protect agricultural land andhuman settlement. These economic values can be mea-sured in Sri Lanka, as they have been elsewhere.

Natural forest products — berries, fruit, nuts, game,and other products — serve local economic needs evenif they never reach urban or foreign markets. Medicinalsubstances, horticultural plants, and flowers have ac-counted for over 100 million US dollars in annual ex-ports from Indonesia, and substantial, if so faruncalculated, economic value to Sri Lankans. (See boxon Sinharaja.)

About 90 percent of the endemic flowering plantsof Sri Lanka, and most of its endemic fauna, can onlybe found in the severely depleted natural forests of thesouthwest Wet Zone. Aside from ethical considera-tions, the pharmaceutical and other long-term directeconomic values of these resources have barely begunto be recognized.

Minimum Area Under Forest

What is the minimum area that Sri Lanka shouldretain under natural forest? To attempt an answer wemay assume that, following current trends, within a few


decades, forest plantations and non-forest sources willmeet, and need to meet, most industrial wood require-ments. Arguments for retaining natural forests, there-fore, largely depend on other values. Because ofdifferences in climate, topography, population densi-ties, land-use practices, and genetic diversity, minimumareas retained under forest must be determined sepa-rately for the dry, and wet, intermediate, and montanezones.

The Dry Zone. This region supports rigorous agri-cultural development. Rice fields scattered over thevast Dry Zone plains produce most of Sri Lanka's rice.Yet the natural forests protect farmers and the farm-lands by reducing reservoir siltation; improving andregulating streamflow, reducing the harsh effects ofstrong, desiccating winds, and serving as barriers to thespread of pests and diseases of crops.

The Forestry Master Plan has designated 900,000hectares of Dry Zone natural forests for total exploita-tion, leaving only the protection areas (wildlife parks,sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, and so forth) intact.The rationale: deforestation will inevitably continue, sostate exploitation is better than illicit felling.

Past trends need not shape the future, however,and rational policy for Dry Zone natural forests canmore beneficially derive from a number of interactingfacts:

• Forest clearing for agriculture will drop sharply asthe Mahaweli program nears completion, creatingnew needs and opportunities for planned manage-ment of natural forests.

• Unplanned and illicit felling of Dry Zone forestshas converted hundreds of thousands of hectaresinto unproductive scrub and wasteland. Cost-ef-fective rehabilitation can make this land valuableagain.

• Protected areas in the Dry Zone occur mostly aslarge blocks in the driest part of the zone. They donot represent all the ecologically important naturalareas within the 900,000 hectares now under ForestDepartment jurisdiction.

• All the remaining Dry Zone natural forests are lowyield or nonproductive. They do not now provideSri Lanka with valuable timber products.

• Unexplored opportunities exist for true multipleuse of forests for timber, wildlife, and village use.

Under these circumstances, a reasonable long-term economic and environmental policy would desig-nate at least 500,000 hectares of the ForestDepartment's 900,000 hectares as permanent reserveforests. These reserves can be kept free of timberfelling for several decades. Eventually, however,through protection and enrichment planting, they canbe managed economically to provide a modest indige-nous timber supply on a sustained basis. The proposedarea of permanent reserves, together with areas underthe Department of Wild Life Conservation, will ac-count for 25 percent of the Dry Zone.

77ie Wet Zone. In the wet southwest region of theisland, the forest-to-land ratio is widely recognized ascritically low. Policy debate centers around two ques-tions: are forest areas recommended for complete pro-tection adequate to preserve the rich genetic diversityof this region, and are selective felling proposals appro-priate for the high quality natural forest that remains.The Forest Department has commissioned studies toaddress these questions with new facts and analyses.

Timber and Fuelwood Supplies

Reduced felling in the natural forests will alsoreduce annual output of industrial wood. How then canthe demand for timber be met?

No single action will suffice, but a combination ofpolicies can balance supply and demand. Much can bedone to rationalize utilization practices and manage thegrowth in demand by reducing waste and developingtimber substitutes, as discussed above. Suitable pricingpolicies and other regulatory measures should contrib-ute to a reduction in the wood demand from naturalforests. Proposals in the Master Plan for raising indus-trial wood plantations and ensuring proper silviculturalmaintenance of the plantations should be implemented.Increased forestation can also build up adequate re-serves of industrial wood for the future.

IIIIIIIIIIIII

I

I Forest Resources 213

I

Curtailing the Master Plan's felling regime is un-likely to reduce overall biomass fuel supply in the nextfew years because adequate resources are availableoutside the high forests. However, new fuelwood plan-tations located in strategic areas may be necessary tomeet long-term requirements.

Forest Plantations

Because forest plantations yield far more per unitarea than natural forests, plantations will provide mostindustrial wood supplies. Silvicultural maintenance ofthe existing plantations will be essential to reach opti-mum productivity. New forest plantations as recom-mended by the Master Plan will also be required.Continuing silvicultural trials should address potentialproblems by developing management practices andfinding suitable species mixes that mitigate any ecolog-ical imbalances.

Social Forestry

The Forest Department has recently included so-cial forestry in its management and research program.Interaction between villagers and natural and planta-tion forests has become recognized worldwide as anessential part of forest management. Increasingly,

planners will need to understand how forest systemsmeet social needs, and how these long-term economicvalues can be identified and translated into develop-ment decisions.Traditional knowledge of people ontree growth in specific locations must be obtained andused. Forest programs that give local populations astake in the forest produce will make them more effec-tive custodians of the forests.

Research

Forest research can no longer be narrowly con-fined to the dimensions of traditional forestry. To meetthe requirements of Sri Lanka's increasing populationmulti-disciplinary research must include ecologicalstudies of plantation species, alternative agro-forestrysystems for the vast and unirrigable dry regions, meth-ods to reduce wastage of timber and. biomass, andpractical measures to improve silvicultural practices.Public education and professional training will be nec-essary to ensure that research findings translate intopractical, on-the-ground results.

A major research need centers around the ques-tion of how to improve the productivity of forest landsthrough far more cost-effective measures than havebeen used heretofore.

References

Abeywiclcrema. B.A. (1990). Integrated conservation for humansurvival. Paper presented at the Symposium on Ecology andLandscape Management in Sri Lanka. Natural Resources,Energy and Science Authority, Colombo.

Andrew. J.R.T. (1961). A forest inventory of Ceylon. Forest De-partment, Colombo.

FAO (1989). Preinvestment survey on forest industries develop-ment - Ceylon - Final Report. Vol. Ill - Forest Industries. FAO,Rome.

FAO (1986). A national forest inventory of Sri Lanka 1982-85.Forest Department, Colombo.

Geiser, W. and Sommer. M. (1983). Up-to-date information on SriLanka's forest cover. Loris 16. pp. 66-69.

Ministry of Land. Irrigation & Mahaweli Development (1990).Forest sector development project. Forest Planning Unit, Min-istry of Lands. Irrigation & Mahaweli Development, Colombo.

Poyry, Joako (1986). Forestry master plan for Sri I^nka. JoakoPoyry International Oy, Helsinki.

Wijesinghe, L.C.A. de S. (1989). Biomass fuel and its utilization inSri Lanka. RERIC International Energy Journal. Vol. 10,No.l, pp. 67-80.

Wijesinghe, L.C.A. de S.; Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N.; Jayawardcna,S.D.G.; Kotagama. S.W.; and Gunatilleke, C.V.S. (1989). Bi-ological conservation in Sri Lanka - a national status report.Natural Resources, Energy andSciencc Authority, Colombo.

Wild elephants, estimated at about 3,000, are the greatest living symbol of Sri Lanka's diverse biological

resources.


I

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215

10 Biological Diversity

Sri Lanka's biological diversity has sustained

human society for countless centuries in myriad ways.

Forests, grasslands, wetlands and coastal and marine

habitats, and the species they support have provided

fuelwood, timber, fish medicinal herbs, crop plants and

animals for domestication. They have helped regulate

the climate, recycle nutrients, protect soil and water,

control pests and diseases and provided habitats and

breeding grounds essential for fish and wildlife that

enable human survival.

Biological diversity refers to the immeasurable va-

riety of what life contains. Each species has its different

races and breeds and differences among individuals.

Species join to form diverse communities and ecosys-

tems. A country's biological wealth is collectively the

product of millions of years of evolution and the result

of thousands of years of cultivation and domestication.

Biological diversity is therefore of great value and it is

more important than the material or cultural wealth of

a country.

:I •i

IIIIIII

Contributions of Biological

EcologicalProcess

Ecosystem Role in watershed,Diversity soil and coastal

protection, buff-

ering environment-

al changes, main-

tenance of produc-

tivity etc.

Genetic Role of individualDiversity plants and animals

in maintenance of

ecological processes

such as nutrientrecycling, forest

regeneration etc.

Raw materials for

evolution required

for survival and

adaptation of

species.

Agriculture

Provides stabilityto agriculturalsystem.

Habitats for wild

pollinators and

pest enemies

At species levelprovides diversity

of food typesand other useful

products to man.Strains & breeds

for enhancement

of breeding

programs, pest

and disease

resistance etc.

HarvestedProducts

Habitat for useful

species. Coastal &marine ecosystems

have supported

important fisher-

ies. Forests have

produced energy

and timber

Provides timber,fuelwood, fibre,fish, medicinal

plants & other

products such asrattan, weniwel

etc.

Diversity

CulturalValues

Sacred mountains

such as Adam'sPeak, Sinharaja,

Ritigala. Sacred

rivers e.g.

Menik Ganga

Plants and animalsused for cultural

rituals, incense.

intoxicants etc.

Breeds of riceused for ceremonies.

Others of cultural

value are elephant

(perahera), lotus etc.

Recreationand Tourism

Visitors to NationalParks and Protected

areas (100,000visitors to Yala

annually)

Visitors to NationalZoological Gardens,Museum and Plant'

Genetic ResourceCenter

Figure 10.1

I



Sri Lanka, like countries around the globe, is de-pleting many of these resources at rates that have mademany of them essentially non-renewable. Unlike trulynon-renewable resources such as minerals that can beso exploited as to become scarce and uneconomic, wehave, at accelerating rates, caused species to vanishaltogether, or become dangerously vulnerable to thatfate. Among the most significant causes of this growingproblem: forest clearing and burning, shifting cultiva-tion, wetland damming and filling, timber logging, coralreef destruction, cultivation of monocultures in crops,plantations, and forests, over harvesting of plants andanimal^ careless introduction of exotic species, indis-criminate use of pesticides, and pollution of our aquaticecosystems. These and other activities diminish SriLanka's biological resources.

Importance of Biological Diversity

Why should we care? Sri Lanka's economy largelydepends on agriculture, plantation crops, fisheries andother activities whose productivity closely connectswith healthy biological systems. Natural forests sup-port agriculture by influencing local climate, regulatingwater supplies, and protecting soils. They supply fuel-wood and timber. Ecosystems of wetlands and coralreefs provide the habitats for fish, crustaceans andmolluscs harvested by the fishery industry, they protectcoasts from erosion.

At the micro level, genetic material in domesti-cated crop plants, trees, livestock, aquatic animals andsmall organisms constitutes essential biological diver-sity that we also use. It is the basis of breeding programsfor continued improvement in yields, nutritional qual-ity, flavor, durability, pest and disease resistance andother tangible benefits.

Other plant and animal products gathered fromthe wild or in cultivation or domestication, such asmedicinal plants, fruits and nuts, vegetables, fibre,leather, spices, rattan and bamboo, meet daily needs ofmillions of Sri Lankans, and support thousands ofsmall, village-based industries. By maintaining diversewild varieties of crop plants we establish insuranceagainst disease and disasters and provide the genetic

material for science-based efforts to improve crops andagricultural productivity.

Yet only a fraction of the country's plants andanimals have been mobilized to support human sur-vival. The majority of wild species now unused orbarely used are potential sources of food, fiber or med-icines, and sources of future genetic material needed tosustain, diversify and improve agriculture, forestry, andfisheries.

Around the world, natural areas, zoological gar-dens, botanic gardens and other monuments to biolog-ical diversity have become increasingly important forrecreation and relaxation as urban areas expand andgrow. The variety of species and ecosystems'providesrich scenic and recreational experiences that have be-come increasingly appreciated as the world becomesever more crowded.

Figure 10.1 gives examples of the ways in whichbiological diversity contributes to research and educa-tion, cultural heritage, recreation and tourism, the de-velopment of new and existing plant and animaldomesticates and the supply of harvested resources toSri Lanka.

SRI LANKA'S BIODIVERSITY

Wild Resources

Despite its importance, we know remarkably littleabout Sri Lanka's biological diversity. Ecosystem typesand variations have been relatively well studied, but thetotal diversity of living organisms and interrelationshipsamong them at a community or ecosystem level arepoorly recognized or understood.

The diverse terrain and climatic variation withinthe small land area has resulted in an interesting arrayof ecosystems. The country has two basic eco-zonesdivided by a central mountainous region which inter-cepts the monsoonal winds, thereby creating an ever-wet southwestern quarter and a rain shadow in theremaining area. The far northwest and southeast,which escapes the monsoons, has a climate bordering

Biological Diversity 217

Ecosystem types and variations in Sri Lanka

Forests

Grasslands

Coastal and Marine

Inland Wetlands

Tropical wet evergreen forests (lowland rain forests)

Tropical moist semi-evergreen forests

Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests

Tropical thorn forests

Riverine forests (gallery forests)

Tropical lower montane forests

Tropical upper montane forests

Villus

Savannahs (Damana, Talawa)

Wet patanas (wet montane grasslands)

Dry patanas (dry montane grasslands)

Mangroves

Salt marshes

Sand dunes and beach

Mudflats

Seagrass beds

Coral reefs

Flood plains

Swamp forests

Streams and rivers

Ponds

Figure 10.2

on arid conditions. Within this broad differentiation isa multitude of ecosystem varieties. Forests are thepredominant vegetation, varying from ever-wet rainfor-est -- both lowland and montane -- to dry evergreen andthorn forest. Grasslands and a complex network ofwetlands, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystemsare interspersed with the forests. Ecosystem types arelisted in Figure 10.2.

The most conspicuous groups, such as the flower-ing plants, ferns and vertebrate animals, are the onlyones relatively well studied. Collectively they probablyaccount for only a very small percentage of the island's

total species. The lower forms of flora and fauna suchas the algae, mosses, liverworts, lichens and inverte-brates are very poorly known. Even less known aremicroorganisms such as viruses and bacteria (Figure10.3).

Yet even among the flowering plants and verte-brate fauna it appears likely that many species remainundiscovered. Biologically rich places like Knuckles,Peak Wilderness and Horton Plains have yet to besubjected to intensive study. Systematic inventories inrecent years in Sinharaja, Hiniduma and Ritigalahaveled to the discovery of many new species which


Composition of Flora and

Group Number of described

Flora

Algae

Fungi

Lichens (Thelotremataceae)

Mosses

Liverworts

Ferns & Fern Allies

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Fauna

Land snails

Spiders

Mosquitoes

Blister Beetles (Terrestrial)

Fish

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds (Residents)

Mammals

Compiled from multiple sources

* inadequate studies

Species

896*

1,920*

110

575

190

314

1

3,100

266

400

131

15

59

37

139

237

86

Fauna

Percentage

Endemism

NA

NA

35

NA

NA

18

00

27

NA

NA

13

20

27

51

50

08

14

Figure 10.3

I

II ;

IIj

II

II

IIII


Biological Diversity Of Asian Countries( Ranked According To Average Number Of Species /10,000 Sq Kms)

Mammals

10 12 14 18

Birds

Flowering Plants

100 200 300 400 600 600

Amphibians

Sri Lanka

Malay» la

Philippin««

Vietnam

Thailand -

lndon««ia -

Myanmar -

India -

China -

Reptiles

3rl Lanka

Ban«lad««h

Malayaia

Myanmar

tndonaala

India

Chinaina -

10 IS

Population Densities

20

zoo 400 «oo 800 1000

Figure 10.4


Distribution of Endemic Flowering Plants of Sri Lanka

Source: Peeris 1975

Figure 10.5

Distribution of Endemic Vertebratesof Sri Lanka (Diagrammatic Sketch)

Wet Low

ƒ Country

XL >

/ —1Dry

70% \

"f \\ Montane

isiandwide7%

40%51%

Sourca: Kotagama 1989

Figure 10.6

IIi •i •

III

i

I

rBiological Diversity 221

Floristic Regions of Sri Lanka( Ashton and Gunatilleke, 1987)

1. coastal and marine belt

4. eastern intermediate lowlands

7. southern lowlands hills

10. Midmountains

2. dry and arid lowlands 3. northern and intermediate lowlands

5. northern wet lowlands 6. Sinharaja and Ratnapura

8. wet zone freshwater bodies 9. foothills of Adam's Peak and Ambagamuwa

11. Kandy and upper Mahaweli 12. Knuckles

13. Central mountains, Ramboda-Nuwara Biya 14. Adam's Peak 15. Horton Plains

Figure 10.7


IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII,

were hitherto unknown to science. The recently revisedclassification of plants and animals of Sri Lanka havealso resulted in the identification and documentation ofnew species.

Sri Lanka has greater biodiversity per unit areathan any other country in Asia. (Figure 10.4.) It is oneof eleven areas in the tropics identified by the Commit-tee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology (NAS,1980) as demanding special attention because of itshigh levels of biological diversity, endemism and itsvulnerability to habitat destruction.

Sri Lankan flora represents the following floristicelements (Abeywickrama, 1955): Sri Lankan, Indo-SriLankan, Himalayan, Malayan, African, and pantropicand cosmopolitan. The fauna represents Indo-Sri Lan-kan, Malaysian, African and Sri Lankan elements. Al-though the predominant named forms of Sri Lankanplants and animals are present in peninsular India, wehave evidence of high concentration of diversity andendemicity. Around 30 percent of the angtospermflora, 18 percent of the ferns, and 16 percent of theterrestrial vertebrates are endemic to the island. Mostof this unique diversity concentrates to an extraordi-nary degree in the humid southwestern lowlands andcentral mountains (Figures 103 and 10.6).

Floristic regions have been delineated for the is-land (Figure 10.7). Within the wet lowland and highelevational montane forests itself there are several dis-tinct local areas of high diversity and endemicity.Within the moist low country restricted distributionsare unusually common; the foothills of Adam's Peak,which run as a narrow band, are exceptionally rich inhighly local elements. This is the wettest and the leastseasonal part of the country. Another area of excep-tional endemicity is the narrow belt, approximately 30kilometers wide, encompassing the hills of Bentota andGin Ganga basin in the south. This area still includes afew isolated forests.

A similar geographic distribution characterizes theendemic vertebrate fauna, particularly fish, birds, am-phibians and reptiles. The Kalu Ganga and Gin Gangariver basins located in the lowland Wet Zone are par-ticularly important habitat for endemic fish species.(Senanayake 1980 and Evans 1981.) Thirteen of the 16

or 17 endemic fish species are found in these riverbasins.

Despite these concentrations of biodiversity in thewet lowlands and central mountains, only a few loca-tions have been studied enough to establish fairly com-prehensive lists of flowering plants and, in some cases,the vertebrate fauna. Species richness has been com-pared among six sites in Sri Lanka, using species/indi-vidual curves to compare species richness (Gunatillekeand Ashton, 1987). The three wet lowland sites(Gilimale, Kanneliya and Kottawa) show high speciesrichness when compared to the intermediate climaticzone (Barigoda andMoneragala) and the dry lowlands(Ritigala). Further studies (Gunatilleke, Gunatillekeand Sumithraarachchi, 1987) show high representationof endemics among the woody vegetation of the wetlowlands (Figure 10.8).

Vertical variation of diversity can also be observedwithin these lowland rainforests. Endemic species arerelatively concentrated in the canopy and sub-canopylayers of the forest (de Zoysa et al., 1987) (Figure 10.9).

Comparatively few studies have been conducted onthe distribution of vertebrate fauna. The only knowncomprehensive work for any specific location is for theSinharaja forest (Figure 10.10).

Cultivated Resources

Thousands of years of settled agriculture have pro-duced a storehouse of cultivated biological resourcesof crop plants, fruit trees, spices and livestock, and acentury ago, in the plantation sector, numerous localnew cultivars developed.

Sri Lanka has a rich treasure of rice genes. Severalthousand years of selection and cultivation, augmentedby traditional farming practices and the country'secoedaphic variability have produced a wide variety ofcrop cultivars. Among the 120,000 cultivars in the en-tire world, this small island has recorded 2,800 varietiesso far — vastly disproportionate to its size. These ricevarieties show great adaptability to a wide range of soilconditions. Upland varieties show drought tolerance,and those grown in coastal and river floodplain areascan tolerate submergence and flash floods. Some cantolerate low temperatures of the highlands, while others


Endemicity Among Woody Speciesin Wet Lowland Sites

Kottawa

Kanneliya

20 40 60 80 100No. of Species

I Endemic Species

120 140 160

Source: Gunatilleke et al. 1987

Figure 10.8

The Diversity of Flora in Sinharajaon a Single Undisturbed Forest Location

Canopy Trees

Understorey Trees

Gap Species

Treelets & Shrubs

Lianas

Herbs, Sedges, Ferns

m20 40 60

No. of Species

Endemic Species

80 100

Source: Pe Zoysa et al. 198S

Figure 10.9


100

Vertebrate Species in Sinharaja

% of Species/Endemics in Sri Lanka

8 0 -

6 0 -

4 0 -

2 0 -

Fish Amphibia Reptiles Snakes Birds Mammals

t=3 Species H I Endemics

Source: March for Conservation, 1990

- Bars indicate percentage of Sri Lankan species and endemics in Sinharaja

- Figures above bars indicate numbers of species counted

Figure 10.10

Forest Cover in DifferentBioclimatic Zones

1.45%

Dry Lowlands 50.54»Wet Lowianos 14.48%

termedlate 2.91%

1.54*

Montane 7 i n

21.97*

- Separate segments indicate natural forest areas

Source : Qunatilleko & Qunatllleke 1983

Figure 10.11


Status of Woody Endemics in SelectedWet Lowland Sites

Vulnerable34%

Out of Danger1*

Endangeredi, 23%

Insufficiently Known5%

Source: Gunatllleke & Gunatlllek» 1990

Figure 10.12

have broad-based resistance to serious pests and toler-ance to iron toxicity. There are several grain types,some with medicinal properties and fragrance and oth-ers that are used for cultural ritual.

Besides rice, Sri Lankan cereals include millets,sorghum and maize. The type of millets grown fromancient times are finger millet Eleusine coracana, foxtailmillet Setaria italica, common millet P asp alummiliaceum and koda millet Paspalum scrobiculatum.Unlike rice, these cereals have undergone little selec-tion by the farmers.

Legumes constitute an important source of proteinfor most Sri Lankans. Some variability exists amongpigeon pea Cajanus cajan. Wild relatives of pigeon peasuch as Atylosia, Rhynchosia, Viscosa and Dunbariahave been recorded in the country. Winged beanPsophocarpus tetragonolobus show much variability inseed color, pod size, and flower color.

Among the horticultural crops, several varieties ofbanana Musaspp. are under cultivation in the differentagro-ecological regions of the country. M. acuminataand M. balbisiana the wild progenies of cultivated ba-nanas are both present in Sri Lanka. Other fruit crops,such as citrus, mango, avocado, and jak exhibit much

variability. Numerous types of vegetables, both tem-perate and tropical species are also cultivated through-out the country, and curcubits, tomatoes and eggplantsexhibit much genetic diversity.

Sri Lanka has an estimated 170 species of plants ofornamental value, of which 74 species are endemic.Dendrobium and Vanda species and foliage plantsthrive in natural forest habitats. Among the root andtuber crops, much variability exists among cassava,Dioscorea, aroids and innala Solenostemosrotundifolius.

Spices have made Sri Lanka famous. Considerablegenetic diversity occurs among pepper, cardamom,betel and chilli. About 500 known local selections ofpepper Piper and about 10 wild species have beenidentified. Ten wild races of cardamom have beencollected from the Sinharaja and adjoining forests.

Plantation crops have been the mainstay of theeconomy, particularly coconut, tea, and rubber -- thelatter two having been introduced within the past twocenturies. Tea is now grown on over 250,000 hectares.The germplasm originally introduced from Assam hasundergone selection through breeding programs, andthe selected genotypes are being clonally conserved in



Faunal Groups

Insects - •

Crustaceans - j |

Amphibians -fl

Fishes - •

Molluscs - •

Reptiles -fl

Diras - •

Mammals -M

0

-

Source: Kotogama 1989

Threatened Faunal Species

^^^—^M^TTTTl I m m^ ^ ^ ^ T T T T I INI I Ti

• B ! ; : ; |• i ; ! : :

i i i i i -

20 40 60 80 100 120Total No. of Threatened Species

M ENDEMIC SPECIES

Figure 10.13

various breeding stations and tea estates in the country.Selection procedures and vegetative propagation havetogether produced a series of clones of high yield, resis-tance to pests, disease, and drought, and high rates offermentation. The total number of clones among rub-ber is at present around 132. A variety of hybrids ofcoconut have also been developed here.

There are wild species of buffalo, cattle, fish andfowl, but, with the notable exception of marine fisheries,the country relies heavily on imported strains to meetdomestic demands. Apart from the Sinhala cattle thatare endemic to the country, foreign breeds (Ayrshire,Herefords, Sindhi, etc.) have been introduced over thelast four decades. Although little hybridization hasbeen carried out on goats and pigs, some improvementhas been made with cattle. Among poultry some im-portation of selected breeds and hybridization has beenaccomplished. The local poultry breeds are fast disap-pearing due to imported gennplasm, despite the factthat the genes of local varieties have resistance to trop-ical diseases.

STATUS AND TRENDS

Loss of Ecosystem Diversity

No discussion of biological diversity can ignore thesteady diminution of natural forests and other ecosys-tems in Sri Lanka. Natural ecosystem diversity hasdeclined and we have no evidence to suggest a changeor deceleration of this trend. The dry floodplains areirrigated lands of the lowlands which have been sub-jected to extensive deforestation and settled agriculturesince the third century B.C. They have been modifiedwith the construction of thousands of irrigation tanksand channels. Deforestation in the Wet Zone began inthe thirteenth and fourteenth centuries with the estab-lishment of the Kingdoms of Gampola andDambadeniya. Subsequently in the colonial era, plan-tation crops such as coffee, then tea and rubber, re-placed natural forests in the wet lowlands and montaneareas, while coconut expanded into the wet coastallowlands. However, the dry lowlands — cradle of SriLanka's ancient civilization — reverted to forest with theabandonment of the irrigation systems beginning about

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I Biological Diversity 227

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800 years ago. In the last 50 years major new irrigationprojects have penetrated the dry lowlands once again.

As the Forestry chapter describes, natural forestcover for the island is down from about 70 percent atthe beginning of the century to less than 25 percenttoday. The FAO reported in 1981 that Sri Lanka'sannual rate of deforestation of 3.5 percent was thehighest in Asia, excepting only Nepal.

Recent estimates of forest cover in the differentbioclimatic zones (FigurelO.ll) indicate that, with theexception of the dry lowlands, the proportion of forestsin the other climatic zones are critically low. Areas thatcontain the highest proportion of endemics and specieshave small areas of forests and natural habitat.

A key factor in maintaining biological diversity, anda way to measure its vulnerability, is the size of theconservation area. Most forests in the high diversityzones of the wet lowlands and montane highlands arefragmented and over-exploited. With the exception ofa few relatively large forest patches in the Wet Zone,the rest have been broken down into small patches.The 160 square kilometers of forests in the Mataradistrict occur as 30 patches, each 50-1000 hectares.Relatively undisturbed forests in these two zones aresmall and restricted to inaccessible hill ridges and coverless than 25,000 hectares.

The implications of this trend toward isolation ofcritical habitats are serious because the Wet Zone,which covers 23.7 percent of Sri Lanka's land area,contains 54.7 percent of the current population of thecountry, at a mean density of 583 persons/sq. km. Thisdensity is well above the national average of 244 per-sons/sq. km. The few forest patches of the Wet Zonehave become highly vulnerable to population pressures.

The total extent of Wet Zone forest in the countryis at present around 150,000 hectares, down from250,000 hectares in 1956. All remaining forests andother natural habitats in the wet lowlands and montanehighlands have become increasingly valuable, and vul-nerable, as critical resources to conserve the island'sunique plant and animal species.

Other critical habitats such as coral reefs (CoastalChapter) and wetlands (Coastal and Inland Aquatic

chapters) are also severely threatened, although fewquantitative data are available on changes in area orquality of coastal and inland aquatic habitat. Alongwith adverse effects on fisheries and coastal erosionprotection, removal of coral for production of lime hasdiminished biological diversity. Inland marsh forests ofthe wet lowlands, have almost completely disappeared.

Loss of Genetic Diversity

In addition to habitat destruction — from loss offorests and numerous agricultural, settlement, and eco-nomic development activities ~ biological diversity suf-fers from selective exploitation of species, particularlyplants. Selective removal of desirable species has re-sulted in changes in floristic and faunistic compositionof the forest and a steady depletion of populations ofthe exploited species.

Many species, once plentiful, are now found insmaller numbers and some are considered to be threat-ened. Without quick action to conserve their habitatsthey will become seriouly endangered, their geneticvariety reduced, and their long-term survival in doubt.Others have been exploited to such an extent that theyclearly verge on extinction. The Comb duckSarkidiomis melanotus which used to breed in theGiant's Tank and Senanayake Samudra has completelydisappeared from Sri Lanka. Concerns about elephantsgrow. At the begining of the nineteenth century SriLanka had an estimated 12,000 elephants (McKay,1973). They roamed the Dry and Wet Zones and at thehigher elevations. Elephant killing for sport and morerecent habitat destruction and killing to defend cropshas greatly reduced the population, now largely re-stricted to the Dry Zone and estimated at around 3,000animals. Selective poaching of elephants for trophiesand ivory has almost eliminated the genetic trait for tuskformation in the Sri Lankan wild elephant population.Today, only 5 percent of the wild elephants in thecountry possess tusks -- a substantially lower percent-age than in the average asiatic elephant population.

Selective removal has endangered some of theisland's most valuable timber trees. CalamanderDiospyros quaesita, a fine variegated timber tree, is raretoday, and is only present in a few restricted locations.



Satinwood Chloroxylon swietenia, ebony Diospyrosebentim and other valuable timber species like nadunPericopsis mooniana are now rare, although abundantin the last century. Diospyros oppositifolia is now con-fined to small stands at Hinidum Kanda and Sinharajawhile the madara tree Cleistanthus collinus seems tohave been exploited to extinction.

Many species of medicinal and ornamental plantshave also been overexploited. Some of the species en-dangered as a result are the orchids Dendrobiummaccarthiae, Dendrobium heterocarpum, Ipsea spedosaandRIiynchostylis retusa. Sumithraarachchi (1986), hasidentified that of 170 species of orchids found in theisland, 99 can be considered rare, 7 vulnerable, and 13species likely to be extinct. Medicinal plants such asekaweriya Rauvolfia serpentina, Saraca asoca, goda-kadura Strychnos nux-vomica, rodanti Capparis moonii,malitha Woodfordia fruticosa and a host of others havebecome rare in the wild. Numerous plant species re-corded on the island by earlier botanists have not beencollected or observed subsequently, some for more thana hundred years, because of selective removal or thedestruction and disturbance of their habitats.

Nearly 16 percent of the flowering plants and 28percent of the ferns and fern allies are consideredthreatened (Abeywickrama, 1987). So are twelve of theendemic genera. About 480 species of flowering plantsand 90 species of ferns and fern allies belong to thisthreatened category. Included are 228 endemic and 252non-endemic species amongst the flowering plants, and30 endemic and 60 non-endemic species amongst thefern and fern allies.

Some specific information is also available on thestatus of threatened species in the wet lowland sites(Figure 10.12). Over 94 percent of the woody endemicsin these sites are threatened. Only 1-2 percent of thelowland woody endemics are believed to be found inlarge enough numbers to be considered out of danger.Another group of plants — the commercially importantrattan species - are severely threatened. Of the 10species, 7 have restricted distribution, 3 are endangeredand 3 more vulnerable. If trends affecting these speciescontinue, most of those considered threatened will be-come extinct within a decade so. Some species mayalready be extinct; about 50 or more plant species have

not been collected for over a century, including theendemics Cyathula ceylanica, Elliphanthus unifoliatus-Ceropegia elegans, Blumea angustifolia, Anaphalisfruticosa and Calamus pachystemonus. Many morespecies, formerly common and widely distributed, haveover the last few decades become rare or restricted toa few locations. One such species Vatica obscura, theonly member of the Dipterocarpaceae family foundoutside the Wet Zone, occurred until very recently ingregarious masses in riverine forests of the easternprovince. It has not been collected in the last ten years.

As an oceanic island Sri Lanka has a high percent-age of endemic species that have evolved because ofisolation, but they are particularly vulnerable. Whentheir natural habitats are destroyed they are unable torecolonize the degraded soils. Over 200 naturalizedaliens (Abeywickrama, 1955) include some of the mosttroublesome weeds. They have successfully establishedthemselves, most often at the expense of the naturalflora. Amongst fauna, the endemics represent a highlyvulnerable group. Figure 10.13 lists the status of faunalspecies studied so far (Kotagama, 1990).

Among the major impacts on biological diversitythe single most important in recent years was the Ac-celerated Mahaweli Development project, which re-placed about 200,000 hectares of natural wildlifehabitat with agriculture, settlement and related devel-opments. Elephants were most affected; about half theelephant population in this region (500 animals) wereexpected to be displaced. Other significant causes notquantified as yet: chemical pollution of air, land andwater by various agricultural and industrial activities.Some mosses and liverworts, earlier common as epi-phytes have disappeared or become less common inand around Colombo. Similarly Schizaea digitata hasdisappeared in most areas.

Genetic depredation occurs from more purposefulhuman action intended to increase food production.Modern agriculture in Sri Lanka, particularly rice, re-lies increasingly on a few imported seed varieties witha narrow genetic base, displacing the traditional cropvarieties. Present indigenous rice varieties under culti-vation have dwindled to about five percent of totalpaddy acreage. The spread of genetically uniform va-rieties, while helping tó achieve high yields, also makes

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crops more vulnerable to pests and diseases. As thegene stock becomes less diverse we also reduce optionsfor new crop breeding programs. Further, current ef-forts to develop new agricultural lands through irriga-tion schemes threaten the natural habitat of wild cropgenetic resources, as is happening to valuable wild ricespecies found mainly in abandoned tank beds. Ironi-cally, this development is occurring while innovativegenetic engineering techniques are being pursued totransfer the rice traits of wild crop species to cultivatedspecies.

TRENDS IN PROTECTED AREAMANAGEMENT

One of the world's first wildlife sanctuaries datesback to the reign of King Devanampiyatissa, when Bud-dhism was first introduced in the third century B.C.Later, in the twelfth century A.D. King Kirti-Nissanka-Malla prohibited the killing of animals within a radiusof 35 kilometers of his kingdom of Anuradhapura. Sub-sequent Sri. Lankan rulers protected large tracts offorests as reserves, for example Udawattekelle Reserveand Sinharaja Forest.

In modern times, however, with the enactment ofthe Forest Ordinance in 1907, wildlife was given legalprovision through the establishment of sanctuaries -first at Yala, and then at Wilpattu. In 1938 Sri Lankaestablished five categories of protected areas, under theFauna and Flora Protection Ordinance: Strict NaturalReserves, National Parks, Nature Reserves, Jungle Cor-ridors and Intermediate Zones. All are administeredby the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Simulta-neously, the Forest Ordinance established two catego-ries of reserves: Forest Reserves and ProposedReserves. Most recently, in 1987, Parliament's NationalWilderness Act added National Wilderness Areas tothe protected list. The total extent of land area undersome sort of protection currently is a over 15,000 squarekilometers, of which around 10 percent is in the WetZone and the balance in the Dry and IntermediateZones (Figure 10.14). (See Forestry Chapter.)

Designation of protected areas does not necessarilymean that protection is effective. Anecdotal evidenceindicates that illegal and unmanaged logging, hunting,

gathering, farming and livestock grazing are commonin most of the protected areas. In the Wet Zone alone,for example, approximately 20 percent of the forestreserves have either disappeared completely or havebeen reduced to small isolated patches.

Although about 23 percent of the country is undersome sort of protection, only 12 percent is devoted tocomplete protection (National Reserves and Sanctuar-ies under the Fauna and Flora Ordinance and NationalWilderness Areas under the National Wilderness Act).Yet, this represents a significant commitment to thepreservation of biological diversity. Sri Lanka is one ofonly five countries in the world that has over 10 percentof land area allocated for strict conservation.

Since the first national parks were established in1938, some 60 or more protected areas have been setaside exclusively for conservation, covering some 7,500square kilometers. Numbers and size of the protectedareas have steadily increased, particularly in the lasttwo decades (Figure 10.15). Although there are over60 protected areas in the country, about 40 percent areless than 1,000 hectares — nearly all "biological islands"amongst agriculture and other developments.

Can they maintain their biological diversity? Lim-ited research to date suggests that in the tropics theminimum viable breeding population of 500 trees oflow-density species require between 6-1,000 hectaresfor their conservation (Whitmore, 1984). The mini-mum critical size required to conserve the elephants isat least 100,000 hectares of contiguous forest. Only tworeserves in Sri Lanka meet this requirement.

Despite overall statistics, most protected areasexist in the Dry Zone. In the biologically rich Wet Zoneonly 2.6 percent of the land area (400 square kilome-ters) is under complete protection. Of the 18 reservesin this zone, only five are over 1,000 hectares, and onlyone is <?ver 10,000 hectares. Almost all forest reservesin the floristically rich lowland Wet Zone are furthersubject to selective logging. (See Forestry chapter.)

In addition to these in-situ programs that haveplayed the major role in the conservation of Sri Lanka'sbiological diversity, ex-situ genetic conservation effortshave been carried out in botanic, zoological and medic-inal plant gardens. Sri Lanka has three botanic gar-


SINHARAJASinharaja» âvast legendary forest of impenetrable mystery, is becoming something very different, and

very tangible: a model for optimal and sustainable use of a species-rich tropical rain forest The Sinharajaforest is now the sole lowland rain forest in Sri Lanka big enough to have a reasonable chance to conservethe uniquely diverse wildlife of the lowland and midland Wet Zone. As a group of forests, including theSinharaja Reserve and the forest reserves surrounding it. — Morapitiya, Runakanda, Panagala, andDclgoda—it covers 4737O hectares.

The fauna and flora of the Wet Zone forests of Sri Lanka, now reduced to less than 10 percent of theiroriginal extent, are the richest, by far, in all South Asia. The nearest true aseasonal rain forests are inMadagascar and Sumatra. More than 70 percent of the species are found nowhere else. Sinharaja is ofoutstanding value for the conservation of these plants and animals.

Very little of it is truly in the lowlands, and that part has either been selectively logged or degradedby chena agriculture in the past. Although the eastern end reaches almost L500 meters at the HandapanElla Plains, most of Sinharaja is at middle altitudes, between 500 and 1,000 meters. Many lowland speciesreach up to these altitudes and mingle with the true hill species, and unlike the Far East rain forests, inthe Wet Zone of Sri Lanka mid-elevation flora is intrinsically richer in species than in the lowlands.

• Thereason for this condition may be that Sri Lanka is geologically part of peninsular India, long knownto have; once been attached to a former great Antarctic continent, named Gondwanaland. An island ofcontinental dimensions comprising India^ Sri Lanka, and a sunken extension, broke off some 80 millionyears ago. It moved north, across what was then the eastern extension of the Pacific Ocean. The islandhit landfall some 40 million years later, and it has continued moving inexorably northwards, slippingbeneath the Asian plate, as the rumpled carpet of the Himalayas bears testimony. The island continentbroke loose after modern land plants, many modern insects, but only the marsupials among mammafo hadevolved. It was large enough, and was separated for long enough, to allow the evolution of distinct formsof life, rather like a minor Australia;

What were these forms, and do any still exist? We know from the fossil record that the climate ofAntarctica at the time of embarkation must, have been warm and moist - similar to the mid-elevationclimate of Sinharaja. But apart front attAgamid lizard, and the remarkably elegant small tree Hortonia,there is little obvious evidence of Sri Lanka's ancient past The presumably primitive Gondwanan landanimalswereeliniinatedbythe more advanced continental Asian fàunawhen the continents collided. Theisland continent had to pass north through the doldrums, óver whose quiet waters no rain falls. Rainforests in sucîtseasonal regions are confined to the most constantly humid zone, which: us within the cloudbase on the'mountain slopes, usually starting at about 800 meters. The modern Lankan flora couldtherefore be descended from such a time: .

Botanical research reveals that more of Gondwana remains in Sri Lanka than first meets the eye. Thetree tamily parexcellence of moist mountain forests is thé Fagaceae; the oaks. Though there are morespecies of oak in the Himalayas than anywhere else o» earth, not a single Fagaceae exists in South Asia.Acorns, which have little dormancy and are only dispersedmcfdentaDy by animals thafrcollect them to eat,have apparently failed, even after 40-milIioîatyears, to cross south of the Gangetic Plain: In the moistfastne» of Sinharaja, and elsewhere ut the Wet Zone-of Sri Lanka particularly at mid-elevations,

~ extraordmarilyprimittve membersofanotherfamüy, theDtptefocarpaceae, remain-conserved. Currently

I

Biological Diversity

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231

dipterocarps are best known in the Far East, where they supply over half the hardwoods on internationalmarkets. Their ancestors survive in the hills of Sri Lanka. In Sinharaja the dipterocarps, reprecented bymany species in the two endemic groups Stemonoporus, and Shorea section Doona, reign supreme. Theserried crowns of the majestic yakahalu, Shorea gardneri, once mantled the hills throughout the Wet Zone.Now, thanks to tea plantations and other development, the last stands are confined to Sinharaja and thePeak Wilderness, still conveying there an eerie memory of the ancient Gondwana forest. Sinharajatherefore serves as a genetic repository for some of Asia's most important economic plant groups.

IThese unique Lankan Shorea trees, some ten species in alL serve as examples of the other crucial

contemporary value of Sinharaja. Their seeds, rich in vegetable oils» have traditionally been a major foodfor the rural poor, particularly during times of scarcity. Their timber, however, is the leading source ofplywood for tea chests. Sinharaja has therefore become the stage for urgently needed pioneer researchwhich seeks to reconcile modern commercial priorities with: the traditional uses which have served ruralcommunities for centuries. The Wet Zone of Sri Lanka is ideal for such research. On one hand the forestis unique in its biodiversity. On the other the T -anlran people, who over history have become concentratedin the wet lowlands of the southwest, still retain a sustainable system of land and forest use of extraordinarysophistication and intensity — the historical precursor of the celebrated agriculture and home gardensystems found from Indianized Asia eastwards to Bali and the Philippines.

Sri Lanka is a nation of smallholders. In the past, every family- owned its own irrigable land abovewhich, on the lower slopes, was their, artificial forest in which useful forest plants were grown and in whoseshade their homes were built Further above, extended the great forest, property of the king, in whichvillagers by right could harvest fruit, medicinals, cord, fish and game, fuel and occasionally constructiontimber. Although the country is poor, its quality of life has been unusually good in large measure becauseof this ancient pact with the land. But forest logging has put this balance in jeopardy. Unlike traditionaluses, logging is a destructive form of harvesting, and the villagers are only minor beneficiaries. Neverthe-less, many of the plants valuable to villagers prosper in well managed regenerating forests followinglogging.

A group of Lankan researchers have seen the unique opportunities to reconcile traditional rights ofthe rural population with modern requirements of the state that Sinharaja and its neighboring villagespresent Social and biological scientists are working together in the .forest, developing a commonmethodology to address an interdisciplinary challenge. They are documenting the biological resources ofthe forest and monitoring the productivity in nature to determine how the resources can best bemanipulated to yield in perpetuity, without loss of species. Social scientists are for the first time detailingtraditional uses and the methods of harvesting and quantities used; economists are beginning to calculatethe manifold values of the forest in terms of the rural economy, the national economy including timber,water, soil, and tourist values, and also the global value of Sinharaja's irreplaceable genetic resources.

Rising interest in Sinharaja among scientists has-bees matched by th© Lanka» public* thanks inparticular to an articulate and effective private group, the March fovConservationk WUh the participation:;of the scientific: and conservation communities, and help, frontthft Worid Cbnservatiott: Unionj a.conservation master plan for Sinharaja has been prepared ta reconcile th&interests ofaQ Lankans in its*.,natural wealth, while also ensuring its protection in

232. Biological Diversity

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Distribution of Protected Areasby Major Categories

National Parks (WZ)0.2*

Other W R (DZ)14%

Nat

Other W R (WZ)4 .3*

Other N F (WZ)1.4*

Forest Reserves (DZ)37 7 *

ional Parks (DZ)28.3*

Nan Wiiaerness(WZ)0.8%

Crown Forests (DZ)7.5*

Forest Reserves (WZ)5.8%

W R - Wildlife Reserves N F • National Forests

WZ - Wet Zone DZ - Dry Zone

- Separate segments indicate Wet Zone

Figure 10.14

dens, a single zoological garden and a number of me-dicinal plant gardens. The Botanic Gardens at Per-adeniya, established in 1822, contain 10,000 floweringplants belonging to 1,179 different species (Gunatillekeand Wijesundera, 1982), including about 14 percent ofthe local endemic flowering plants. The Botanic Gar-dens are a last refuge for at least five endemic plantsthat have not been found in the wild during this century.

INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTSAND NEEDS

Sri Lanka's great wealth and diversity of biologicalresources has the support of laws and protected areacoverage. Yet all the best evidence shows that here, aselsewhere in the world, biological resources are beingdepleted at unprecedented rates. The values of biolog-ical diversity are among the least appreciated, and, ineconomic terms, poorly valued natural resources. Nosingle step will suffice to include these values in ourthinking and decisions about how to proceed with eco-nomic development. A number of policy initiatives and

improved institutional efforts will be necessary, as dis-cussed below.

Knowledge Base and Analytical Capability

Lack of information and analysis constrains sus-tainable use of biological resources. Current data col-lection and monitoring neglect the needs of policymakers and resource managers to measure conditions,trends, and values of the resources. We lack informa-tion to help us measure management performance andto hold institutions accountable for their actions inprotected areas and in planning and implementing en-vironmentally significant development projects.

In response, scientific studies must document theextent, species composition, and ecological dynamicsof the biological systems to determine trends in biolog-ical productivity, resilience, and current and potentialeconomic and social values. Such data should providebases for more realistic computation of how peoplebenefit from conserving biological resources, and howconservation promotes economic efficiency as well asintergenerational equity.


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Trends in Establishment ofProtected Areas

Extent in Sq km (Thousands)

6 -

1938 1947 1066 1972 1983 1990

National I'.uks Other Protected Ares

Figure 10.15

Providing Economic Incentives

Although biological resources are of immense eco-nomic value, their conservation is only possible if theireconomic values are appreciated by local communities.Yet local communities often lack opportunities andincentives to participate in the sustainable use of bio-logical resources.

Local rights to collection of non-timber forestproducts and other natural products can provide thebasis for sustainable community management and in-creased local incomes. The promotion of low resourceimpact, high revenue ecotourism can provide economicincentives for local people to protect biological diver-sity.

Expanding Awareness

A fundamental barrier to conservation of biologi-cal diversity is the fact that people who earn immediatebenefits from exploiting these resources do not pay thesocial and economic costs of the resource's depletion.

Methods can be developed to quantify the directand indirect values of biological and genetic resources.These values can be translated into meaningful terms

at the local community level. At the national level the

inclusion of biological resources as a capital stock in

national income accounts, provides opportunity for

doing so.

Promotion of Cross-sectoral Collaboration

Numerous government agencies manage biologi-

cal resources in Sri Lanka, including all the agencies

concerned with land and water. Wetlands fall within

the jurisdiction of at least ten or more state agencies.

Genetic resources of cultivated crops and livestock fall

within the purview of many other agencies and minis-

tries. Responsibilities for biological resources, al-

though clearest for forests and wildlife preserves,

remain highly fragmented.

Many of these problems can be solved if agencies

share information, establish common objectives, and

arrive at common définitions of problems and solu-

tions. Program coordination and development of ade-

quate staff, budgets and other resources can follow

these critical initial actions.



Strengthening Protected Area Management

Protected areas remain the most valuable tool forpreservation of species and ecosystems. Although ex-panding protected area coverage remains important,the immediate challenge is to improve the managementof existing areas.

Additional staff training, facilities for basicmonitoring, and incorporation of local people inmanagement and low-impact tourism are among thecritical needs that can be addressed through proposalsto donor agencies.

Policy Shifts

Government policies are a direct cause of deple-tion of biological resources, here as elsewhere, oftendespite good intentions. Policies on land tenure, soilconservation, agricultural development, forestmanagement, and many other less obvious subjectsdirectly or indirectly affect sustainable biological diver-sity.

Opportunities can be explored to increase incen-tives for landowners to protect long-term biologicalresources. For example, removal of subsidies for pes-ticides and agricultural chemicals can help reduceoveruse of fertilizers that pollute soil and aquatic sys-tems. Water quality standards for streams, estuaries

and other waters can be established that are backed upby combined penalties and incentives for polluters.Long-term tenure, or full ownership, may also createpromising incentives. Short-term tenure rights can dis-courage long-term investments in natural resourcemanagement in favor of short-term payoffs.

Incorporating Values intoEconomic Planning

Environmental impact assessment is one of themost valuable tools for incorporating biological diver-sity and environmental considerations into economicdevelopment planning and implementation. Its use re-quires skills largely lacking within the public and privatesector.

Training, both short- and long-term, can helpgovernment agency and private sector staff to analyzedevelopment proposals and alternatives. It can focuson promoting broad understanding of events and im-pacts causing significant environmental changes, howimpacts can be measured, in economic as well as en-vironmental and social terms, and how to grapple withdata gaps concerning biological resources. Agencyheads can be made more familiar with the value ofnatural resource analyses and the importance of effec-tive monitoring and implementation.

References

Abeywickrama, B.A. (1955). The origin and affinities of the flora ofCeylon. Proc. Ceylon Association for the Advancement ofScience Sessions, pp. 99-121.

Abeywickrama, B.A. (1987). The threatened plants of Sri Lanka.UNESCO - Man & the Biosphere National Committee for SriLanka. Publication No. 16. Natural Resources, Energy andScience Authority of Sri Lanka.

Ashton, P.S. and Gunatilleke, CV.S. (1987). New light on the plantgeography of Ceylon. I • Historical Plant Geography. Journalof Biogeography, Vol. 14. pp. 249-285.

De Zoysa, N.D.; Gunatilleke, C.V.S.; and Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N.(1985). Comparative vegetation studies in undisturbed andselectively logged sites in Siriharaja. Proc. 41st Annual Sessionsof Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science,Mimeograph.

Evans, D. (1981). Threatened freshwater fish of Sri Lanka. Extractfrom Red Data Book (Pisces). IUCN Conservation Monitor-ing Centre, Cambridge.

Gunatilleke, CV.S.; Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N.; and Sumithrarachchi, B.(1987). The woody endemic species of the wet lowlands of SriLanka and their conservation in botanic gardens. BotanicGardens and the World Conservation Strategy, eds D. Bam-well, O. Hamman, V. Heywood and M. Synge. Academic Press,London, pp. 183-196.

Gunatilleke, CV.S. and Wijesundara, D.S.A. (1982). Ex-situ conser-vation of woody plant species in Sri Lanka. Phyta, Journal ofthe Botanical Society of the University of Peradeniya, Vol. 2,No. 1.

Gunatilleke, LA.U.N. and Gunatilleke, CV.S. (1990). Fioristic rich-ness in Sri Lanka. Conservation Biology, Vol. 4. No. 1. pp.21-3L

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Kotagama. S.W. (1989). Animal diversity in tropical forests. Proc. ofregional training workshop on the ecology and conservation ofthe tropical humid forests of the Indomalayan realm. NaturalResources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, pp.151-167.

McKay, CM. (1973). Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephantin south-eastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contribution to Zool-ogy, No. 125.

NAS (1980). Research priorities in tropical biology. Committee onResearch Priorities in Tropical Biology. National Academy ofSciences, Washington D.C. 116 pp.

Pceris. C.V.S. (1975). The ecology of endemic tree species of SriLanka in relation to their conservation. Ph.D. Thesis, Univer-sity of Aberdeen. U./JC

Senanayake, F.R. (1980). Biogeography and ecology of the inlandfishes of Sri Lanka. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California,Davis, California.

Sumithraarachchi, B. (1986). A report on steps taken to conserveorchidaceae in Sri Lanka. Phyta, Journal of the Botanical Soci-ety of the University of Peradeniya, Vol. 3, No. 1. pp. 26-41.

Whitmore,T.C. (1984). Tropical rainforests of the Far East. Oxford. University Press.

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236

A typical fishing harbor along the west coast, where fishing is predominant during the northeast monsoon

(from December to March)


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237

11 Coastal and Marine Resources

Sri Lanka's coastline circles along about 1,585 ki-lometers of sandy beaches, extensive lagoons and estu-aries, mangroves, coastal marshes and dunes. Seawardof the coastline lie reefs of coral or sandstone andshallow beds of coastal and estuarinc scagrass. Be-neath and beyond extends the continental shelf. Exceptin the north, where it links Sri Lanka and India, this

submerged plateau reaches outward to 20 kilometers,before it falls away through the continental slope to thedeep seafloor. The continental shelf covers 26,000square kilometers, or nearly half the land area of SriLanka. Sri Lanka's Exclusive Economic Zone coversan even larger area: over 230,000 square kilometers ofthe ocean. (See Figure 11.1)

Coastal and Maritime Jurisdication of Sri

INDIA .-g

CAPECOMORIN ^ / ''Wt ^ ^ r

/

/

( INDIA S

\

\

\

^ ^ ^ ^

ocf>«/wfXCtt/S/Vf

ECONOMIC ZONE

y

Lanka

• \

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

\

' \

iiL

/?

Figure 11.1

238 Coastal Resources


SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COASTAL REGION

• It contains 34 percent of the country's total population and represents 24 percent of the land area.

• It contains the country's principal city of Colombo, the largest six of the twelve Municipal Councilsand 19 of the 39 Urban Councils* .

• Its marine fishery supplied97 percent of total fish production— during 1987-1988 two-thirds of theanimal protein consumed. ->

•- Its exports of fish and aquatic products earned 576 millioitrupees in 1987 and 825 million rupees in• , 1 9 8 8 . . . - - : • • ' . . • ; . • • • • ' • ' • : ' . • , , ; • • • • • • • ' • ' ? - : • • • • ' > • • : \ ; ^ • • : • > > - . : ' : • - • • •

• Sun, sand and surf of its sea beaches are Sri Lanka's major tourist attractions that also offerrecreational opportunities for her people.

• Its natural coastal habitats — coral reefs, estuaries and lagoons, mangroves, tidal flats (salt marshes),and barrier.beaches — are immensely productive, essential fornational growth and richreservoirs ofgenetic resources. • " ^-^^.^^t^Sî^vv-^;" '' ' :

• It hosts over 80 percent of the industrial units located in and around Colombo alone, and several othermajor units elsewhere, many of which are highly polluting^ .

ECONOMIC AND SOCIALSIGNIFICANCE

Over the past five centuries, following foreign oc-cupation, the country's development has been closelylinked to maritime affairs. Expanding internationaltrade and commerce accelerated population shifts tothe coasts. Since Independence (1948), coastal settle-ments grew in size and economic importance, particu-larly in the south, southwest and west. By 1981 thecensus recorded 5.04 million people, or 34 percent ofthe total population, living in coastal Assistant Govern-ment Agent (AGA) divisions, of whom 45 percent livedin urban areas. Fishing, tourism, industry, and agricul-ture sustain the growing economy of the coastal region,defined as the AGA Divisions with maritime bound-aries (see box).

Fishing is the predominant coastal economic activ-ity in the eastern and northeastern coasts during thesouthwest monsoon (from April to August) and in thesouthern and western coasts during the northeast mon-soon (from December to March). The marine fisheryindustry provides full employment to about 80,000 per-sons, part-time employment to about 10,000 more, andindirect employment to another 5,000, contributingabout 1.9 percent to the GDP in 1988. Marine fisheriescontribute most (65 percent) of the animal protein and13 percent of the total protein consumed by Sri Lan-kans. Export of Gsh and aquatic products drew anaverage 616 million rupees in foreign exchange in 1980-1987, or U8 percent of Sri Lanka's total non-traditionalexport earnings. Total export earnings in 1988 were 825million rupees.

Coastal Resources 239

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I

Ten Fishery harbors serve large fishing vesselswith most traditional vessels and smaller Fiberglassboats using beach landings close to fishing villages.Fishermen also use beaches to fish, mend nets, repairboats and build temporary dwelling units.

Coastal agriculture contributed 17 percent to totalagricultural GDP in 1988. Paddy accounted for 70percent, coconut 26 percent, and rubber 2 percent ofthe coastal agricultural GDP. About 55,900 hectares ofcoconut are currently cultivated in the coastal regiondefined by the coastal AGA divisions. Small areas oftea are found in the coastal divisions of Galle, Matara,Colombo and Kalutara regions, and cinnamon is grownin the coastal divisions of Galle, Matara and Kalutaradistricts.

Tourism in Sri Lanka has primarily focused on itsscenic sandy beaches and coastal estuaries and lagoons.About 85 percent of tourist revenue comes from facili-ties in coastal areas, supplemented by the diversity ofattractions in the interior cultural triangle. Today over75 percent of graded hotels and over 80 percent of thehotel rooms are located along the coast.

Once among the fastest growing sectors, tourismdeclined steeply during civil unrest in 1983-1989. Itpeaked in 1982, with an estimated 407,230 arrivals andrevenues of 3,050 million rupees, but then came a sharpdecline in arrivals and revenue until a sharp upwardtrend developed in 1990 (see Figure 11.2). Both highand low projections of tourism to 2000 anticipate over1 million annual arrivals.

Pleasure travel accounts for about 92 percent ofthe total arrivals in Sri Lanka. Business and officialtravel accounts for about 6 percent, while arrivals forother purposes such as social, religious, cultural andeducational account for the balance.

Wildlife resources add to coastal tourist potential.Two large National Parks, Wilpattu and Ruhuna (bet-ter known as Yala), border the coast. Wilpattu, closedin recent years, extends over about 30 kilometers alongthe northwest coast, and Yala borders the southerncoast for over 50 kilometers. Several lagoons andcoastal wetlands serve as bird sanctuaries. A marinesanctuary was declared in Hikkaduwa in 1979, althoughwithout enforcement or sanctuary management.

PRESENT CONDITIONS

The extent and variety of coastal habitats that pro-vide such important economic and environmental val-ues are displayed in Figure 113. All of these values arebeing diminished by various actions that have becomesignificantly more serious over the past twenty years.Coastal erosion has threatened coastal investments,and pollution and competition for resources have de-graded coastal systems in ways that jeopardize long-term tourist, fishery, and other sustainable economicand environmental values. Demographic and develop-ment trends highlight needs for increased attention toeach of these problems and their cumulative effects.

Coastal Erosion. Erosion (see Chapter on LandResources) endangers Sri Lanka's beaches and adjoin-ing coastal land. Wind, waves and currents constantlypound the coasts, diminishing beaches and erodingbluffs. Effects vary from place to place, but they areaggravated by sand mining, coral mining, removal ofvegetation and poorly sited or designed buildings, har-bors and coast protection structures. Since 1981 thegovernment has carried out major coastal erosion pro-tection programs with foreign donor support.

Sand Mining. Mining of sand from beaches andespecially river mouths is causing increasingly seriouscoastal erosion and salt water intrusion, despite permitcontrols exercised by the Coast Conservation Depart-ment. A CCD study found that some 500,000 cubes(1,415,000 cu. ft.) of sand were mined in the coastalstretch from Puttalam to Dondra Head in 1984 - nearlyall (97 percent) from rivers, and nearly two-thirds of itfrom the Kelani Ganga and Maha Oya. Mining pro-vides jobs, at generally high wages, for about 1,900 sandminers and support for about 6,000 individuals. It alsoseriously cuts sand supplies that maintain beaches andshorelines, protect property and roads along the rivers,and prevent intrusion of salt water into the ever-deep-ening rivers. Damage to flood protection bunds in andnear the Kelani Ganga has been attributed to excessivesand mining near the bunds.

Habitat Degradation and Overexploitation of Re-sources. Coastal habitats are under enormous pres-sure because many are small and especially vulnerableto degradation. Puttalam Lagoon, for example, is Sri

I


Tourist Arrivals and Earnings

$ Millions Arrivals Thousands

150 -

100-

5 0 -

H5 0 0

400

300

200

100

I I I I \ 1 I i I I I ! I I i I I I I I I T I I

75767778798081828384858687888990 9192939495969798 2000Year

—+— Tourist Arrivals -&H - High Projection L

Source : P. Seneviratne. Coastal 2000 Report

~ Earnings US $* L°w Projection

Figure 11.2

Lanka's largest estuary, but it is only about 20 kilome-ters long and 2 kilometers at its widest point, covering36,426 hectares. The low tides along our coasts (about75 centimeters) restrict most mangroves to narrow beltsalong the lower reaches of rivers and narrow edges oflagoons and estuaries, so there are no large mangroveforests. Those that exist have become severely re-duced by overuse, abuse, and conversion to other uses.Coral reefs have similarly become badly degraded andtheir productive habitat diminished.

Coastal Pollution. Major sources are oil pollutionfrom shipping and fishing craft, discharge of industrialeffluents, sewage and domestic waste. Five miles offthe southern and southwestern coasts a major interna-tional shipping route carries estimated annual traffic ofover 5,000 tankers, posing risks of an accidental oil spill.Cleaning of fuel tanks in and around ports causes minordischarges that may account for frequent tar balls onsouthwest beaches.

Fecal pollution of beaches and coastal waters (forexample, at Hikkaduwa) comes from temporary hous-ing settlements near the beach or hotels that illegallydischarge raw sewage. Pesticides and fertilizer fromagriculture and inland industrial activities also causecoastal pollution.

Coastal and inland industries contribute chemical,heavy metal, and organic pollutants. Major sources ofindustrial pollution include the Valachchenai paperfactory, which sends quantities of waste into theBatticaloa Lagoon, and the Embilipitiya paper factory,which similarly pollutes the Walawe Ganga estuary.The Lady Catherine Industrial Estate sends large quan-tities of industrial waste into the Lunawa Lagoon. Thelake opens to the sea but sand bars frequently block itsmouth. Once a flourishing fishing lagoon, now it is amosquito-ridden stagnant body of water. At the KelaniGanga estuary pollutants come from a large number oftanneries and other industrial plants. Industrial water



I

Ii

!

I !i i

I >I

District

ColomboGampahaPuttalamKJIinochchiJaffnaMullaitivuTrincomalee

BatticaloaAmparaHambantota

MataraGalleKalutara

TOTAL EXTENT

Source: CCD Internal

Extent of Coastal

Mangroves

39313

3,210770

2,276428

2,0431,303

100576

7238

12

12189

Report No. 13:

SaltMarshes

4973,4614.9754,963

517

1,4012.196

127

318-

185•

23819

Habitats by

Dunes

-2,689

5092,145

--

-

357444--

4

7606

Report on the preparation coastal

District

BeachesBarriersAnd Spits

112207

2,772420

1.103864671

1,4891,3981.099

19148577

11800

in Hectares

LagoonsAnd BasinsEstuaries

3.44239,11911.91745,525

9,23318,317

136,822

7,2354,488

-1,144

87

158017

habitats, 1986

OtherWaterBodies

412205

3,4281,2561,862

5702,180

3651,171

1,526234

783476

18839

Marshes

151,6042,5151,046

1,49194

1,129968894200

80561

91

9754

Figure 11.3

OCA - ,£ O U

200 -

150-

100-

50 -

r» -

Thousands

^ ^

U i i

77 78

Fish Production 1977 -

of Metric Tons

79 80 81

C H Coastal

Source: Fisheries Development Plan,Ministry of Fisheries and AquaticResources

i t i

82 83 84Year

• • Offshore S

1988

85 86 87 88

<E3 Inland

Figure 11.4



350-

300-

250-

aoo-

150-

100-

5 0 -

0-9

Estimated Demand &Targets (1990 -

000 MT

0 91

CD Coûtai S 3 Offahora

Sourea : National Flahaflaa DavalopmanlPlan 18S0 - 1884

92Ysar

• OMP

Production1994)

93 94

3*a - " - Oamand Lina

Figure 11.5

pollution occurring inland from the coastal zone is nowsubject to permit regulation by the Central Environ-mental Authority.

Marine Fishery Resources

Resources and Production. For management pur-poses marine fish resources are classified as coastal(within 40 kilometers of the coast), offshore (40-100kilometers), and deep sea (beyond 100 kilometers).

Today the coastal fisheries provide nearly all (97percent) of the marine fish production, employment(90 percent) and foreign exchange earnings (nearly 100percent). As shown in Figure 11.4 peak productionsince 1977 occurred in 1983 with a harvest of 184,049tons. Production declined thereafter, primarily be-cause of civil unrest in the two major fisheries in thenorth and east.

The last data available — the Fridtjof Nansen Fish-ery Survey in 1978-1980 ~ indicates that areas of highestfish concentrations are found inside or close to thecontinental slope. Highest fish densities occur fromNegombo to Galle, the banks off Hambantota and fromTrincomalee to Mullaitivu. The survey estimated thatannual sustainable yield of coastal fisheries is 250,000tons—about two-thirds of it pelagic species and the restdemersal and semidemersal species. The most avail-

able small pelagic fish are sardines, Indian mackerel,and herrings. Large pelagics include the Spanishmackerel, tuna, barracudas or pompanos. Demersalspecies include prawns, silverbellies, moonfish, ribbon-fish and large demersals such as breams, groupers andsnappers.

By 1988 traditional fishing boats still dominated thefleet of 28,000, but 46 percent were mechanized. As inmany other tropical fisheries, many species are caughtin a single fishery using a variety of gear. Abojut 80percent of total coastal production comes from the gillnet fishery, using both mechanized and nonmechanizedcraft. The once dominant beach seine fishery that con-tributed three-fourths of the total production in the1940s has declined to about 11 percent, as other meth-ods have become more efficient.

Projected Demand and Production Targets. Thegovernment's Fisheries Development Plan seeks to im-prove nutrition through increased fish production. Atpresent per capita fish consumption of 17.52 kilograms,demand for fish is projected to increase 9 percent from1990-1994. The Ministry of Fisheries proposes to meetthese demands and reduce projected imports with a25 percent increase in fish production, primarily fromcoastal fisheries (Figure 11.5).

I


Imports & Exports of Fish& Aquatic Products

2500Value in Millions of Rupees

2000-

1500-

85 86 87 88 90 91 92 93 94

Year

Value Exports

Source : NationI Fisheries OeveiopmentPlan 1990 - 1994

Value Imports Export Targets

Figure 11.6

MT3 0 0

Trends in the Trade of Ornamental Fish

Volume (MT) Value (Rs.M)

Rs. M100

L 8 0

- 6 0

- 4 0

- 2 0

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88Year

Source : Ministry of Fisheries andAquatic Resources

Figure 11.7


Condition of Coral Reefs

KANOAKULIYA ,(NEAR SHORE CORAL

REEF)

KANOAKULIYAISAHO SHORE REEF)

KANOAKULIYA-(SAHO SHORE REEF)

TALAWILA—ICORAL REEF)

TALAWILA-IS AND SHORE REEF)

WELLAWATTA

ISANO SHORE REEF)

AMBALANGOOA(GRANITE ANO SANO

SHORE REEF)

AKURALA

I NEAR SHORE CORALREEF)

HIKKAOUWA-

INEAR SHORE CORALREEF)

BONAVISTA(NEAR SHORE CORAL

LEdlND

V. LIVE CORAL

V. DEAD CORAL

V. SOFT CORAL

I I V. SANO/SÜBSTRAT

•Littl«8<i$it«. • • • * GrtotBoMti

HombontoloTonoalki

REEF) /

WELIGAMA f POLHENA(NEAR SHORE CORAL / (NEAR SHORE CORAL

REEF)I REEF)

MAHAWELLA(GRANITE REEF)

UNAWATUNA(NEAR SHORE CORAL REEF)

MIRISSA NILWELLA(NEAR SHORE GRANITE REEF) (GRANITE REEF)

TANG ALLA(GRANITE REEF)

SOURCE: H AHA

Figure 11.8


ThondoimannarLagoon

Basin Estuaries and Lagoons

3 NonthiKadal

4 Nayaru Lagoon

5 Kokklloi Lagoon

Kuchchanli

7 Ptriyokorochehi8 Sinnakaraehetii

UppuvHI

•Koddlyar Bay

12 wakontal

13 Ullaekall» .Lagoon

14 Up pur Lagoon

15 Vandttoos Bay

16 BatticaloaLagoon

ChllowLagoon

Neçombo 4 2Lagoon

KaluKra 39Logoon

•y

Madampm 37

Raigama Lak»Lak» ,Wllgamo Bay 3'*' 33

Dondra Kalapuwa 'R*kawa Kalapuwa

Figure 11.9

17 yKalapuwa

18 ThirukkovilI Kalapuwa19 Komar»

KalapuwaArugam Bay

•21 OkandawaraBay

22 Palutupan Mahaltvoyo'23 Bundala Lmiaya

v>« Embilikola Lnoya: \ "25 MalaloLavoya\ 26 KoholankoloLtvaya

\ \ -ï* 27 Mono Ltvaya31 30 29 ^Karagan L»voyo' \ %unama Koiapuwa

Ttalamiriyo KalapuwaKahanda Kalapuwa


II

Current Status of Marine Resources. It has beenover ten years since Sri Lanka has assessed its fish stock.Lack of data and inability to assess trends with accuracyseriously affect fishery planning and management.NARA's research has pointed to opportunities for ex-panded fisheries, particularly in the deep sea, andresource constraints, particularly closer in.

Large Pelagics

• Large pelagics (skipjack tuna, yellowfin tuna, billfish, shark, seerfish etc.) in the coastal region arealready exploited at an optimal level. However,small tunas (kawakawa and frigate tunas) thatmainly inhabit the continental shelf area are not yetexploited to the maximum sustainable yield.

• The fishery for large pelagics in the offshore/deep-sea area can be expanded. The stock of thesehighly migratory species appears healthy, based onthe increasing catch, especially from the purseseine fishery in the southwest Indian Ocean.

• From exploratory tuna fishing in offshore/deepseaareas use of multiple gear has resulted in high catchrates, particularly in the south, with the most prof-itable fishing zone 48-160 kilometers off shore.

Small Peiagics

• Sardine stocks (Amblygastersimt ) on the west coastare exploited at an optimal level and no increasedeffort should be permitted, meaning no moreboats, in the small meshed gillnet fishery.

• In contrast, sardine stocks in the south and south-west are not exploited at the maximum level. Fish-ermen can be encouraged to use the small meshedgill nets for sardines in this area.

• The purse seine fishery in the southwest appears tobe maintained at the correct level. The purseseines operating in this area have not diminishedthe sardine stock, the main species caught in thisfishery. But because purse seines are far moreefficient than gill nets, close monitoring is essential.

Crustaceans

• Lobster production in the south declined by nearly50 percent, from 200 metric tons in 1986 to 110metric tons in 1988, indicating serious over-exploitation. About 25 percent of the lobsterslanded are under-sized, and more than 50 percentof those caught during August-September are egg-bearing. Trammel nets (Disco nets) cause consid-erable damage to the lobster resources and NARAhas recommended that they be prohibited in thelobster fishery.

• Prawns on the west coast are exploited at an opti-mal leveL The Maximum Sustained Yield forNegombo is about 152.6 tons and the number ofboat days is 21,200. The present level of prawncatch in the Kalpitiya Lagoon mouth area is alsosustainable.

Foreign Trade in Fisheries and Aquatic Products.Sri Lanka's foreign trade in fisheries and fishery prod-ucts is relatively insignificant. Exports consist ofprawns, lobsters, crabs, ornamental fish, shark fins, allof which come from the marine sector. Imports consistof canned, dried, and maldive fish. Trends in exportsand trade balance (Figure 11.6) show an increasingtrend in the value of exports and imports but the tradebalance has remained adverse. The Fisheries Develop-ment Plan 1990-1994 seeks a trade surplus by increasingexports of fish and fishery products (Figure 11.6).

Ornamental Fishery Resources. The interna-tional aquarium trade has boosted Sri Lanka's orna-mental fishery exports (Figure 11.7). Ornamental fishexports rate third highest in terms of volume and valueof fishery exports (behind prawns and lobsters).Nearly 70 percent of the aquarium fish exported arebrackishwater or marine species. Of the marine spe-cies exported approximately 80 percent are fin fishwhile the balance are invertebrates — corals, bi-valves,holothurians, echinoderms, and so forth. A few largetraders dominate; a list completed in 1984 indicatedthat of the 26 exporters, 3 who dealt primarily withmarine species shared nearly 80 percent of the exporttrade.

Approximately 139 species of marine fish are ex-ported. Included are 29 species of butterfly fish, 13

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Coral Mining

For years coral reefs along Sri Lanka's southwestern coasts have been subject to large-scale destruc-tion from mining of coral for the lime required in the building industry. Activity is particularly intense inAkurala, Seenigama, Kahawa, Warallana and Totagamuwa, between Talpe and Ahangama, Mirissa andMadihe, and in the Rekawa village. Coral reef destruction also occurs in certain areas along the east coast.Mining reduces coral reef barriers against wave erosion, destroys habitat of a large numbers of marinefauna and flora, including economically important fish species, and can eliminate potential for sustainabletourism.

Mining for coral also occurs inland, where large deposits can be found along the southwestern coastalbelt. A survey carried out in 1984 by the CCD from Ambalangoda to Dikwella revealed that 18,000 tonsof coral are collected annually to supply the lime industry. Of this, 30 percent is from mining the reef, 12percent is coral debris and 58 percent is obtained from inland deposits&xdo-economic aspects

A direct benefit from co'ral mining is its generation of employment in mining, collection, transporta-tion, operation of lime kilns, and the gathering of fuel wood. A survey carried out by the CCD in 1990from Ambalangoda to Hambantota revealed that nearly 2,000 persons were dependent on inland andoffshore coral mining and related activities. Over 400 lime kilns exist in the area, of which 178 are locatedwithin the coastal zone under the Coast Conservation Act — 300 meters inland of the coastline. Themajority (90 percent) of the people are aware that coral mining is prohibited by law, but they continuebecause they have no other means of income or because they do not believe in or care about its adverseenvironment impacts.

Lime production is the main source of income of the people in the Rekawa village, where about 80percent of the families are directly or indirectly involved. This, however, is a recent phenomenon. Since1970, severe drought resulted in the decline of agricultural activities and fanners turned to lime productioninstead. Subsequently, due to declining fishery productivity of the Rekawa Lagoon, large numbers offishermen also joined the industry.

Legal and Enforcement Aspects

The Coast Conservation Amendment Act of 1988 imposed severe restrictions on the removal,possession, storing and processing of coral and the operation of lime kilns within the Act's 'Coastal Zone.'Enforcement was immediately hindered because of the socio-economic distress caused to many familieswho depend on these activities for their livelihood.

Unsuccessful efforts have been made for several years to discourage coral mining. Coral miners havenot yet been persuaded to take up other less lucrative employment, for the CCD lacked the mandate orthe resources to provide employment alternatives. Among the agencies that can help do so the coralminers' problem has had low priority. Moreover, to enforce the reef protection provisions, the CCD hasto rely on local police action. Faced with the favorable returns from reef mining, available at least in theshort term, CCD has been unable to obtain the necessary cooperation for enforcement from local politicaland administrative leaders.

In 1990 fresh efforts were launched to provide alternate employment, with the active involvement ofthe Southern Provincial Council and stringent enforcement by the police authorities. Several families inthe Rathgama electorate have already been provided with alternate land and facilities for employment.At the same time police action has intensified against those breaking the reef. Court action has beeninitiated against several operating lime kilns. Yet the problem is far from being solved.

Certain donor agencies have indicated that urgent action is necessary to stop further destruction ofcoral reefs if funding is to continue for CCD programs, especially for construction_of coast protectionstructures. Opposition to coral mining exists within the local rammnnity not involved in it, due to increased

h h iipp g ty ,

environmental awareness. These voices have helped provoke interest by the provincial administration inhalting coral mining. They have become a growing factor favoring CCD's efforts to stop further reefdegradation. • : "r -'" ~ ' '.'''' 'I "' .


III

species of wrasses, 11 species of triggerfish, 10 speciesof angelfish and 9 species of surgeonfish.

Ornamental fish collection often occurs near coral,although fishing in estuaries for some species has in-creased during the past few years. Shallow reefs arefished by skin divers, while deeper areas are exploitedby scuba divers. Collecting is seasonal and dependenton the monsoons. Fishing occurs in the west and south-west during November to March or April and in the eastand northeast from May to October. Many collectorsand exporters report that coral reef fish collected forthe aquarium trade are less abundant now than inprevious years, but accurate data must await bettermonitoring of reef fish population. From collectors'reports population of many species is significantly de-pleted on a seasonal basis, while other species are beinggradually depleted year by year.

Certain species of reef fish collected for the aquar-ium trade have a localized distribution and/or are un-common or rare. We do not yet know whether this is anatural feature of these species or over-exploitation hascaused low density. At least 29 species, including 13species of butterfly fish, are recorded by collectors asrare or uncommon. Heavy exploitation could causedepletion or local extinction.

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs, Sri Lanka's most conspicuous shallowwater marine habitat, are spectacular for the color anddiversity of species they support. At present 171 spe-cies of stony coral have been recorded in the threemajor xeef types: coral reefs, sandstone reefs, and boul-der reefs.

Description and Location. Coral reefs are foundmainly as fringing reefs, except for reefs found on thecontinental shelf off the northwestern coast, includingthe Bar Reef, Vankalai Reefs and Arippu Reef. Fring-ing reefs occur around the Jaffna peninsula and adja-cent islands, Kandakuliya southwards to Thalawila, andfrom Akurala to Tangalle, excluding Dodanduwa andGintota, where the influx of fresh water precludes thegrowth of corals. On the eastern coast they extendsouthwards to Kalmunai, and in the southeast coral

reefs are found on the offshore ridges of Great and ILittle Basses.

Functions and Values. Coral reefs are systems, notobjects — shallow tropical water ecosystems that rankamong the world's most biologically productive anddiverse natural resources. Coral reefs, like tropicalseagrass beds, have primary productivity rates fargreater than terrestrial ecosystems. The open oceannear coral reefs provides most of the catch for thedemersal fisheries industry and huge quantities of fishand invertebrates for the marine aquarium trade. Reeforganisms provide medicinally important compoundsand collectively, as reefs, act as natural breakwatersthat reduce coastal erosion. Coral reefs offer us unsur-passed recreational, educational and research oppor-tunities.

Degradation Trends and Causes. The coral reefsare being steadily destroyed and degraded, althoughsurveys conducted by the National Aquatic ResourcesAgency indicate their condition, measured as a per-centage of live coral cover, varies significantly by area.Figure 11.8 displays the high percentages of dead coralin some locations — about 80 percent at Polhena, nearly50 percent at Weligama, and about 25 percent atHikkaduwa and Akurala. Most of this damage hasoccurred over the past ten to fifteen years. Estimatesof coral condition and losses on the east coast have notbeen obtained due to civil strife; we only have continu-ing anecdotal evidence of loss.

What are the major threats to coral? Reef miningfor manufacturing lime used by the building industry isthe single most destructive action. It has been particu-larly intense in the tourist and fishing areas. Large scalecoral mining was also reported on the east coast duringthe late 1980s. Efforts to stop the destruction have beendiscussed for years, but action has been limited. (Seebox oh coral mining.)

Physically damaging fishing methods that also de-stroy coral include fishing with explosives, Trammelnets to catch reef fish and spiny lobsters, and the prac-tice of breaking coral to net tropical fish. The list ofdamaging causes gets longer still: careless glass bottomboats and anchor chains, clearing of coral reefs for boatpassage, trampling of coral at low tide, souvenir collec-

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

I

IIIIIIII

j

IIIIII(IIIIII

Coastal Resources

tion and sale of coral specimens, and extraction of coralsand for aquariums or fishes for export.

Coral also dies from less visible causes, includingwater pollution from deposition of coconut huskswithin reef lagoons.

Coastal Wetlands

Description and location. Coastal wetlands in-clude the estuaries, lagoons, seagrass beds, mangroves,and salt marshes that surround Sri Lanka and are su-premely important to the nation at large and to itscoastal inhabitants for food, economic life, and count-less intangible benefits. Each system is under stressfrom multiple causes.

Estuaries are partially enclosed bodies of waterhaving free connections with the ocean and withinwhich the seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater from terrestrial runoff. In Sri Lanka estuaries areeither basin estuaries, where rivers discharge into rela-tively shallow basins connected with the sea (Puttalam,Chilaw and Negombo Lagoons), or riverine estuaries,where rivers discharge directly into the sea throughrelatively narrow channels (Kelani, Kalu and NilwalaGanga estuaries).

Lagoons are also brackish coastal water bodies, butthey are either permanently separate from the sea orthey connect with the sea only during part of the year.In fact, many water bodies in Sri Lanka often calledlagoons are really estuaries, including the NegomboLagoon, Jaffna Lagoon, Batticaloa Lagoon, PuttalamLagoon. True lagoons include Mündel Lake, BolgodaLake, Koggala Lagoon, Mawella Lagoon, KalametiyaLagoon, Rekawa Lagoon, Lunawa Lagoon.

Many estuaries and lagoons, shown in Figure 11.9,are closely linked with the major urban centers alongthe coast. As in countless other countries, populationand urban growth around estuaries requires multipleand demanding estuarine capabilities.

Seagrass beds are composed of rooted, seed-bear-ing marine plants (halophytes) occurring in shallow,sheltered nearshore coastal waters and as underwatermeadows in estuaries and lagoons. Seagrasses and theassociated epiphytes and abundant detritus comprise

powerfully productive habitat that supports great com-munities of commercially important fish. Although lo-cations have „ot been precisely m a p p e d , seagrass bedsabound along the coast, most extensively from theDutch Bay to the western end of Jaffna peninsula. AtMannar seagrass beds extend northwestwards towardsRameswaram Island in India. Seagrass beds prosper inmany basin estuaries and lagoons - Puttalam Lagoon,Negombo Lagoon, Mawella Lagoon, Koggala Lagoon,Kokilai Lagoon, Batticaloa Lagoon, and Jaffna La-goon. Twelve species of seagrasses have been re-corded.

Mangroves are salt tolerant, woody, seed-bearingplants, occurring along sheltered intertidal coastlinesand in association with estuaries and lagoons. Theyrange in size from small shrubs to tall trees. Yet man-groves are limited b Sri Lanka, estimated from 6,000hectares to 13,000 hectares, depending on measure-ment standards and methods. In 1968, mangrove coverwas estimated at only 4,000 hectares, but recent remotesensing surveys indicate more extensive coverage, mak-ing trend analysis difficult. Mangrove cover in thePuttalam Lagoon, Dutch Bay, and Portugal Bay com-plex alone is now estimated at 3385 hectares. Accord-ing to land use maps of the Survey Department the arealextent of mangroves in six districts are:

District

Colombo (west cost)

Amparai (east coast)

Gampaha (west coast)

Extent (ha)

9

54

723

Trincomalee (northeast coast) 1,020

Batticaloa (east coast)

Puttalam (west coast)

1,520

2,970

Total 6,2%

The extent of the mangroves in the Jaffna Peninsula hasnot been estimated recently but the peninsula has ex-tensive coverage.

Sri Lanka's low tide, which rarely exceeds 75 cen-timeters, limits the island's mangrove range; mangrovesoccur as a narrow intertidal belt and extend less than a



kilometer landwards from the mean low water tidallevel. Mangroves are discontinuously distributed alongthe coastline and absent altogether along exposedshorelines affected by high wave energy. Mostly theyoccur within embayments and along estuaries and la-goons.

Of the 55 species of mangroves recorded world-wide, 23 species have been recorded in Sri Lanka.These species, only a few of which are trees, fall intotwo broad categories — true mangroves und mangroveassociates.

Salt marsh vegetation consists of herbaceous, salttolerant plants growing in tidal flats or areas periodi-cally inundated by seawater. In Sri Lanka they occurmainly in the north, northwest, northeast, and southeastwhere the dry season is prolonged. In the north saltmarshes occur mainly on exposed tidal Hats and in thesouth mainly in the shelter of sand dunes. Salt marshvegetation in most areas occurs as sparse, short growthinterspersed with scrub mangroves.

Functions and Values. Each coastal wetland sys-tem functions in ways that provide tangible economicvalues to coastal residents.

Estuaries and lagoons, which serve as nutrienttraps and highly productive water bodies, are amongstthe most economically valuable habitats. They supportfishing and employment of thousands of coastal resi-dents. In 1977 for example, 1,684 fisherman dependedon the fishery of the Negombo Lagoon; in 1983 thenumber increased to more than 2,000. Estuaries andlagoons provide seed fish and shrimp for the aquacul-ture industry, and ornamental fisheries that provideimportant employment in Negombo Lagoon, BolgodaLake and Trincomalee Bay.

Their other uses explain why their biological sys-tems have become so vulnerable to degradation. Onone hand estuaries and lagoons are harbors and an-chorages (Negombo Lagoon, Chilaw Lagoon), disposalsites for sewage (Kelani estuary, Negombo Lagoon,Lunawa Lagoon) and industrial effluent (NegomboLagoon, Kelani estuary, Valaichchenai estuary). Onthe other hand they invite recreation (Negombo La-goon, Bentota estuary and Bolgoda Lake) that requiresclean water. Estuaries supply sand that significantly

helps stabilize beaches, but they also supply sand formining (Maha Oya estuary, Kelani estuary, Kalugangaestuary) that can disrupt the beaches over time.

Seagrass beds also support highly productive fish-eries. Most marine fish caught come from nearshorecoastal waters along the northwestern and northeasterncoasts where seagrass beds abound. Among otherfunctions and values: seagrasses bind sediment andstabilize the bottom against erosion, provide habitatsfor the endangered dugong and the protected sea tur-tle, and provide food to several marine organisms.Some species such as parrot fish feed directly on theseagrass leaves, while peneid shrimp feed on the grassdetritus. Certain juvenile fish feed upon epiphytes.One commercially important species in the estuariesand lagoon fisheries — Etroplus suratensis — is foundmainly among seagrass beds.

Mangroves are widely harvested for subsistenceand commercial scale operations. Some species —Rliizophora, Bruguiere, Avicennia — are commonly usedas firewood. People around the Puttalam Lagoon pre-fer the charcoal of Rliizophora for its high heat and lowsmoke. But supplies are threatened; organized extrac-tion of firewood for domestic use (Jaffna, Puttalam),and firing of bakeries (Puttalam), kilns (Batticaloa) andillicit distilleries (Chilaw) cannot be sustained at pres-ent levels.

Other valuable economic uses of mangrove speciesmake a long list. Poles cut from Rliizophora, Bniguieraand Avicennia help in construction of temporary hous-ing, while plaited leaves olNypa are used to thatch roofsin certain areas. In the Bentota area, Cerebra manghasis used to make masks. Fodder, for cattle and goatscomes from Rliizophora and Avicennia, especially dur-ing drought periods, and leaves of Avicennia are some-times used as manure. Ripe fruits of Sonneratiacaseolaris are eaten and at times used to make a bever-age. Tender leaves of Acrostichum are consumed as avegetable. Poles and posts of several species are usedfor construction of fish traps, while Avicennia branchesare heavily exploited in the Negombo lagoon for theconstruction of brush piles (jnas-athu). Tannin ob-tained from the bark of Rliizophora mucronata andcerips tagal is still widely used to tan fishing nets andsails of the traditional fishing craft. Mangrove timber

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Coastal Resources

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is sometimes used to construct the outriggers of tradi-tional craft.

The economic value of these mangrove uses,clearly high, has not been accurately estimated. Wehave not yet reckoned the future costs incurred bycoastal residents if unsustainable abuses cause man-grove stocks to decline.

Salt marshes have their own distinct functions andvalues. In Mannar and Puttalam they are sites forcollection of milkfish fry (Qianos chanos) for brackishwater aquaculture. Like inland wetlands, they alsofunction as bird habitat and as discharge areas thatabsorb storm water runoff. Livestock grazing and hunt-ing of water fowl are carried out on a limited scale inSri Lanka's salt marshes.

Degradation Trends and Causes. Although quan-titative measures of degradation trends are spotty, weknow the nature and causes of the problem.

Several estuaries and lagoons have gradually de-creased in size. In Negombo Lagoon, for example, theeffective water area has diminished by 791 hectares,between 1956 and 1981. The delta area at theAttanagalu Oya inlet has almost doubled during thisperiod, indicating high rates of siltation. Apart fromnatural siltation and sedimentation, human activitiesresponsible for this trend include landfilling to increaseland holdings, encroachment planting of mangroves tostabilize temporary shoals, and garbage disposal. Newpiers, jetties, and bridges restrict the water flow andpromote further siltation. The Lunawa Lagoon and theKalametiya-Lunawa Lagoon have also decreased con-siderably in size from these kinds of activities.

Estuaries and lagoons seriously affected by pollu-tion include the Negombo Lagoon, Kelani estuary,Lunawa Lagoon, Walawe estuary and the BatticaloaLagoon. In the Walawe Ganga estuary and theBatticaloa Lagoon major contamination comes fromthe two state-owned paper factories. Other areas re-ceive industrial effluent, domestic/municipal waste andsewage, and, as in Negombo Lagoon, oil from fishingcraft, boat repair yards, and fuel supply stations alongthe banks. Certain southern lagoons are experiencingincreased nutrient contents due to the rolling of coir,

which leads to the release of nutrients such as nitrogenand phosphorus, causing low levels of dissolved oxygen.

Sand bars restrict water flow, nutrient exchange,and navigation. Sand bar formation can be caused bynatural factors such as sediment transport patterns andrainfall patterns, but several human activities contrib-ute to and aggravate the problem. Several recent riverbasin development/diversion schemes have caused re-stricted and altered flow patterns that have helped formsand bars. Obstructions to navigation have occurred inChilaw Lagoon, Negombo Lagoon, and the Panadura-Bolgoda estuary.

Desalinization has adversely affected several la-goons and estuaries. The salinity of the Kalametiya-Lunawa Lagoons dropped considerably when theexcess water fresh water from the Uda Walawe reser-voir was diverted into the lagoon in 19S0 and signifi-cantly affected the prawn fishery of the lagoon.Reduced fishery potential at Nanthikada has resultedfrom change in the salinity regime and inadequate re-cruitment from the coastal waters.

Conditions and trends in use of the limited man-grove resources have not been measured nationally, butlocal data highlight worrisome trends. For example,mangrove cover in the area from Thambalagam Bay(Trincomalee) to Valaichchenai (Batticaloa) has de-clined by 25 percent.

Conversion of mangrove areas to other uses is thegreatest threat. Partial harvesting of mangroves foractivities described above can be carried out at locallysustainable levels, but conversion of mangrove areas byclearing vegetation and changing topography and soilconditions causes permanent damage.

Mangrove areas are also reclaimed for housing andurban expansion, especially near populated urban cen-ters. In Negombo, for example, about 50 hectares ofmangroves were clearfelled for a national housing proj -ect in 1984.

Impoundment of mangrove areas for aquacultureponds commenced in the early 1980s and since then thenumber and scale of aquaculture projects has in-creased. Over 600 hectares of coastal land betweenChilaw and Puttalam (around the Chilaw Lagoon,


Dutch Canal, Mundal Lake and Puttalam Lagoon)have been developed for aquaculture, but the areas ofmangroves lost are not known. Construction of pondscan require dearfelling of mangroves and building ofsmall dykes with sluice gates to retain water. Man-groves in the areas surrounding the ponds may bedestroyed as well because of major changes in drainage,frequency of tidal inundation, and nutrient flow, as wellas easier access to mangroves by villagers.

Land reclamation for coastal coconut and paddycultivation is the major conversion problem. The nar-row canals dug to drain seawater kill mangroves andreduce productive fisheries in surrounding coastalareas. Canals also adversely change the freshwaterregimes of mangroves that lie seaward of the reclaimedareas.

Beaches and Dunes

Description and Location. Over three-fourths ofthe Sri Lanka coastline is beach-fringed, covering anestimated 11,800 hectares. Most beaches are sandy butthey vary greatly in width and slope. Some barrierbeaches lie across lagoons or marshes and isolate themfrom the sea. Elsewhere incipient barrier beaches formspits that are free at one end, such as the shoals thatbuild up at the mouths of the Maha Oya, Negombo andKaluganga estuaries. Barrier beaches predominatealong the southwestern and southern coasts, with spitsmore common in the west and east.

Spits shift position regularly and change the loca-tion of estuaries' inlets. The inlet of Batticaloa Lagoonhas shifted northward, and the Kaluganga spitillustrates exceptional instability. Some extensive spits,as at Kalpitiya, have been stabilized by the efforts of arelatively large population.

Dunes are windblown accumulations of sand thatremain unstable unless covered by vegetation. Promi-nent sand dunes lie along the northeastern, northwest-ern and southeastern coasts. Extensive dune systemshave developed between Mullaitivu and Point Pedro,between Elephant Pass and Chavakachcheri, acrossMannar Island, between Ambakandawila andKalpitiya, and between Kirinde and SangamukandePoint.

Functions and Values. Distinctive communities ofplants inhabit the beach/dune systems. This vegetationpromotes accretion, binds the sediment, provides mod-erate protection against coastal erosion, and helps barthe transport of sand by wind.

Besides attracting tourists (Negombo, Beruwela-Bentota, Hikkaduwa, Unawatuna, Pasikudah, andNilaveli areas), beaches also act as natural barriers tocoast erosion. They provide nesting grounds for thefive spedes of turtles found in Sri Lanka — Olive Ridely,hawksbilL loggerhead, green, and leàtherback). Seaturtle nesting beaches have been identified at Kosgoda,Mirissa, Kottegoda, Tangalle, Kalametiya, Bundala,Kirinde and Palatupana. Fishing communities tradi-tionally use beaches for beach landing of fishing craft,drying of fish, drying and mending of nets and housing.

A significant economic use of certain beaches(Lunawa, Panadura) is sand mining and the mining ofbeach sands containing heavy minerals such as ilmeniteand monazite (Pulmoddai) for export. (See MineralResources chapter.)

Degradation Trends and Causes. Althoughbeaches are receding in most parts of the island, im-pacts of coast erosion are most severe in the west andsouthwest (see Chapter on Land Resources). Therepopulation and development most often aggravate nat-ural erosion by poorly planned construction, devegeta-tion, and sand mining. These pressures also diminishother habitat and social functions and values of beachesand dunes.

MINERAL RESOURCES IN THECOASTAL ZONE

Minerals have played a minor role in Sri Lanka'scoastal region, although mineral sands might becomeincreasingly significant. This brief profile augments thediscussion found in the chapter on Mineral Resources.

Energy minerals. The only mineral of the energygroup of minerals is peat, found mostly in the 34 squarekilometers of coastal swamp called the Muthurajawelabetween Colombo and the Negombo Lagoon. The 50million ton deposit forms a bed with an average thick-ness of 3-4.5 meters and a maximum thickness of 6


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[ ;

I

II

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Coastal Resources

Diagrammatic presentation of the 'Coastal Zone' as Defined in theCoast Conservation Act

Figure 11.10

meters. Although extensive the deposit is uneconomi-cal as a fuel.

Industrial mineral sands. Scattered around thecoastline near river mouths, in isolated bays, and onraised beaches are large placer deposits of heavy min-erals containing a high proportion of ilmenite, rutile,zircon, monazite and garnet (see Mineral ResourcesChapter). The deposit at Pulmoddai is worked by theSri Lanka Mineral Sands Corporation. A smaller de-posit of about 250 metric tons of beach sand containing50-60 percent ilmenite is found at Tirukkovil, about 70kilometers south of Batticaloa. Three promising de-posits have recently been discovered along the beachesfrom Mullaitivu to Nilaveli on the west coast, estimatedto contain about 3 million tons of ilmenite, 6 million tonsof rutile, and 4 million tons of zircon.

Limestone. The Jaffna Peninsula and the north-western coastal belt contain extensive deposits of sedi-mentary limestone (miocène) deposits. The Jaffnadeposit is roughly estimated at well over 10 millionmetric tons; the deposit at Aruakkaru estimated atabout 18 million metric tons. Their accessibility, largeextent, and purity (CaO = 52 percent) make them

suitable for cement manufacture, carried out at a large

scale in the state factories at Puttalam and, until recent

troubles, at Kankesanthurai.

Seashells. Another source of limestone is the ex-

tensive deposit of seashells which lies between

Hungama and Bundala on the south coast ~ a bed 2.5

to 3 meters thick spread over an of 5 square kilometers.

Estimated at 1 million metric tons, it has high calcium

carbonate content of approximately 98 percent. Shell

beds, commonly found in association with coastal lakes

and lagoons, consist mainly of bivalve shells with a few

gastropod varieties occurring in isolated places.

Coral deposits. These occur as patches and lenses

at various places along the southern and southwestern

coasts, especially between Ambalangoda and Matara.

Similar deposits underlie the miocène limestone depos-

its in the Jaffna Peninsula, Kalkudah, Kichcheveli, and

Delft Island. Deposits largely consist of loosely packed

finger coral, Acropora sp. mixed with other coral types

and molluscan shells.


IIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIII

INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSESAND NEEDS

Overall responsibility for coastal resource manage-ment vests with the Coast Conservation Department(CCD) under the Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of1981. Within the narrow coastal region defined by theAct (see Figure 11.10), CCD formulates and im-plements coast conservation projects, regulates devel-opment through permits, evaluates developmentproject impacts through discretionary environmentalimpact assessments, prepares and implements aCoastal Zone Management Plan, and conducts re-search in cooperation with other agencies.

CCD's mandate is unusual among government in-stitutions because it was designed to cross over and helpcoordinate the sectoral management authority of manyother agencies. It can do so because it exercises regu-latory authority over new coastal development. Inpractice it meets its mandate through frequent andinformal interagency discussion and coordination.

This cross-sectoral authority becomes critical, be-cause in addition to CCD's functions, other agenciesexercise significant coastal jurisdiction:

• The Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resourceshas major responsibilities for fishery resources andefforts within and outside of the coastal zone;

• The National Aquatic Resources Agency(NARA), situated within the Ministry, was estab-lished in 1981 to carry out broad research anddevelopment, monitoring, and research coordina-tion functions concerned with Sri Lanka's marineand inland aquatic resources.

• The Urban Development Authority (LJDA) exer-cises comprehensive management authority overdevelopment within and outside of the coastalzone, including all areas within one kilometer of thecoastline, which it has designated as "urban." De-tailed land use plans have been developed for somerapidly growing urban centers (Colombo,Ambalangoda, Hikkaduwa) with others in prog-ress. All building construction within coastal areasrequires a permit from the UDA or its authorizedagent.

• Other more specialized development-orientedagencies operating in the coastal zone include theSri Lanka Ports Authority, the Sri Lanka LandReclamation and Development Corporation, Cey-lon Fisheries Harbours Corporation, and theGreater Colombo Economic Commission. Otheragencies, like the Ceylon Electricity Board with itsrole in developing thermal electric generatingplants, can exercise significant jurisdiction overcoastal resources.

• The Central Environmental Authority exercisesbroad coastal and nationwide jurisdiction over air,water, and land pollution through environmentalstandards and permit regulation, as well as naturalresource and environmental policy generally.

Sri Lanka exhibits all the pressures of developmentand population density that threaten coastal resourcesin every part of the world. It is blessed, however, with.unusually farsighted coastal legislation. CCD's estab-lishment of a regulatory program, and completion of acoastal plan have made rational management of coastalresources possible, and possibly easier than manage-ment of many inland resources. On the other hand,CCD's task is made difficult not only by the usuallimitations of staff and resources, but more so by itslegally limited jurisdiction—2 kilometers out to sea, 300meters inland, and 2 kilometers inland for rivers andestuaries. Given the ecological and hydrological sys-tems and adverse development impacts that respect nosuch artificial boundaries, coastal management re-quires complex interagency coordination and agree-ment.

Looking beyond the bureaucratic challenge, how-

ever, CCD sees its success increasingly tied to its ability

to work through local communities and interests whose

economic and social self-interest requires sustainable

coastal development. Efforts to conduct coastal man-

agement through smaller units and at grass-roots levels

will require substantial public education and new op-

portunities for employment and income generation that

will maintain coastal resources and productivity for

future generations.

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Among other valuable functions, wetlands support Sri Lanka's diverse bird population.

256


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257

12 Inland Aquatic Resources

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Sri Lanka is said to possess three hectares of in-land lentic water for every square kilometer of land (deSilva, 1988) — one of the highest densities of inlandlakes, tanks, ponds, marshes and other still water avail-able for any country in the world. The values of suchaquatic resources, particularly wetlands andfloodplains, have received increasing attentionworldwide over the past twenty years. An internationaltreaty convention (Convention on Wetlands of Interna-tional Importance, Ramsar, 1971) to which Sri Lanka isa party, seeks to protect wetlands and associatedfloodplains to feed people, protect them from floodsand pollution, and sustain wildlife. A growing body ofnational laws, institutions, and scientific and manage-ment information is being successfully applied for sus-tainable development of inland aquatic resources inevery continent.

Despite the extent of its inland aquatic resources,Sri Lanka shares with the rest of the world a need toknow more about them and manage them better. Thischapter highlights what we know, and need to know,about the functions and values of Sri Lanka's inlandaquatic resources and the impacts and trends affectingtheir condition and future.

At the outset, efforts to understand these aquaticresources and habitats suffer from lack of basic defini-tions and classifications. Long-term resource manage-ment requires classification that will help planners andmanagers in the public and private sector identify anddistinguish the hydrological and environmental charac-teristics of inland tanks, paddy fields, rivers, lakes, orflood plains. An attempt is made here to develop aframework for appropriate classification that, oncerefined, can facilitate the gathering of scientific datanecessary to support wise use of our water resources.

Unlike coastal ecosystems, inland aquatic resour-ces are not subject to influence of ocean tides. Yet theyare essential breeding, rearing and feeding grounds for

many species of fish and wildlife important in the coas-tal region as well as inland. They play a major role inregulating flood waters, controlling pollutants andstabilizing shorelines. Inland tanks and reservoirs inparticular, have provided the basis for the system ofirrigated agriculture that has existed in the countrysince the sixth and fifth century B.C.

Sri Lanka's inland aquatic resources may be clas-sified into rivers and streams, deepwater habitats andwetlands (Figure 12.1). Rivers and streams aregenerally characterized by flowing water. Deepwaterhabitats, on the other hand, are permanently floodedbodies in which water is the dominant medium of theliving organisms.

In contrast, wetlands are habitats inundated byshallow water or possessing saturated soil conditionsfor a part of the year. Soil, vegetation, and air — notwater alone ~ are the living medium for a wetland'sorganisms. The boundary between wetlands and deep-water habitats is considered at two meters below lowwater, because that represents the maximum depth inwhich emergent plants usually grow. Wetlands, asdefined here, include habitats that support cultivatedhydrophytes, such as rice paddies.

AQUATIC HABITATS OFSRI LANKA

Rivers and Streams(Riverine)

The 9 major rivers and 94 smaller rivers that drainSri Lanka have a total collective length of around 4,560kilometers. These river systems can be classified intothree types, based on gradient of the river bed, andvelocity and permanence of the water:

• slow-flowing perennial, usually confined to thelowlands where the gradient is flat and the flow ofwater is sluggish, such as the Maha Oya andDeduru Oya;

258 Inland Aquatic

Classification of Inland Aquatic Systems of Sri Lanka

SYSTEM

r— RIVERS & STREAMS (Riverine) —

INLAND —AQUATICRESOURCES

Habitats contained within a channel.

— WETLANDS (Palustrine)Floodplains and shallow-waterhabitats dominated byvegetation or those < 2 m depth

at low water levels or < 8 ha ofsurface.eg. riverine marshesnon-riverine marsheswet montane grasslandsswamp forests village,tanks ponds rice paddies

'— DEEP WATER (Lacustrine) —dammed river channel :> 8 ha area

SUB-SYSTEM

[-SLOW FLOWING (Lower Perennial)Gradient low and water velocitylow, water flows throughout year;substrate consists mainly of sandand mud; floodplain fairly developed.eg. slow flowing perennial riversand streams

-FAST FLOWING (Upper Perennial)Gradient high, velocity of water fast; waterflows throughout the year; substrate of rock,cobbles or gravel; little floodplain developed.eg. fast flowing perennial rivers and streams

— SEASONAL (Intermittent)Water flows for part of the yearjwhen water isnot flowing, it may remain in isolated pools, orsurface water may be absent.eg. seasonal streams

rDEEPWATER (Limnectic)Deep water habitats withinlacustrine system; 2m depthat low water leveleg. perennial reservoirs/tanks

-SHALLOW FRINGE (Littoral)Wetland habitats within lacustrinesystem: extends from shorewardboundary of deepwater habitatto depth of 2m.eg. reservoir/tank fringe wetlands

Figure 12.1

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Inland Aquatic 259

• fast-flowing perennial, mainly confined to the hillcountry where the gradient is steep and flow ofwater fast, such as the Kotmale Oya and BehihulOya;

• seasonal, where water is confined to small isolatedpools in the river bed or completely absent duringthe dry season, such as the Wasgomuwa Oya andBodigoda Aru.

Wetlands(Palustrine system)

Wetland systems consist of extensive marshes con-nected to rivers or seasonally flooded and isolated fromrivers, and many small permanent or seasonal ponds,swamps and other water-dominant and water-in-fluenced habitats. About 95 percent of Sri Lanka'sinland freshwater wetlands are man-made, comprisingmainly rice paddies and village reservoirs.

The depth, duration, chemistry and temperature ofthe water, and cultural practices determine the natureand productivity of wetlands - the amounts and typesof vegetation and fish, molluscs, birds, crustaceans,insects, worms and micro-organisms which find foodand shelter in the substrata and within the vegetation.Floods, droughts, frost and high winds are among theimportant events that shape the natural ecosystems.

Because of their steep gradients, most of SriLanka's rivers and streams, particularly in the south-west, have not developed extensive floodplains. Theyare usually characterized instead by narrow, restrictedfloodplains along most of their length and notably nearthe river mouths.

Floodplains associated with rivers

Floodplains associated with rivers are best repre-sented along the Mahaweli Ganga, Kala Oya andModaragam Aru (Fernando, 1971). The most exten-sive, the Mahaweli Ganga floodplain, occupies around50,000 hectares of the eastern lowlands. Much of thisfloodplain has a natural or semi-natural vegetationcover consisting of a complex array of diverse habitats.Inland freshwater habitats include small streams,riverine marshes, seasonally flooded swamp forests andseasonal tanks. The coastal saline habitats include es-

tuaries and deltas, mangrove swamps and intertidalmud flats.

These habitat types have intricate interrelation-ships between biological and hydrological charac-teristics. The riverine marshes or 'villus' occupy naturaldepressions between the levee ridges of the channels ofthe Mahaweli and its various active or former dis-tributaries, or between these levee ridges and the ad-jacent upland areas. They directly connect to the riverby narrow channels. During the dry season, when theriver is low, much, but not usually all of Sdllu' water mayflow out to the river through these channels.

Coastal habitats near the river mouth, includingmangroves and mudflats, coastal waters and productiveestuaries, depend on the upland wetlands of thefloodplain for their nutrients, hydrological regime, andwater quality. The river, floodplain and associatedcoastal ecosystem form interdependent parts of a com-plex hydrologie system.

Not far inland along the western coast, the 60-hec-tare Bellanwilla-Attidiya marsh is one of the fewremaining freshwater wetlands near Colombo and isanother example of a wetland system associated with ariver. Located in the floodplain of the Bolgoda Lake,which is connected to the Bolgoda Ganga, it was partlycultivated with paddy until about 1980. Now it consistsof shallow freshwater ponds, marshes and seasonallyflooded grassland with scattered scrub and small trees.Although Bolgoda Lake is brackish and subjected totidal fluctuations, the Bellanwila-Attidiya complex liesaway from the river mouth and has a fresh water condi-tion with major contributions from overland drainagesand seepages. The marsh supports a variety of water-birds in small numbers, and is an important roostingsite. The open water is covered with floating weeds likeSalvinia molesta and Eichomia crassipes, while the frin-ges contain low reeds and grass.

Floodplains isolated from rivers

Marshes within the Wilpattu National Park repre-sent seasonally contracted floodplains isolated fromriver systems. They are formed in shallow depressionswhere local runoff collects over an impermeable layeror where water percolates through a thin layer of soilfrom the underlying limestone. About 40 'villus,' totall-

260 Inland Aquatic

WETLAND

FLO

W R

ATE

-

RAIN

III

—

FLOOD STORAGE AND

. Higtttr Flood/HigMrPlow«

TIME

CONVEYANCE

<ntf\on

t1i

weilond

no wetland

Figure 12.2

ing perhaps around 100 hectares in the park, are mostlyfresh water. Several are saline even though they haveno surface connection with the sea. A wide slopingbeach-like fringe surrounds these Villus' to form effec-tive catchments. A variety of waterfowl and mammalsare concentrated in and around these water bodies.

Wet Montane grasslands

These grasslands are best represented at HortonPlains, which lies at an altitude of 2,100 to 2,200 meters.The 2,000 hectares of wet montane grasslands in thevalleys and lower slopes are interspersed with patchesof thick montane forests on upper slopes and hill crests.These grasslands are a plagioclimax community, main-tained by frequent fire and grazing (Koelmeyer, 1957).The plains receive southwest and northeast monsoonsand are drained by tributaries of three major rivers, theMahaweli, Walawe and Kelani Gangas. At the head-waters, the beds of these small tributaries are coveredwith peaty moss. The streams have no indigenous fish,and the rainbow trout introduced at the beginning ofthe century is the only fish species. Stream fauna isdominated by detritus-feeding animals.

Swamp forests

These forests occur on seasonally flooded soil inthe floodplains of major rivers such as the Mahaweli,

and are located between the levees of the river and the'villus'. Extending up to two kilometers from the leveesthey are characterized by the presence of water or moistconditions for about three to four months of the year.Because so many have been converted to rice paddies,Sri Lanka has fewer large swamp forests than otherAsian countries. Swamp forests occupy less than fivepercent of the floodplain area of the Mahaweli Ganga.These forests have a high density of understorey speciesincluding rattan Calamus rotang.

Only remnants still remain in the Wet Zone, yeteven these have great scientific importance. A smallpatch of swamp forest in the floodplain of the KaluGanga near Bulathsinhala is the last refuge for two ofthe island's rarest endemic plant spec ies ,Stemonoponis moonlii and Mesua stylosa (Gunatillekeand Gunatilleke, 1983). This swamp forest is largelyunprotected and privately owned.

Village tanks and ponds

Tanks are small, shallow flooded areas formed byrainwater collected in man-made or natural landdepressions or by overspill and seepage from irrigationchannels. The man-made village tanks are generallyless than 12 hectares in surface area and resembleswamp marshes because they either run dry during the


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drought or have low water levels from July to Septem-ber. About 12,000 operational village tanks now ir-rigate some 269,000 hectares mainly in the Dry Zone,and, to a lesser extent, in the intermediate zone. Insome localities the density of tanks exceeds 0.56 tankswithin a square kilometer. Sri Lanka's traditional so-cial, economic and cultural life has been closely knitwith village tanks. (See Heritage Chapter.)

Ponds are small and shallow depressions filled byrainwater and created by human developments such asexcavations, road construction, gem mining, and soforth. Because so many gem pits have been createdillegally they have not been filled or reclaimed aftermining. Their small size and great de pi h makes themfar more harmful than beneficial, Kini» traps forwildlife and breeding grounds for malaria-carryingmosquitoes. An estimated 1,000 such .ikiridoncd pitslie within the Wasgomuwa National P.irk .done.

Rice paddies

In addition to the natural wetlands. Sri Lanka hasover 850,000 hectares of rice paddies which are sup-ported by the extensive and intricate system of man-made irrigation tanks. The paddy lands provideimportant habitat to waterbirds, and over 2,400kilometers of irrigation channels connected to tanksprovide additional wetland habitat.

Deepwater Habitats

The only inland deepwater habitats are irrigationtanks and reservoirs. Of the approximately 3.500 func-tional deepwater tanks and reservoirs in the country,only about 70 exceed 300 hectares in surface area. Thetotal surface area of these man-made lakes exceeds170,000 hectares. In recent years however, major reser-voirs have been built in the hill country, particularly forhydropower generation, the largest being Victoria,Randenigala, Kotmale, and Castlercigh. These hillcountry reservoirs may reach over 4<) meters in depthat full capacity. All have precipitous slopes.

In contrast, the ancient reservoirs are generallyshallow, having even, small gradients and a mean depthat full capacity that rarely exceeds 15 meters. Morethan 80 percent of the island's inland fishery productioncomes from these new and ancient reservoirs (de Silva,1988).

261

FUNCTIONS AND VALUES

Inland aquatic habitats perform significantecononnc and environmental functions. What they doand how well they do it depends on their particularhydrological, biological, and physical characteristics.Hydrology drives the systems, however, and largelydetermines the functions and efficiency of the habitatsand their processes. Based on the seminal work carriedout in the United States by Adamas and Stockwell,which has gained international recognition (TUCN Bul-letin, 1989), the critical functions of Sri Lanka's aquaticsystems are described below.

Flood storage and conveyance

Riverine marshes and adjacent floodplains formnatural waterways that convey floodwaters fromupstream to downstream locations. Floodplains andwetlands, as well as deepwater habitat, store floodwaterand release it slowly, thereby lowering flood peaks andprotecting downstream areas (see Figure 12.2). Reser-voirs and tanks are massive regulators of water, storingexcessive rainfall during the monsoon periods andmaking it available for irrigation when and where re-quired.

In urban areas subject to rapid storm water runoffand flooding, wetlands, particularly in the southwesterncoastal zone, provide especially valuable service as"sponges" able to absorb floodwaters for later slowrelease. As such they serve as highly effective buffersagainst property damage.

Although this function is often recognized, effortshave not been made in Colombo or other urban areasof Sri Lanka to measure these wetland flood controlcapabilities, their economic benefits, and the costs ofalternative flood control measures such as larger stormdrains or flood control structures. In a well-knownstudy of flood protection options in Boston, USA, afederal government agency determined that loss of wet-lands associated with the Charles River would causeflood damage averaging 17 million US dollars a year(State of the Environment, Conservation Foundation,1987).

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Trends In Inland Fishery Production

P*rc*nt

20

'S3 '79 'SO '83

Source: De Silva, 1988

Figure 12.3

Fishery production

Nearly all fish need shallow waters (wetlands orponds) at some stage of their life cycle, to spawn, feed,or avoid predators and extreme environmental condi-tions. Studies have shown that two-thirds of the fishconsumed in the world depend on coastal wetlands atsome stage of their life, and freshwater fish dependsimilarly on inland wetlands and deepwater habitats.

In ancient Sri Lanka, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, andfreshwater marshes were recognized as productivehabitat for inland fisheries. Records reveal that inlandfisheries were economic enterprises accepted both so-cially and culturally (Siriweera, 1986). The earliestreference to fishing in reservoirs and canals is found inPerimiyankulam rock inscriptions (A.D. 65-109) out-side Anuradhapura. The inscription refers to a tax onfish. Such a tax on inland fisheries seems to have con-tinued throughout the first millennium, during whichtime the state, village assemblies, and private in-dividuals exercised proprietorship. Fish in large reser-voirs and channels constructed by the state were ownedby the king, and those he allowed to fish paid a tax.Village assemblies had proprietorship of fish in thevillage irrigation works considered as common proper-ty. Fish harvested from these tanks were divided

amongst the villagers in proportion to the paddy landheld by each villager. Private individuals owned smallponds and channels that led to their own paddy fields.The ponds were constructed by individuals in theirhomesteads to breed fish. Inscriptions suggest that thetax on fish was abolished sometime in the twelfth cen-tury A.D.

Prior to 1960 inland fishery production in thecountry was negligible, but today tanks and reservoirsaccount for 20 percent (or 27,000-30,000 metrictons/year) of Sri Lanka's total fish production. Meanproduction from the reservoir fishery is presently about307 kg/ha/yr. Production from individual reservoirsvaries from 40 to over 500 kg/ha/yr (de Silva, 1988).This growing fishery largely depends on a single exoticspecies, the cichlid Oreochhromis mossambicus, whichwas introduced into the country in 1956 (Figure 123).In some reservoirs studied (Figure 12.4) production hasincreased fivefold or more over a six-year period. Withihe decline of the deep-sea and coastal fisheries itsimportance is expected to grow further. The increasein inland fishery production resulted largely from theconcerted effort made by the government to promoteSri Lanka's inland capture and culture fishery as anintegral part of rural development (Figure 12.5).

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Inland Aquatic 263

Trends in Fish Production in Selected Reservoirs

NACOOMOUW» MINNCRIYA

uoAw*ua«E SCNAN«»KE SAMUOH«

Figure 12.4

INCREASE IN RESERVOIR FISHING EFFORTS

i

IIIIf, ;

£ 3

I978 '79 '80 '81YEAR

'82 ' 8 3 ' 8 4

Source: De Silva, 1988

THE OVERALL MEAN EFFORT IN RESERVOIR FISHERY HAS INCREASED FROM 0.019 BOATS/HA IN1978 TO 0.050 BOATS/

HA IN 1984, NEARLY A THREE-FOLD INCREASE IN SIX YEARS. HOWEVER INCREASE IN EFFORTS IN THE RESERVOIRS

NOT BEEN BASED ON ANY CONSIDERATION OF THE MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD (MSY). THIS COULD

HAVE IMPLICATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF RESERVOIR FISHERIES.

Figure 12.5

264 Inland Aquatic


Although data concerning river fish fauna islimited, Sri Lanka's rivers do not, and apparently neverdid support a viable commercial fishery. Yet riverine'villus' that form part of the river floodplain are highlyproductive, and excellent spawning and nurseryhabitats for many fish species, both commercial andnon-commercial. Few studies have been carried out inthese habitats, but Fernando and Indrasena (1969)reported that in selected Villus' in the Mahaweli Gangafloodplain catches ranged from 35-70 kg/ha/yr. Mendis(1977) estimated that riverine marshes have a totalpotential annual fish production of 450 tons, about onepercent of the country's total annual freshwater fishproduction.

Wildlife habitat

Inland aquatic habitats, particularly wetlands, areamong Sri Lanka's most valuable wildlife habitats.They offer the most critical habitat components of food,water, and often cover as well. Structural diversity ofvegetation, water, and open spaces maximizes the'edges' that are so productive to wildlife. Floodplainsalong permanent streams and rivers provide hospitablehabitat for migrating birds, deer and elephant.

The Mahaweli Ganga floodplain, including its as-sociated riverine marshes and swamp forests, supportsthe greatest animal biomass density of all habitat typesfound in the country. Of particular importance is itsvalue as elephant habitat because of the abundant foodand water. Over 500 elephants (or one-sixth of theisland's estimated wild population) use the floodplainas a corridor between the wet season feeding and dryseason watering grounds. The Mahaweli Gangafloodplain occupies a relatively small part of the north-east region, however, and it is extremely vulnerable tochange and external influence.

Other aquatic habitats also support major elephantpopulations. The environs of Senariayake Samudrasupport a population of 250-300 elephants, while threesmall tanks (Lahugala, Kitulana and Sengamuwa)within the 1,500-hectare Lahugala-Kitulana NationalPark are visited by over 150 animals. The reservoirswithin the Maduru Oya National Park also support150-200 elephants. These numbers underline the im-portance of aquatic habitats and their natural sur-

roundings for the future survival and maintenance ofelephant populations in Sri Lanka.

As developed countries have often learned toolate, urban wetlands provide recreational open spaceand attractive habitat for birds and wildlife. Among itsother important functions, the Bellanwila-Attidiyamarsh in Colombo represents one of the last largeparcels of open space and wildlife habitat in the district.

Livestock and grazing

Water buffalo and cattle depend on aquatichabitats for grazing, particularly the tanks andfloodplain marshes of the Dry Zone. Usually 50-80percent of the drawdown of exposed zone of the inun-dated floodplain and tanks after flood stage lowering isavailable for grazing. The large amounts of dung left bythe grazing animals are an important nutrient input intothese aquatic systems.

Floodplains of the Mahaweli Ganga support anestimated 50,000 buffalo and cattle. Although we lackinformation on trends in livestock populations in theMahaweli Ganga floodplain, TAMS (1980) postulatedthat the carrying capacity for livestock in the floodplainhad declined considerably over the previous twodecades, due to altered river regimes or overgrazing.

Water supply

An intricate network of rivers and streams, wet-lands and deepwater systems provides most of thewater for irrigation, domestic uses and hydropowerproduction. Tanks and reservoirs irrigate over 500,000hectares of land have an aggregate installed generatingcapacity of 938MW (1988) and produce 27,000-30,000metric tons of fish on an annual basis, thereby con-tributing substantially to the country's economicgrowth.

IMPACTS AND TRENDS

The functions and values of inland aquatic systemshave been substantially modified in Sri Lanka sinceancient times. Many of the changes are obvious - damshave converted miles of major rivers into still reservoirs,settlements have vastly changed floodplain habitat,developments have filled wetlands, upstream land usesilts up reservoirs and irrigation systems, and pesticides

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Inland Aquatic 265

and fertilizers degrade tanks and harm fisheries. How-ever, discussion of these and other impacts suffers fromlack of precise data on their economic and environmen-tal effects. Evidence is often anecdotal and oftrepeated.

The crux of our problem is that we know too littleabout the functions and values of inland aquatic resour-ces and cannot adequately measure their benefits.Similarly, we cannot accurately determine the costs oftheir degradation or destruction. Measurements be-come important when deciding upon new projects orneeds for urban and rural planning. The discussion ofimpacts below points out these deficiencies.

Impoundments and diversions

Impoundments and large-scale Ji\ersions of freshwater from rivers have been buffers jujinst extremehydrological events such as floods and drought that cancause major socio-economic disasters. Along withthese and other substantial benefits (hey also bring neweconomic and environmental risks.

Flood control bunds, like those along the KelaniGanga, are traditional flood protectors usedthroughout the world. Although the bunds protectsurrounding areas from flooding, they also increaseflood heights and velocities within the river channels.As sediment deposits within the channels the river bedrises as well, possibly requiring higher bunds. Theresult is that with any breach of the flood cont rol bundsthe risks to human life and property can become in-creasingly severe. Risks of breaches and high lossesare further aggravated by increasing settlements on thebunds. Breaching of the Kantalai dam recently resultedin a number of human deaths and the destruction oflarge amounts of cultivated land.

Net gains in deepwater habitats -- tanks and reser-voirs have taken place in the last ten years. Around25,000 hectares of deepwater bodies have been createdduring the last decade, around two-thirds of which arein the Mahaweli areas. The extensive network of reser-voirs and irrigation channels in the Mahaweli basin nowserves around 300,000 people. These systems haveradically altered the hydrologie regime in ways notentirely beneficial. Flooding of the Mahaweli's riverinemarshes will be reduced by 50 percent (TAMS, 1980).

In the Kalawewa area the Mahaweli Program con-solidated a total of 214 small seasonal tanks, covering asurface area of 3,000 hectares, into permanent waterbodies for a new irrigation system. The result: a net lossof around 900 metric tons of fish production annually(Weatherly and Arnold, 1977). The fresh water flow atthe mouth of the Mahaweli at Koddiyar Bay was ex-pected to be diminished by around 50 percent (TAMS,1980). Effects of these changes on wildlife, bird andfish populations have not been measured.

Sedimentation

The condition of wetlands and deepwater habitatsusually depends on catchment systems in the upperbasin. As discussed in other chapters, improper landuse and agricultural practices in the upper watershedschange the amount, timing and quantity of water, andincrease soil erosion. Cultivation on the edges ofstreams and rivers has occurred throughout thecountry, despite requirements of the Soil ConservationAct for stream bank buffers. More than twenty yearsago the Water Resources Board estimated that along122 miles of stream in the Kumbalwela Korale area only17 percent of the required statutory buffer acreage wasretained (Interim Report of Land Commission, 1986).

Anecdotal evidence suggests that damage to lifeand property caused by this land degradation has in-creased and occurs more frequently. The floods andlandslides experienced in the southwest part of thecountry in 1989 affected over 225,000 people and leftover 300 dead. Funds needed to rehabilitate the af-fected people, not the land itself, were approximately120 million rupees. (See Land Resources chapter.)

Conversion to alternate uses

Wetlands located in the southwest and coastalregions of the country have been drained, filled andreclaimed to provide new land for agriculture, housingand commerce. These projects have, however, sig-nificantly impaired flood drainage, resulting in damageto housing, property, agricultural land and roads.

In the last two decades nearly 70,000 hectares oflow-lying marshy areas have been filled or identified forreclamation. Of these, some 16,000 hectares were inthe southern and southwestern sectors of the island(Second Interim Report of the Land Commission

266 Inland Aquatic

MIJTHÜRAJAWELA MARSHES - NEGOMBO LAGOON

PREPARING A MASTER PLAN

Just north of the Kelani Ganga estuary lies the Muthurajawela marsh - approximately 3,000 hectaresof largely undeveloped marshy land just seaward of the major industrial areas of Northern Colombo.Some 400 years ago Muthurajawela was an alluvial flood plain and fertile paddy land. The 3,000-hectareNegombo Lagoon, adjacent to the north, was then the island's foremost seaport and commercial centerfor the Kotte Kingdom. Subsequently Dutch and then British engineers divided Muthurajawela andradically changed its hydrology by many ill-planned, canals, sluice gates, embankments, and roadways.Today Muthurajawela is a marshy water retention area largely uncultivable and heavily infiltrated by salinewater, yet it still serves* many uses. Negombo Lagoon is no longer the center of commerce for western SriLanka, but it remains a highly productive estuary and important commercial fishing center;

- Like many other marshes around the world close to industrial and human, settlements, pressuresmount to develop Muthurajawela for housing and commercial uses. It lies within the Gampaha districtwhose population of nearly 1.4 million in 1981 has grown annually by LS percent. Planners expect thedistrict to reach 2.7 million by the year 2001. To many the Muthurajawela marsh has appeared ideal as asite for residential and commercial development and disposal of wastes». Proposals for substantial fillingand construction were recently formulated for government approval, which promptednew concerns aboutthe effecton the functions and values of the marsh. In response, Hi& Excellency President of Sri Lanka,g; PfrBmariiffl^ aimfOTmyH in mîrj-1ORQ that hf. wniiltj "frf^ft a!f î?iîpii^f.Mtprnp«^tVnfTyyh-thiy pnfrtig

amt privat«* serfnr^!1 until an> <>nvironnTRnta.lIy snnnd tna.<ftçr plan;fratfr:jiîi'nfy.pg;rref' Responsibility for

the plan was: placed with the Greater Colombo Economic Commission«: The planning process» nowunderway, is bemg supervised by a Steering Committee representing 21 government entities and twonongovernmental organizations^ .. ;

Development of the plan will follow the gathering and analysis of substantial new ecological data,including a survey to analyze geomorphological aspects to understand long-term natural changes that havebrought about the existing condition of the marsh, and the role of the marsh as a hydrologie resource ableto buffer floods, moderate salt balances and carry out drainage functions. Scientists will analyze data onclimatology, flora and fauna, and the linkages between the Muthurajawela and Negombo Lagoon and the

- coastal and upland regions. Armed with this information the study will assess what kinds of changes canoccur with extensive alteration of the marsh. Planners and ultimately policy makers will then be able tocarry out sound development that avoids costly environmental and economic mistakes.

Even without new development, however, dynamic impacts already affect the marsh, and NegomboLagoon^ To determine the nature and significance of these impacts scientists must analyze-a complexarray of information: A variety of activities affect the marsh/lagoon system. They include tourist andagricultural uses, small-scale peat extraction, dumping of waste, contamination from various-urban, andindustrial sources, marginal paddy cultivation, and home gardening developments.'Although these"usé»continue at present, in many cases they conflict and cannot all be sustained. What Happens to-the1

Muthurajawela marsh also significantly affects the sedimentation, water-qoaUty;anêcoiiomiÊûseffô£Negombo Lagoon. Left to natural processes planners believe that Negombo^Lagoon would become partof a continuous marsh cut by channels like the Muthurajawela marsn$?^^%ïi:^f*^^

' • • • • • > - : > : -:

• . - • - . - . ' - . . • • ' • - . - • , ' : : ' : ^

The process of the Master Plan preparation is now sdieduledfortwo-yeas technical assistance provfc|g&»the Netherlands ê

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Inland Aquatic 267

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1985). Most filling has been carried on around Colom-bo where development pressure is highest. Ap-proximately 204 hectares of low-lying marshy landaround Colombo has been reclaimed by the Sri LankaReclamation and Development Corporation alonesince its inception in 1968. Another 400 hectares ofsuch land in the Colombo and Kotte areas have beenidentified for future reclamation, together with another92 hectares at Attidiya. A further 2,000 hectaressituated at Muthurajawela is currently being con-sidered for reclamation for housing and industry (seebox on Muthurajawela.) Unfortunately we lack quan-titative measures of the increased flooding and damagecaused by lowland filling, but residents of Colombofrequently attest to the increased frequency andseverity of road flooding throughout the city.

Information on wetland losses in areas outsideColombo is limited and often subjective, but becauseinland wetlands receive little protection under existingstate laws they remain vulnerable to development. Ur-banization threatens wetlands in the southwestern andsouthern parts of the country. Agricultural develop-ment projects pose equally serious threats to wetlandsin the Dry Zone.

As in so many other countries, however, ac-celerated wetland destruction has enhanced publicconcern and debate. Recently this has led to legislationto protect the Bellanwila-Attidiya marsh (1990) andrequirement of an environmental impact assessmentfor the Muthurajawela reclamation and developmentproject.

Pollution

Rivers, streams, and wetlands have been commondumping ground for sewage, industrial and agriculturaleffluent, municipal garbage and other toxic materials.Suspended sediment loads in streams and rivers are theresult of soil erosion from agriculture, constructionsites and forest clearing. Because wetlands are naturalsinks for pollutants as well as nutrients, pesticiderunoff, toxic metals, petroleum runoff, or other hazard-ous waste can contaminate them. Many refuges in theUnited States have become seriously polluted byagricultural drainage making them unfit for Fish andwildlife. Avian diseases have been one result, reported

in North America, Japan, Africa, and Europe. (WorldResources Institute, 1987.)

INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTSAND

RECOMMENDED RESPONSESWise use of inland aquatic resources can reduce

costs of natural disasters and increase food productionand long-term economic welfare of the people. Thesegoals require a number of policy initiatives and new orbetter institutional efforts to overcome many long-standing constraints. The most critical needs:

• Management of upper and lower catchments forlong term maintenance of dams and irrigation sys-tems.

• Catchment and downstream land use managementto reduce the number and costs of floods.

• Technical skills and management to increaseproductivity of small tanks and ponds for irrigation,fish and prawn cultivation.

• Containment of inland aquatic pollution fromagriculture, industry and other human activities.

• Public education to enhance understanding of thefunctions and values of inland water resources andneeds for watershed management.

• Coordinated data gathering and research on in-land aquatic resources.

• Assessment of costs and benefits of new construc-tion projects and watershed programs in terms ofinland water resource sustainability.

Sri Lanka needs to address a number of seriousinstitutional constraints in order to increase thecapacity for action on these concerns.

Establish responsibility for managementand research

One major issue is confused government respon-sibility for inland aquatic resources. A multiplicity ofgovernment ministries and departments share jurisdic-tion over various aspects of inland resources and water-sheds. Only the Mahaweli Authority has authority tomanage the Mahaweli watershed, yet even it lacks un-

268 Inland Aquatic


shared, unambiguous responsibility to do so. Ap-proximately 25 agencies are involved in water resourceresearch and management ranging from the IrrigationDepartment, to the Water Resources Board, to NARA,but their actions are poorly coordinated. The NationalAquatic Resources Agency has broad research andresearch coordination authority over inland waters, butits responsibility for carrying out practical researchlinked with practical management needs remains un-clear. Divided interests and overlapping functionsamong the agencies with limited staff capabilities andresources seriously constrain efficient water resourcemanagement.

Set priorities for improved legalenforcement

Laws and practices have failed to protect aquaticsystems from unnecessary degradation. Abuses of legalrequirements cited above - lack of stream buffers,settlements on bunds, failure to reduce soil erosion orrehabilitate gem pits — are well known and oft-dis-cussed. On one hand these failures indicate ad-ministrative ineff ic iencies , care lessness , ormalfeasance that can and should be corrected. On theother hand, they indicate basic difficulties in relying onregulations instead of incentives to achieve sound en-vironmental management; people will not move off thebunds until they have somewhere else to live. In thelong run, some laws and regulations may need to bechanged. Nevertheless, clear law enforcementpriorities can be set, based, for example, on measuresof significant environmental and social harm and thepracticality of compliance.

Establish incentives for conservation

Government enforcement of wetlands,floodplains, or watershed soils regulation is likely to failunless local residents also have a stake in self-enforce-ment and can enjoy at least some of the benefits of theirconservation efforts. Local residents need opportunityand incentives to participate sufficiently in the manage-ment of inland aquatic resources.

Mechanisms do not exist to help upstream usersbenefit from their actions that can protect water sup-plies that downstream users depend upon. Thebenefits of water development projects have often beendelivered solely to downstream areas that are physical-

ly, culturally and politically distant from the catchment.The needs of the catchment dwellers are not oftenperceived as part of the development effort. This hascreated difficulties in achieving feasible land use in thecatchments as well as optimal distribution, waterquality, and runoff on which downstream suppliersdepend. Catchment dwellers therefore need incentivesto protect upland resources. Greater use of traditionalforms of home garden plantings, ground cover, andother productive vegetation programs offer one possib-ly attractive incentive scheme.

Incorporate benefits into projects andmarkets

We undervalue environmental goods and servicesthat aquatic systems provide. Government projectsand programs often fail to assess the benefits of aquaticsystems or the costs of their loss. Markets do not fullyreflect the value of watersheds and inland aquaticresources, the products they produce or the environ-mental services they provide. Neither do they reflectthe real costs of environmental degradation, whether inthe form of soil loss in the catchments, or pollution andloss of aquatic habitats. Often the cost of wetland lossis passed directly to the people who depend the moston the ecological services of these resources.

Establishbarriers

public dialogue over cultural

Cultural beliefs can constitute barriers to sustainedeconomic value of inland water resources. If raisingand harvesting of fish from inland waters is perceivedas contrary to religious teaching, the choice of notproducing inland fish is appropriately left to publicconsideration. However, the nutritional, directeconomic and other environmental costs of the choiceneed broad understanding. Among these costs: if fish-ing is not done in inland tanks and ponds, then residentsmay have less incentive to protect these resources fromsiltation, or pollution, with the consequent diminuitionof other inland water values.

Identify and redress key information gaps

Lack of information on functions and values ofinland aquatic resources, adverse impacts and trends,and benefits to be enhanced, are additional barriers to

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Inland Aquatic 269

sustainable use of inland water resources. We know fartoo little about the values of inland water habitats tofish, birds, and wildlife, the impacts of pesticides andfertilizers on water quality and human healthdownstream. For example, evidence exists thatsedimentation can impair tanks and reservoirs, but re-search can show precisely how serious the problem is,how to identify and rank the causes, and evaluate inter-

ventions. Where data is available, much of this infor-mation is incomplete, imprecise, and often out of date.Data collection and monitoring on inland water systemsis still poorly developed and often not directed to theneeds of policy makers or resource managers seekingsustainable development.

References

De Silva, Sena S (1988). Reservoirs of Sri Lanka and their fisheries.FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 298. Rome, pp.128.

Fernando, CH. (1971). The role of introduced fish in fish produc-tion in Ceylon's freshwater*. The Scientific Management ofAnimal and Plant Communities for Conservation, ed. E. Duf-fey and A.S. Watt. Blaclcwell Scientific Publishers. Oxford, pp.295-310.

Fernando, CH. and Indrasena. H.H.A. (1969). The freshwaterfisheries of Ceylon. Bull. Fish. Res. Stn., Vol. 20 (2), Ceylon,pp. 101-134.

Government of Sri Lanka (1986). Report of the Land Commission.Department of Government Printing, Colombo.

Gunatilleke, I.A.U.N. and Gunatilleke. CV.S. (1983). Conservationof natural forests in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester. Vol. 16(1&2). pp. 39-56.

I.U.CN. (1988). Directory of protected areas - Sri Lanka protectedareas data unit. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. U.K.

I.U.CNVW.W.F. (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. U.ICpp.583-634

Koelmeyer» F.O. (1957). Climatic classification and distribution ofvegetation-in Ceylon. The Ceylon Forester Vol. 3 (2). pp. 144-163.

Mendis, A.S. (1977). The role of man-made lakes in the developmentof fisheries in Sri Lanka. Proc. IPFC Vol. 17 (3). pp. 247-254.

Siriwcera, W.I. (1986). The inland fisheries in Sri Lanka: a historicalperspective. ARTI. Colombo.

U.S. Department of Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. Classificationof wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States, by LewisM. Cowadin; Virginia Carter, Francis C. Golet; and Edward T.La Roe (1979).

TAMS (1980). Environmental Assessment of the AcceleratedMahaweli Development Program.

Weatherry, Paul W. and Arnold, John H. (1977). EnvironmentalAssessment of Stage II of Mahaweli Ganga Development Project.Colombo

270

Environmentally sustainable development will meet the aspirations of future generations.


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Toward Sustainable Development 271

13 Toward Sustainable Development

This profile indicates what environmental stressesmust be reduced or eliminated to make sustainabledevelopment possible in Sri Lanka. This final chapterfocuses on the priorities for response, and the practicalopportunities for achieving substantial economic andother benefits from environmental actions.Successdepends, however, on new and far more efficient in-stitutional approaches to natural resourcemanagement.

Trend is not destiny

Sri Lanka can avoid the accelerating land degrada-tion, urban and industrial pollution, impoverishingdesertification and deforestation, and degradation ofirrigation systems that now waste the economic, social,and natural resources of so many developing countries.Like them, Sri Lanka suffers steady degradation of theenvironment. As demands on natural resources risethey diminish future development opportunities. Butat ihis point in its history the island's water, land,biological diversity, climate, and levels of health andliteracy are in far better condition than in most develop-ing countries of Asia and elsewhere. By marshallingknowledge, establishing priorities, and applying prac-tical environmental management, Sri Lanka can alterthe disturbing trends and improve its future prospects.

Sustainable development initiatives

Given the failure of so many rapidly developedcountries to incorporate environment into theirdevelopment programs, what patterns of developmentwill best meet the needs of present and future genera-tions? Sri Lanka is mapping its own paths towardenvironmentally sustainable development. Threepolicy objectives have particular significance fornatural resources:

• One is to strengthen agriculture by diversifyingproducts and improving yields. This can be

achieved on a sustainable basis through methodsthat conserve soil and water quality.

• Another is to earn foreign exchange and create newjobs by developing industries based on agricul-ture, and imported or domestic raw materials. Toavoid costly pollution such actions must begrounded in cost-effective, environmentallyprotective science and technology.

• A third is to enhance rural conditions and incomesby expanding economic and environmental oppor-tunities at the village level. To maximize the "free"services of the environment requires incentives forcommunity forestry, forest gardens, and produc-tive fisheries supplemented by other sustainableemployment programs.

CAUSES OF NATURALRESOURCE

USE AND MISUSE

Significant global forceson the environment

Global trade and political forces have historicallyaffected Sri Lanka's environment and they continue todo so. Global political and market forces directly affectthe health of the plantation economy, the developmentof tourism, the costs and use of petroleum imports, andforeign investment in trade and industry. Globalproduction of energy, particularly from coal and otherfossil fuels, and destruction of tropical forests are ap-parently warming the earth and raising sea levels. SriLanka's climate and coastline will be affected in waysstill not precisely clear.

Poverty cycle

Poverty driven by unemployment causes environ-mental degradation from which the poor suffer mostdirectly. Data connecting these causes and effects areregrettably limited but several conclusions are obvious.

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Poverty and certain cultural habits induce the shiftingcultivation that curbs productivity of Sri Lanka's landsand waters. Poverty and organized timber poachingcause significant deforestation, with similar results.The poor suffer first and most from waterborne dis-eases, caused in part by unsanitary urban and ruralconditions. Evidence from other countries, applicablein Sri Lanka, shows that the poor suffer first frominhalation diseases — from smoke in their own dwell-ings, factories, and vehicles — and irrevocable leadpoisoning from petroleum fumes and dust.

Domestic economic policies

Sri Lanka's land and water uses have been recent-ly and visibly affected by large projects like theMahaweli Development Project, but economic policieshave had even more pervasive and profound effects.These include tax, fiscal, and social policies that dis-courage or favor private investments in industry, privateland ownership, and'international trade. With thegovernment owning 80 percent of the land, impacts ofbudgetary action govern land and water use in planta-tions, forests, protected areas, and elsewhere, includingcities. Precise impacts of economic policies on en-vironmental results are too often unclear and failuresto be concerned about these links too common. Ifenvironmental and natural resource values are not sys-tematically incorporated into economic as well aspolitical decisions, significant natural resource misuseand environmental degradation can be expected tocontinue.

Population growth and demographic shifts

Demographic changes — another worldwidephenomenon - will make Sri Lanka's environmentalproblems increasingly difficult to correct. Presentlevels of unemployment, poverty, land degradation, andpollution are essentially unsustainable for the existingpopulation of 17 million. Sri Lanka must neverthelessplan for a population of roughly half again as manypeople within the next fifty years. That means vast newdemands for land, water, biomass, food, and services.

The push and pull to urban areas, though not sostrong as in many countries, will cause environmentalstress nonetheless. Best estimates indicate that urban

population will rise from 22 percent to 30 percent bythe year 2000, meaning an increase of over 80 percentin the current urban population. These new residentswill need new investments in water supply, sewers anddrainage. Approximately 800,000 new housing units willbe required between 1990 and 2000. Heavy populationconcentrations will continue in Colombo and in the WetZone, which contains the greatest biological resourcesand fewest protected areas.

CONSTRAINTS ONSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Five major environmental conditions and trendswill most likely constrain long-term sustainable welfareand growth b Sri Lanka: land and watershed degrada-tion, loss of biological resources, contamination ofground and surface water, and pollution of the urbanenvironment. Within these five categories all worthyneeds cannot be addressed with equal effort. Practicalpriorities require immediate focus on correcting en-vironmental conditions most likely to injure, kill orimpoverish Sri Lankans, and on actions most likely tobring tangible environmental benefits to the nextgeneration. Preventive and corrective environmentalactions can enhance national wealth and the humanenvironment.

Land degradation

Shifting cultivation. Chena cultivation is increas-ingly practised on vulnerable areas with little or norotation. Throughout the island acreage under chenahas risen since the mid-1950s from 1 million to 1.2million hectares, despite laws against it. In someregions it accounts for many of the costly earth slips.Considered unsustainable and undesirable by the FirstLand Commission more than sixty years ago, its illeffects are even more serious today.

Soil erosion and productivity. Efforts to increaseyield per hectare of plantation and other diversifiedcrops confront land degradation from soil erosion,overuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and rising costs ofthese inputs. Sri Lanka's soils are vulnerable toerosion, primarily from high intensity rainfall. Oneyear's erosion can easily remove soils requiring a cen-tury to build. Now that nearly all available paddy lands

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are already in use, paddy yields appear to be levellingoff, while costs of inputs (tractors, fertilizers, pes-ticides) are increasing. All tea plantations are highlyprone to erosion. Average yield of Sri Lanka's teaplantations is low compared to other countries.

Land use. With the increasingly unfavorable ratioof people to land localized causes and effects of landwaste and degradation assume new importance. Gemmining without regard for water pollution or reclama-tion is evident in all gem-bearing areas. It makes landunnecessarily unproductive and, by creating habitatsfavorable to malaria, it threatens human health. Mostopportunities for large new land settlement are gone,although potentially important in some regions on asmall scale. The 2.5 million hectares (38 percent of theisland) identified throughout the island (mostly in theDry Zone) as available for forests, farms, settlementsor other development require water to be productive.But fresh water, although comparatively abundant inSri Lanka, nevertheless is becoming increasinglyscarce; half of all available surface water in the DryZone is used before it reaches the sea. At the same time,nearly 14 percent of the country is under wildlife con-servation or other protected status. Some of this landmay be more productive in other uses, yet the criticalareas within the biologically rich Wet Zone are notadequately protected.

By reducing and eventually eliminatingchena cultivation on steep slopes and replantingthese areas with grasses or trees Sri Lanka canachievefarmore sustainable use of its lands andwatersheds. New opportunities can bedeveloped for farmers through productive use ofagro-forestry systems in place of chena. Incen~lives to reduce soil erosion on agriculturalcroplandas well as chena land will help preservewatersheds, maintain options for smallhydropower development, extend the life of ex-isting reservoirs, and retain or improve soilproductivity. Watershed management has be-come a national necessity in the catchmentareas of Sri Lanka's major rivers.

abundant water resources. Agricultural practicescause high siltation rates in many Dry Zone tanks andupcountry reservoirs. Sedimentation of tanks, irriga-tion works, and upcountry reservoirs results directlyfrom soil loss in catchment areas. Aerial photo com-parisons of 1956 and 1982 illustrate high rates of silta-tion from clearing in Dry Zone catchments foragriculture and settlements. Development programswill require far better information than before on theeconomic and environmental relationship between soilerosion and the productivity of land and water.

Small hydro. Because Sri Lanka has alreadydeveloped most of its available large-scalehydroelectric sites to produce 90 percent of its electricpower, use of small, hydropower plants may becomeincreasingly important. Their development will be-come more attractive if oil prices rise above US$40/barrel, but long-term capabilities of smallhydroelectric generating sites will be reduced withoutcareful conservation of watersheds.

Sri Lanka's abundant water, and its highproportion of tenue water bodies tó land area,are resources that can. be envied around theworld. Although all its watersheds are impor-tant, priorities for management are essential.Watershed classifications, based on value andvulnerability, can be a useful first step towarddetermining which areas need management at-tention or special protection first Local initia-tives and management activities are essential toachieve conservation. Results wiU depend onhow well the local public and the governmentunderstand the links between watershedmanagement and increased productivity -^fromforest gardens and agricultural systems tohydroelectric generation.

Watershed degradation

Water resource degradation. Poor land usesteadily reduces the value and availability of Sri Lanka's

Biological resource degradation

Biological resources. Sri Lanka's flora and faunaare the richest and most concentrated in Asia. A highlevel of endemic species is contained chiefly within theWet Zone, the country's most populated region. Largenumbers of species found in the 45,000-hectare groupof Sinharaja forests are found nowhere else. Overallthe biological resources that draw tourists to the


country — coral reefs, wild elephants, and native andmigratory birds — represent non-renewable, irreplace-able genetic and ecological resources of global impor-tance. All these resources are under stress.

Forest resources. Sri Lanka's declining naturalforests — repositories of many of its most valuable andvulnerable biological resources - have global as well asnational significance. At an annual deforestation rateof over 40,000 hectares, the island's estimated 24 per-cent natural forest cover in 1989 is down from 44 per-cent in the 1950s. While declines have been less rapidthan in Thailand or Nepal, they have been relentless.In general, every hectare deforested becomes a hectareless resilient and less productive, in even the span of afew years. Despite encouraging institutional changesand new forest programs,deforestation continues.Forest depletion is most significant in the already highlyaltered Wet Zone, where 100,000 hectares of naturalforests have been lost since 1956. The size of theremaining forests has also diminished, significantlyreducing Sri Lanka's biological resilience as increasingnumbers of flora and fauna species become en-dangered or threatened.

Coral reefs. High losses of live coral reefs overthe past 10 to 15 years continue virtually unabated.Losses over the past 20 years have reached 80 percentat some southwest coast locations and remain high atmany others. Conditions on the east coast are known tobe poor but they cannot be assessed accurately due tocivil disorder. In the southwest most destruction resultsfrom reef mining for the manufacture of Urne. Loss oflive coral means loss of natural coastal erosion protec-tion, ornamental fish habitat, and tourist attraction.Within a decade or so most coral, except the highlyprotected reefs near established tourist sites, will bedestroyed.

Wetlands and flood plains. Over the past twodecades nearly 70,000 hectares of low-lying marshyareas have been filled or identified for reclamation.Pollution has degraded other significant coastal wet-lands and estuaries important to the coastal fisheries,although data on resulting economic impacts on coastalfisheries do not exist. Throughout Sri Lanka - inlandand along the coasts - degradation and filling of wet-lands have contributed to the loss of natural flood

protection, productive wildlife habitat and otherresources. The most significant wetland losses havebeen in the Mahaweli flood plains, where the Mahaweliprogram is estimated to reduce natural flooding areasof marshes and villus by 50 percent.

By arresting the loss of natural forests, par-ticularly in the Wet Zone, and coastal habitatsSri Lanka can sustain and increase tourism,provide jobs for villagers as guards, main-tenance personnel and guides, and support thegrowth of horticultural plants, fruits andvegetables for home use and business. Byprotecting flood plains and wetlands Sri Lankacan avoid or reduce costs of flood relief, resettle-ment, and investments in flood protection.

Contamination of groundand surface water

Nitrate pollution. Contamination of fresh watersby nitrates in fertilizers and human waste is a growingthreat to human health. Intensive agriculture andhuman waste disposal in the Jaffna Peninsula alreadycause pollution of ground and surface water. Peakseasonal concentrations of pollutants in the Kalpitiyapeninsula have reached four times the WHO guideline.Low levels of industrialization have kept industrial pol-lution of the Mahaweli below that of the Kelani, butnitrate concentrations show a definite upward trenddue to heavy agrochemical usage in the catchment.Expansion of the agricultural and agro-based industrie 'sector will require careful monitoring and impactanalysis.

Domestic and untreated pollution. Urban andrural water pollution from domestic, industrial, andagricultural waste also threatens human health. InColombo less than a third of the greater metropolitanpopulation is sewered, but waste water discharge is nottreated. Most industry is centered in and around theWestern Province, yet nearly all industrial waste isuntreated. It accounts for much of the contaminationof Colombo's waterways, along with the water pollutioncaused by the urban poor. In Kandy, Galle, Jaffna andsmaller cities and towns, no sewers exist; most residentsuse on-site waste disposal, and a high proportion ofwells are unprotected. Water pollution has direct im-pacts on industrial users as welL In some places, as with


nToward Sustainable Development 275

the Puttalam aquaculture industry, it directly harms theindustry itself.

Many urban as well as rural areas, including out-skirts of the Greater Colombo metropolitan area, relyon ground water for drinking supplies. In rural areasonly S percent of homes had piped water at the lastcensus (1981), and anecdotal evidence - all we have torely on -- suggests that ground water as well as surfacewater contamination is a growing hazard to health.Outbreaks of waterborne diseases continue to causedeath and illness in the cities, most recently in Maale.

The health benefits of water pollution con-trols are themselves enough to justify effectiveaction. Benefits of improved water quality forfisheries as well as recreation cannot be under-estimated. Opportunities exist for low-costresponses and for economically attractive ex-penditures on infrastructure to serve new in-dustrial and housing complexes. Educationalprograms on sanitation, drainage clearance,and many other cost-effective controls over pol-lution discharge front industry can all achievesignificant results. Pricing and other policiesthat encourage water conservation can reducedemands on ground and surface water.

Degradation of the urban environment

Water pollution and drainage. Colombo andmany smaller cities suffer from combined environmen-tal stresses that have led to significant deterioration ofhealth and living conditions. Lack of adequate in-frastructure to supply water and sewer services is agrowing threat to resident health, particularly of thepoor. Filling of wetlands in Colombo — estimated atover 200 hectares since 1968 — has contributed to flood-ing and inadequate drainage systems. Contamination ofground as well as surface water is a growing, immediateproblem affecting all urban areas. In the long termplanning for water supply and drainage may need toanticipate the potentially significant and costly effectsof sea level rise caused by global warming.

Low income housing. Encroachment of the pooron canals and river banks contributes to water pollu-tion. Approximately half of Colombo's population

belongs to the low income category, and many of thepoor live in slums and shanties. With little or no accessto sewage services* they contribute to and suffer fromwater contamination. Adequate housing is an integralpart of the environmental solution to urban decay.

Air pollution. Added to these problems are theeffects of urban air pollution, largely from vehicles, butalso from some industries. Monitoring data are badlyneeded to identify links of air pollution to respiratorydiseases and lead poisoning from urban dust. Healthstatistics in other Asian countries show alarming in-creases in respiratory illnesses and lead poisoning fromvehicle emissions. Incidence of lead poisoning in-creased fourfold in Bangkok over a recent ten-yearperiod.

Loss of amenities. Urban residents in developingcountries, Sri Lanka included, suffer increasingly fromloss of open spaces and other amenities. Colombo'sexperience with Beira Lake is an example to avoid.Parks, urban beachfronts, and other open spaces thatserve essential needs for recreation have tangible andintangible benefits. Their loss can contribute sig-nificantly to a declining quality of urban life.

Solid waste. Rapid increase in the generation ofdomestic solid waste in Colombo and other citiesresults in new health hazards as well as an ugly environ-ment. Solid waste management has become recognizedas one of Sri Lanka's highest urban priorities. Atpresent municipal services cannot keep up withdemands for collection and sanitary disposal.

Solutions to urban degradation include ef-fective environmental management Managingurban pollution requires financing for in-frastructure and effective land use zoning thatrespond to the environmental costs of waterpollution, poor drainage, noise and traffic, andto the cost-effective benefits of sound environ-mental design. Much can be done to avoid en-vironmental problems in new urban areas.Environmental factors are being recognized indeveloping an impact assessment for theMuthurajawela marsh north of Colombo.


Using scientific infónrotioff on the hydrology'and humas uses of-dits marsh/lagoon system,,planners seek way^ö»; accommodate manyconflicting functionsand values with needs forurban development. Experience in otherci t ies , including the HackensackMeadowtands across the Hudson River fromNew York City, indicates how severely wastedurban marshlands c?" be productively used inharmony with the environment

POLICY RESPONSES

Integrating biological resources intodevelopment and planning

Newly Industrialized Countries and otheraspirants now realize that some patterns of economicgrowth create serious, environmental and economicproblems. In Sri T.anka, growth policies that protectand build on the economic and environmental value ofbiological resources can avoid many of these costswithout risking the benefits of actions to increase in-dustrial and agricultural productivity.

Natural forest conservation. The richest naturalforests are found in the densely populated south-western Wet Zone. Relatively small patches of naturalforest still provide quantities of berries, fruit, nuts,game, medicinal substances, horticultural plants andflowers that can, if properly cultivated and marketed,bring substantial economic benefits to Sri Lanka, asthey have in Indonesia and elsewhere. Besides theirincalculable genetic and ecological significance,natural forests support village uses that are sustainable,as experience around the Sinharaja forests indicates.They also draw tourists.

Enhancement of forest garden systems. Highlydeveloped in many parts of Sri Lanka, forest gardens.can supply domestic fuel and produce fruit, vegetablesand timber for multiple uses that have substantialeconomic value. Forest gardens can be created even onmarginal land within a few years. Opportunities toexpand forest gardens to enhance farmer incomedepend in part on commercial marketing for fruit,vegetables, and horticultural products.

Environmental tourism expansion. Tourism, onthe upswing after a drop in the mid-1980s, providessignificant direct and indirect employment to rural andurban Sri Lankans. Visitors who seek birds, wildlife,and underwater environments can contribute substan-tially to high-quality, high-revenue tourism. However,complex ecological systems must be carefully managedto guard against the well-known self-destructive im-pacts of tourism. Successful environmental tourismdepends on effective management of wildlife reserves,well-designed visitor facilities, and adequate environ-mental education materials. The natural resources thatdraw tourists - whether forests, wildlife reserves, orcoral reefs — must be immediately protected by strongenforcement. Alternative employment must beprovided for those who, like offshore coral miners, nowdiminish Sri Lanka's sustainable resources.

Conservation of hydrologie resources. Wetlandsand flood plains provide valuable "free" services forflood control, filtering of water pollutants, and nursinggrounds for fish and wildlife. These functions might bebetter appreciated if they were translated into distincteconomic values as has been done in the United Statesand elsewhere. Loss of wetlands and the degradationof important flood plains by human settlement havecontributed to flooding and high costs of flood relief.

Coastal and inland fisheries management.Fisheries suffer increasingly from overuse and environ-mental degradation. Per capita fish consumption isincreasing. Offshore fisheries can be sustainably ex-ploited but opportunities to sustain near-shore fisheriesneed greater attention. Coastal habitats essential forcoastal fishery production - coral reefs, estuaries andlagoons, highly vulnerable mangroves, salt marshes andseagrass beds — are immensely productive resources.Inland fisheries, if managed and protected from pollu-tion and other physical impacts, offer additional andsignificant economic benefits to local residents.

Correcting Institutional Constraints

In general, Sri Lanka's natural resource manage-ment suffers from a variety of serious institutional inef-ficiencies:

• confused or poorly coordinated environmentalmanagement responsibilities of a multiplicity of


government agencies, including those managingthe 80 percent of the country that is owned by thegovernment;

• failure of the state to set and achieve high standardsfor controlling pollution from state-ownedenterprises, and lack of clear private respon-sibilities and incentives for environmental manage-ment;

• inefficient systems for gathering, analyzing, andapplying environmental information to plans andoperations of private or public sector agencies;

• failure to incorporate environmental impacts intoeconomic development plans, programs, andprojects of the public and private sector.

Underlying these institutional problems are es-sential needs for more and better focused environmen-tal information, substantive training, and managementskills in public cooperation, agency coordination, andorganizational management followup actions.

Efficient environmental managementcooperation

Overlapping and uncoordinated environmentalaction by government is not surprising. Environmentalmanagement affects every government sector and mostprivate activities. But business-as-usual approacheswill not suffice. When agency responsibilities are un-clear, "red tape" and bureaucratic delays or inactioninevitably cost the environment and the economydearly.

Nowhere are these problems more evident than inwatershed management, where efficiency and effec-tiveness are paramount needs. Activities affecting landand water management involve scores of agencies andstatutes. The Water Resources Chapter (Part I)describes how little has been accomplished in managingwatersheds, largely because of confusing, conflicting,and ineffective authorities. The inescapable con-clusion: unless the interaction of government agenciesis drastically simplified, effective watershed manage-ment, even under the most scientifically advancedpolicies, will be exceedingly difficult, if not infeasible.Duties, responsibilities and lead agency capabilities

need to be identified for particular watersheds of majorrivers that have the most severe problems. Gaps in legalauthority and management capabilities need to beclarified and actions prepared for their remedy.

Recent administrative experiences in Sri Lankasuggest that these constraints can be reduced. Theconcept of "lead agency" responsibilities for significantaspects of environmental and economic developmenthas been successfully initiated. In the energy sector, theCËB has lead responsibilities for energy development,but it must work closely with other agencies and theCoastal Conservation Department has clear respon-sibility for land management in a narrowly definedcoastal zone. Expansion of such lead responsibilitieswill come under the new environmental impact assess-ment procedures of the National Environmental ActAmendments of 1988. These require an active role bythe CEA to clarify agency responsibilities for gathering,analyzing, and applying environmental impact informa-tion. CEA can help government agencies sort out theirenvironmental management responsibilities forproposed development projects, and see that one agen-cy takes the lead in impact assessment.

Private responsibilities and incentives

Establishing incentives. Successful actions to con-trol, industrial and agricultural pollution, or to preventchena cultivation, coral destruction, illicit gem mining,timber felling and natural forest encroachment requireadequate incentives, penalties or appropriate combina-tions of the two.

On one hand, progress in reducing industrial pol-lution depends on Sri Lanka's strong enforcement ofindustrial pollution laws, backed by scientifically sup-portable standards. A private business will not usuallyinvest in costly control equipment, recycling, or processchanges unless its own operations will benefit or it isrequired to do so. A government-owned industry,while ideally expected to set a high environmentalstandard, may be poorly structured financially to makepollution control investments. Strong enforcement ofpollution control is necessary for public as well asprivate industries. Because they have acceptableeconomic alternatives, enforcement can be particularly


effeaive against large commercial concerns that violatetimber and wildlife laws.

On the other hand, sole reliance on "command andcontrol" management techniques has proved a failurein many cases involving large numbers of individuals orsmall operators. Remedies for soil erosion, for ex-ample, will increase costs to upstream users, but onlydownstream users will realize the immediate benefits.Programs that build on incentives can make itworthwhile for upstream farmers to control soilerosion. One company in Sri Lanka has found successin programs that will only pay fanners for their produceif they meet soil erosion criteria specified by companyinspectors. Various economic and legal tools exist todevelop incentives that benefit small- and large-scaleoperations.

Creating a stake in sound environmentalmanagement. Sri Lanka's experiences with naturalresource mismanagement illustrate the need for in-dividual landowners or communal organizations tohave a stake in sustainable natural resource manage-ment. Fishing communities often recognize the valueof coral reefs and protect them; So do owners of glass-bottom boats and other tourist guides and operators.Inland, land stewardship may best be sustained iftenure systems provide the necessary security and op-portunity for owners to derive benefits from long-terminvestments in forests, farms, water systems, or othernatural resources. This profile highlights the needs forconsiderably stepped-up research on land tenure andownership and how it affects and might improve effi-cient long-term resource use.

Improving information gathering,analysis, and use

Research and information needs. This profile hashighlighted gaps in natural resource and environmentalinformation and research that have already led tomisunderstanding and costly misuse of naturalresources. Determination of research priorities goesbeyond the profile's scope, but subjects to considerinclude the following:

• a comprehensive water quality monitoring pro-gram for streams, rivers, tanks, and estuaries,beginning with the most important water bodies, to

establish baseline data and effective water qualitystandards;

• assessments of fish stock in coastal and inlandwaters from which to evaluate trends and developsustainable fisheries activities;

• a program to assess ground water conditions andtrends, including quantity as well as contamination;

• applied research on cost-effective pollution mini-mization technology that is appropriate and ap-plicable to Sri Lanka's major polluting industries;

• ecological studies of appropriate uses to be madeof the 25 million hectares of "developable" landidentified by the Land Commission;

• studies to determine the present status of streambank and reservoir reservations and their futureconservation;

• ways to reduce wastage of timber and biomass andpractical means to improve silviculture for energyand forest conservation;

• studies to determine trends in biological produc-tivity, resilience and the actual and potentialeconomic and social values of biological andhydrologie systems;

• land use studies in elevations above 1,500 meters todetermine appropriate conservation programs inthe face of frequent violations of forest laws.

Efficient analysis of information. Important en-vironmental information, although gathered, is oftenunavailable. This problem was highlighted in par-ticular by the Water Resources Chapter (Part II) con-cerning water pollution. Sri Lanka can make morecost-effective use of information gathered throughcooperative agreements on laboratories and the publi-cation and dissemination of information to all who needit. The need for easier access by government, privatesector, professional and citizen users of information hasbeen a striking finding of this profile. No library existsto obtain, log, and make available current studies onnatural resource and environmental topics. As a result,despite the need to maximize the efficiency of availablehuman and financial resources, substantial duplication


exists in the preparation of studies and in the gatheringof information.

Once obtained, information is still not readily avail-able for application to problems. It is particularly im-portant to maximize the use and efficiency of criticalinformation for application in environmental impactassessments. Beyond that, policy makers need to beguided by the information, and see that it is actuallyapplied to plans and operations.

Integrating environmental impacts

Frequent failures of planning. Planning is an in-stitutional tool traditionally used and encouraged fornatural resource management. In practice broadnatural resource management plans like the NationalConservation Strategy are often ineffective if im-plementation is not required or specifically linked tofunding or project approval. Implementors need tohave a stake in implementation results.

Environmental Impact Assessment. Today one ofSri Lanka's most potent planning and information toolsis the environmental impact assessment requirement.The requirement for agencies and private business toobtain and analyze data on significant impacts ofproposed action, and to disclose it to other agenciesand the public before action can be taken, can bringabout significant institutional change. Impact assess-ment is being applied in forestry management, and ithas already shown its importance in the inter-agencyand public debate over construction of a major coal-fired power plant at Trincomalee.

No single institutional measure over the pastdecade shows more promising possibilities. Its applica-tion to a wide range of economic developmentproposals with significant environmental impacts willrequire a new level of training and analytical abilities.The EIA mechanism aims to improve information andopportunities for public involvement, for coordinatinggovernment agencies and for close public and privatecooperation. Experience in other countries, mostnotably the United States, shows that after an initialperiod of sometimes painful development, the EIA canbecome a routine tool for analysis and informationdisclosure. That promising result will depend on ade-quate numbers of highly-trained personnel as well as

understanding of EIA functions and values by policymakers.

Economic assessments. Integration of economicand environmental analysis is essential for practicalpolitical and financial decision making. By translatingwhat we know about natural resource capital — forests,good farmland, water resources, and ecological func-tions and values ~ we can better measure the effects ofadverse impacts on them, and how these resourcesbenefit society over the short and the long term. Effortsto improve national accounting systems are underwayin developing and developed countries, and efforts arebeginning in Sri Lanka as well.

VISION OF THE FUTURE

What path can Sri Lanka take to sustain economicdevelopment and maintain its natural resourceheritage?

At the outset Sri Lanka must now anticipate andplan for sustaining the future economic, social, andenvironmental needs of 23 to 25 million people. This ispossible; much higher population density can bemanaged without loss of significant natural resourceand environmental assets. Prosperous newlydeveloped countries like Singapore and older ones likethe Netherlands have shown that high density can bemaintained through careful planning while increasingopportunities for employment. On the other hand, SriLanka must avoid the costly experiences of developedcountries with the adverse impacts -- resource deple-tion and pollution of land, air, and water ~ that threatenhuman health and raise economic and environmentalcosts.

To avoid or minimize these adverse impacts, costsof pollution can be included in the prices of goods andservices. A clean environment will depend on incen-tives for individuals and private enterprises to reducepollution and other adverse impacts for reasons of selfinterest. It will also depend on efficient governmentstandards, regulations and enforcement. Developedcountries with a backlog of pollution can find environ-mental programs costly and difficult. Sri Lanka isblessed with conditions of pollution that can readily besolved with existing technology.


To sustain a future population of roughly half againas many people will require well planned urban areas.Sri Lanka's cities can be made productive centers ofclean industry that offer employment for the growingthousands of people needing jobs. By offering well paidemployment, pressures on critical resources can berelieved. With careful urban planning and sounddesign of homes and transportation and sanitation sys-tems, urban area» can be pleasing as well as productivehabitats. Supplies of clean water can be obtained fromthe ample surface water and ground water systems aslong as waste disposal is carefully monitored and regu-lated. To compensate for increased urban density,urban parks and lakes can be designed and maintainedfor more intensive public use. Green space and oppor-tunities for home gardens in low-rise garden apart-ments can offer opportunities for humane and pleasingurban life. It is still possible, with moderate invest-ments, to bring Sri Lankan cities to a high position onthe habitability scale.

To connect cities and villages Sri Lanka can have awell-maintained road and rail transportation system,building on a system that was far advanced after Inde-pendence. Better use of rail passenger and freightresources can substantially speed and increasetransport of goods and people, including tourists, whilehelping to conserve energy and reduce pollution.

Not all new urban population needs to be con-centrated in Colombo or other large cities. A strongagricultural base can support new agro-industries inand around smaller cities and villages. Small cities,based on agro-industrial activities can cater to theneeds of surrounding villages. This concept ofagropolitan centers will require dependable transpor-tation and advanced communication systems to servethe needs of rural areas.

Reforestation and rehabilitation of grasslands willdepend on application of sound scientific methods andadequate incentives to property owners and privateentrepreneurs. Some relatively unimportant wildlifereserves can be converted to enhance agriculturalproductivity. Unprotected areas important for theirbiological diversity and value can be acquired andmanaged. Other new areas, now lying fallow anddegraded following chena cultivation in the biologicallyrich and critically important Wet Zone, can be acquiredfor forestry and agriculture. Opportunities for environ-mentally sensitive tourism in coastal as well as inlandareas can become significant economic assets. Thedesign of new hotels and tourist facilities can be ac-complished without disrupting the visual integrity of SriLanka's landscape. The world-renowned architectureof Geoffrey Bawa and others has already established astandard of design excellence.

Sustainable development in Sri Lanka is a realisticprospect. Success will depend on initiatives thatdevelop and apply the necessary skills, resources, andcommitment, from the village to the national level.

Higher agricultural productivity can be achievedthrough adoption of high value crops without costlyreliance on pesticides and other inputs that damagesustainable productivity. Sri Lanka can adopt in-tegrated pest management and improve traditionalmeans for agricultural management that protect notonly the health of consumers, agricultural and in-dustrial workers, but also the environment.

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Natural Resources of Sri Lanka