Session 10 Disaster Mitigation

Session 10Session 10Disaster MitigationDisaster MitigationPublic Administration and Public Administration and Emergency ManagementEmergency Management

ObjectivesObjectives►At the end of this session, students At the end of this session, students

should be able toshould be able to Discuss the government role in helping Discuss the government role in helping

individuals recover from disasterindividuals recover from disaster Discuss the process of damage Discuss the process of damage

assessment and its implementationassessment and its implementation Discuss the politics of disaster recovery Discuss the politics of disaster recovery

in general termsin general terms Discuss major administrative issues that Discuss major administrative issues that

may arise during a community’s recoverymay arise during a community’s recovery

Required Student ReadingsRequired Student Readings► Brenda D. Phillips and David M. Neal, Brenda D. Phillips and David M. Neal,

“Recovery,” in “Recovery,” in Emergency Management: Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Local Principles and Practice for Local GovernmentGovernment, 2nd Edition, edited by William , 2nd Edition, edited by William L. Waugh, Jr., and Kathleen Tierney L. Waugh, Jr., and Kathleen Tierney (Washington, DC: ICMA, 2007), pp. 207-233.(Washington, DC: ICMA, 2007), pp. 207-233.

► Frances X. McCarthy, Frances X. McCarthy, FEMA’s Disaster FEMA’s Disaster Declaration Process: A PrimerDeclaration Process: A Primer (Washington, (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, RL DC: Congressional Research Service, RL 34146, August 27, 2007). 34146, August 27, 2007).

The Government RoleThe Government Role► Recovery can be a very complex and long-term Recovery can be a very complex and long-term

process because of the psychological, social, process because of the psychological, social, economic, and political effects of disaster on economic, and political effects of disaster on individuals, families, organizations, individuals, families, organizations, neighborhoods, and communities.neighborhoods, and communities.

► Brenda Phillips’ (2007) “dimensions of recovery” Brenda Phillips’ (2007) “dimensions of recovery” include debris management, environmental include debris management, environmental recovery (including sustainability), historic and recovery (including sustainability), historic and cultural resource recovery, housing, business cultural resource recovery, housing, business recovery, infrastructure/ lifeline recovery, social recovery, infrastructure/ lifeline recovery, social psychological recovery, and public sector psychological recovery, and public sector recovery. recovery.

The Government RoleThe Government Role► FEMA’s roles include debris management and FEMA’s roles include debris management and

infrastructure restoration in collaboration with infrastructure restoration in collaboration with local governments, economic recovery in local governments, economic recovery in collaboration with SBA and other agencies, collaboration with SBA and other agencies, and community recovery largely through and community recovery largely through individual and family assistance and through individual and family assistance and through nongovernmental services. nongovernmental services.

► HUD is now involved in housing, HHS in the HUD is now involved in housing, HHS in the delivery of medical and mental health delivery of medical and mental health services, and EPA in dealing with services, and EPA in dealing with environmental damage. environmental damage.

The Nongovernmental RoleThe Nongovernmental Role► Hundreds of nongovernmental Hundreds of nongovernmental

organizations (NGOs) provide services organizations (NGOs) provide services that are not provided by public that are not provided by public agencies and many NGOs provide agencies and many NGOs provide public services as contractors. For public services as contractors. For example, the American Red Cross was example, the American Red Cross was responsible for case management, i.e., responsible for case management, i.e., working with evacuees to assure that working with evacuees to assure that they had shelter and other necessities, they had shelter and other necessities, during the Katrina disaster.during the Katrina disaster.

RecoveryRecovery►Recovery efforts focus on the Recovery efforts focus on the

restoration of lifelines initially, then restoration of lifelines initially, then progress to the rebuilding and repair progress to the rebuilding and repair of homes and businesses, debris of homes and businesses, debris clearance, treatment of nonemergency clearance, treatment of nonemergency illnesses and injuries, mourning the illnesses and injuries, mourning the dead, and restoring social ties dead, and restoring social ties (LaPlante, 1988: 218-219).(LaPlante, 1988: 218-219).

Measuring RecoveryMeasuring Recovery Metrics for physical recovery might include Metrics for physical recovery might include

debris clearance and removal, checking debris clearance and removal, checking structural integrity of homes and businesses, structural integrity of homes and businesses, and restoring lifelines. and restoring lifelines.

Economic recovery measures might include Economic recovery measures might include reopening essential businesses, including reopening essential businesses, including banking services. banking services.

Community or social recovery might include Community or social recovery might include providing security (law enforcement), providing providing security (law enforcement), providing at least temporary housing, and restoring social at least temporary housing, and restoring social networks (such as churches, synagogues, networks (such as churches, synagogues, mosques, and temples). mosques, and temples).

.”.”

Measuring RecoveryMeasuring Recovery Psycho-social recovery, terms of FEMA’s Psycho-social recovery, terms of FEMA’s

responsibilities, might include referrals to responsibilities, might include referrals to mental health resources, mental health resources,

Environmental recovery may be beyond Environmental recovery may be beyond FEMA’s mandate. FEMA’s mandate.

The boundary between FEMA’s The boundary between FEMA’s responsibilities and those of other responsibilities and those of other organizations and agencies is fuzzy and organizations and agencies is fuzzy and the public is not likely to understand the public is not likely to understand where FEMA’s assistance stops and other where FEMA’s assistance stops and other sources of assistance should begin. sources of assistance should begin.

Measuring RecoveryMeasuring Recovery Social psychological recovery has been a Social psychological recovery has been a

very controversial issue in that HHS and the very controversial issue in that HHS and the American Red Cross have been assigned American Red Cross have been assigned some responsibilities, but problems tend to some responsibilities, but problems tend to outlive the funding. outlive the funding.

Counseling services in NYC after 9/11 Counseling services in NYC after 9/11 continued as long as there were volunteers continued as long as there were volunteers to provide the service, but there are to provide the service, but there are indications that many residents still suffer indications that many residents still suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

When Is Recovery Over?When Is Recovery Over? With airline disasters there is still a With airline disasters there is still a

debate about responsibility for debate about responsibility for memorializing the victims – e.g., who pays memorializing the victims – e.g., who pays for and who maintains the monuments? for and who maintains the monuments?

When has a family or community When has a family or community recovered? The answer depends upon recovered? The answer depends upon what is meant by “recoveredwhat is meant by “recovered

What Is Meant by Recovery?What Is Meant by Recovery?► The Hurricane Katrina Disaster in 2005 The Hurricane Katrina Disaster in 2005

has encouraged a very broad has encouraged a very broad perspective on disaster recovery and perspective on disaster recovery and the realization that recovery may take the realization that recovery may take decades. decades.

► Assistance need be sustainable in the Assistance need be sustainable in the sense that it encourages and facilitates sense that it encourages and facilitates risk-reduction to reduce the impact of risk-reduction to reduce the impact of or prevent future disasters and helps or prevent future disasters and helps communities become more resilient. communities become more resilient.

The Stafford ActThe Stafford Act► FEMA’s dilemma is that the Stafford Act focuses FEMA’s dilemma is that the Stafford Act focuses

on restoring communities to their pre-disaster on restoring communities to their pre-disaster condition rather than helping them mitigate condition rather than helping them mitigate future disasters. future disasters.

► Long-term recovery may require investments Long-term recovery may require investments over decades and linkages to community and over decades and linkages to community and state development programs. state development programs.

► Measuring FEMA’s contributions is difficult given Measuring FEMA’s contributions is difficult given shared responsibilities for particular services. shared responsibilities for particular services. The RAND (2009) report mentions the problem The RAND (2009) report mentions the problem of shared responsibility and responsibility “hand of shared responsibility and responsibility “hand offs” between government agencies and NGOs. offs” between government agencies and NGOs. “Hand offs” and partnerships also include other “Hand offs” and partnerships also include other government agencies and the private sector.government agencies and the private sector.

Response and RecoveryResponse and Recovery► An effective disaster response can reduce An effective disaster response can reduce

the time and resources necessary for the time and resources necessary for recovery by reducing secondary damage, recovery by reducing secondary damage, rebuilding social networks so that people rebuilding social networks so that people can help one another recover, and engaging can help one another recover, and engaging residents in the process so that they can residents in the process so that they can develop their own capacities to recover and develop their own capacities to recover and can regain control of their own lives. can regain control of their own lives.

For example, if first responders immediately For example, if first responders immediately cover damaged roofs with plastic sheeting or cover damaged roofs with plastic sheeting or canvas tarps, rain damage to the contents of the canvas tarps, rain damage to the contents of the house can be minimized and it may remain house can be minimized and it may remain habitable.habitable.

Mitigation and RecoveryMitigation and Recovery Simply minimizing the effects of disasters should Simply minimizing the effects of disasters should

reduce the time and resources needed for reduce the time and resources needed for recovery; however, other measures can be taken recovery; however, other measures can be taken to speed the process and to reduce the likelihood to speed the process and to reduce the likelihood of delays and other problems. Some examples:of delays and other problems. Some examples:► Involving residents in the assessment of damage to their Involving residents in the assessment of damage to their

own property because they know what it looked like and own property because they know what it looked like and how it functioned prior to the disaster. It is also how it functioned prior to the disaster. It is also reassuring to residents when they are permitted to return reassuring to residents when they are permitted to return to their homes as soon as it is safe to do so.to their homes as soon as it is safe to do so.

► Helping victims locate family members, secure their Helping victims locate family members, secure their homes and businesses against looting or further property homes and businesses against looting or further property damage, recover pets, find shelter with family members damage, recover pets, find shelter with family members or friends, and return to their homes and communities as or friends, and return to their homes and communities as quickly as possible will lessen the psychological impact of quickly as possible will lessen the psychological impact of the disaster and speed recovery.the disaster and speed recovery.

ResilienceResilience Some individuals and communities are more Some individuals and communities are more

resilient than others and thus recover more resilient than others and thus recover more quickly and with less outside assistance. quickly and with less outside assistance.

If local officials have developed effective If local officials have developed effective mitigation, preparedness, and response mitigation, preparedness, and response programs, they will have integrated measures to programs, they will have integrated measures to facilitate and speed disaster recovery.facilitate and speed disaster recovery.

Following a relatively small disaster, local Following a relatively small disaster, local officials can generally rely upon the assistance of officials can generally rely upon the assistance of churches, civic organizations, and other churches, civic organizations, and other nongovernmental organizations to assist disaster nongovernmental organizations to assist disaster victims. victims.

Following a major disaster, particularly if local Following a major disaster, particularly if local

resources were overwhelmed and assistance was resources were overwhelmed and assistance was requested from state and/or federal agencies, requested from state and/or federal agencies, few local resources may be available for few local resources may be available for communities to use in the recovery effort.communities to use in the recovery effort.

Rebuilding the social networks, including Rebuilding the social networks, including religious and secular community organizations, religious and secular community organizations, can provide support for individual and family can provide support for individual and family recovery and mechanisms to coordinate recovery and mechanisms to coordinate community action.community action.

If the disaster causes sufficient damage to If the disaster causes sufficient damage to warrant a presidential disaster declaration, the warrant a presidential disaster declaration, the affected communities and state, as well as affected communities and state, as well as individual disaster victims, are eligible for an individual disaster victims, are eligible for an array of federal disaster assistance.array of federal disaster assistance.

Disaster Assistance CentersDisaster Assistance Centers► As the agency responsible for As the agency responsible for

coordinating federal disaster programs, coordinating federal disaster programs, FEMA opens and operates FEMA opens and operates disaster disaster assistance centersassistance centers (DAC) to provide (DAC) to provide “one stop shopping” for disaster victims. “one stop shopping” for disaster victims.

► A DAC will have representatives from the A DAC will have representatives from the principal federal disaster relief agencies, principal federal disaster relief agencies, including FEMA and the Small Business including FEMA and the Small Business Administration (SBA), as well as from Administration (SBA), as well as from state and local agencies and from state and local agencies and from nongovernmental relief organizations.nongovernmental relief organizations.

Disaster AssistanceDisaster Assistance► Specific disaster assistance and recovery programs Specific disaster assistance and recovery programs

for individuals and businesses offered by the for individuals and businesses offered by the federal federal governmentgovernment include the following: include the following:

Assistance for individuals through the Assistance for individuals through the U.S. Department of U.S. Department of Agriculture’sAgriculture’s Food and Consumer Service;Food and Consumer Service;

Disaster housing assistance to repair homes, rent temporary Disaster housing assistance to repair homes, rent temporary housing, and assist with mortgages and rent;housing, and assist with mortgages and rent;

Disaster loans for individuals to repair property and, in rural Disaster loans for individuals to repair property and, in rural areas, loans through the areas, loans through the Farm Service Agency,Farm Service Agency, to repair to repair homes;homes;

Disaster loans for businesses, through the Disaster loans for businesses, through the Small Business Small Business Administration,Administration, for physical losses of property and for for physical losses of property and for economic injury resulting from the disaster;economic injury resulting from the disaster;

Disaster AssistanceDisaster Assistance The The Individual and Family Grant ProgramIndividual and Family Grant Program for victims for victims

with serious needs and expenses who do not have other with serious needs and expenses who do not have other kinds of assistance;kinds of assistance;

Assistance for farmers and ranchers, through the Assistance for farmers and ranchers, through the U.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture,Department of Agriculture, to repair damaged buildings, to repair damaged buildings, fencing, and other infrastructure; provide water to livestock fencing, and other infrastructure; provide water to livestock during droughts; and, through the during droughts; and, through the Uninsured Crop Uninsured Crop Disaster Assistance Program,Disaster Assistance Program, compensate for lost crops. compensate for lost crops.

Loans for farmers and ranchers, also through the Loans for farmers and ranchers, also through the U.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture,Department of Agriculture, for physical and economic for physical and economic losses if they are in a county designated as eligible for losses if they are in a county designated as eligible for federal assistance in a presidentially declared disaster or in federal assistance in a presidentially declared disaster or in a disaster declared by the Secretary of Agriculture or by a disaster declared by the Secretary of Agriculture or by officials of theofficials of the Farm Services Agency. Farm Services Agency.

Disaster Unemployment Assistance,Disaster Unemployment Assistance, through the through the U.S. U.S. Department of LaborDepartment of Labor (for FEMA), for individuals who have (for FEMA), for individuals who have been left unemployed by the disaster;been left unemployed by the disaster;

Disaster AssistanceDisaster Assistance Search and rescue, firefighting, evacuation, transportation Search and rescue, firefighting, evacuation, transportation

of food and supplies, and other response and recovery of food and supplies, and other response and recovery operations for which federal agencies, such as the operations for which federal agencies, such as the U.S. U.S. Forest ServiceForest Service or the or the U.S. Coast Guard,U.S. Coast Guard, may have may have special expertise;special expertise;

Tax assistance, through the Tax assistance, through the Internal Revenue Service,Internal Revenue Service, for individuals and businesses for tax return preparation for individuals and businesses for tax return preparation (to show losses) and for extensions of deadlines for (to show losses) and for extensions of deadlines for submitting returns;submitting returns;

Legal services for victims, coordinated by FEMA and using Legal services for victims, coordinated by FEMA and using bar associations and state attorney generals’ officesbar associations and state attorney generals’ offices resources;resources;

Assistance receiving Assistance receiving Social SecuritySocial Security benefits if checks benefits if checks are lost or recipients do not have regular addresses for are lost or recipients do not have regular addresses for mail delivery;mail delivery;

Disaster AssistanceDisaster Assistance Assistance for veterans, through the Assistance for veterans, through the Department Department

of Veteran Affairs,of Veteran Affairs, for eligible medical assistance, for eligible medical assistance, burial benefits, and access to VA resources (e.g., burial benefits, and access to VA resources (e.g., housing);housing);

Crisis counseling, community outreach, and Crisis counseling, community outreach, and community education, through the community education, through the Department of Department of Health and Human Services’ Center for Mental Health and Human Services’ Center for Mental Health ServicesHealth Services (coordinated by FEMA); and (coordinated by FEMA); and

The The Cora Brown Fund,Cora Brown Fund, administered by FEMA with administered by FEMA with the assistance of other government and nonprofit the assistance of other government and nonprofit agencies, for victims in presidentially declared agencies, for victims in presidentially declared disasters whose needs are not being met by other disasters whose needs are not being met by other disaster assistance programs, including emergency disaster assistance programs, including emergency home repair, medical care, and business restarts home repair, medical care, and business restarts (FEMA, 1997: 3-15 to 3-23; McCarthy, 2007).(FEMA, 1997: 3-15 to 3-23; McCarthy, 2007).

Disaster AssistanceDisaster Assistance► Even the Federal Reserve System has a role in Even the Federal Reserve System has a role in

assuring that money is available as soon as assuring that money is available as soon as possible through banks and ATMs in the disaster possible through banks and ATMs in the disaster area, so that people can purchase food and area, so that people can purchase food and water and other necessities. water and other necessities.

► By requesting federal disaster assistance, By requesting federal disaster assistance, communities may be required to implement communities may be required to implement mitigation programs to lessen the risk of future mitigation programs to lessen the risk of future disasters. The National Flood Insurance Program, disasters. The National Flood Insurance Program, for example, requires enrollment and the for example, requires enrollment and the implementation of mitigation measures in order implementation of mitigation measures in order for communities to qualify for disaster for communities to qualify for disaster assistance.assistance.

ExerciseExercise►What is the status of recovery efforts What is the status of recovery efforts

following the Bhopal disaster in India in following the Bhopal disaster in India in 1984 and the Indian Ocean tsunami of 1984 and the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004?2004?

►What other disasters that have necessitated What other disasters that have necessitated decades (or more) for economic and social decades (or more) for economic and social recovery?recovery?

►What kinds of memorials have been built for What kinds of memorials have been built for major airline crashes, the Oklahoma City major airline crashes, the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, and at the Pentagon and bombing in 1995, and at the Pentagon and Ground Zero for the victims of 9/11? Ground Zero for the victims of 9/11?

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

► What federal agencies might a disaster victim find What federal agencies might a disaster victim find represented in a disaster assistance center?represented in a disaster assistance center?

► How important is it that residents return to their homes How important is it that residents return to their homes as quickly as possible?as quickly as possible?

► What kinds of assistance are available from FEMA and What kinds of assistance are available from FEMA and other government sources?other government sources?

► What kinds of assistance are not available from What kinds of assistance are not available from government sources?government sources?

► Why are social networks important in disaster recovery?Why are social networks important in disaster recovery?► At what point should recovery be considered complete At what point should recovery be considered complete

or, at least, over? or, at least, over?

The Process of Damage The Process of Damage AssessmentAssessment

► The assessment of injury to persons The assessment of injury to persons and damage to property is a complex and damage to property is a complex process that may involve an analysis process that may involve an analysis of the disaster that reaches beyond of the disaster that reaches beyond the immediate disaster area.the immediate disaster area.

► The definition of “victim” most often The definition of “victim” most often is limited to those people directly is limited to those people directly affected by the disaster, and disaster affected by the disaster, and disaster assistance typically focuses on those assistance typically focuses on those people.people.

VictimsVictims► Many more people may be affected by the Many more people may be affected by the

disaster, however. One typology, for disaster, however. One typology, for example, lists the following categories of example, lists the following categories of victims:victims:

Primary victims,Primary victims, i.e., those who are directly i.e., those who are directly affected by the disaster;affected by the disaster;

Secondary victims,Secondary victims, i.e., those who suffer grief, i.e., those who suffer grief, guilt, and other negative feelings because their guilt, and other negative feelings because their relatives or friends were primary victims;relatives or friends were primary victims;

Tertiary victims,Tertiary victims, i.e., those who are involved in i.e., those who are involved in the disaster response and recovery efforts;the disaster response and recovery efforts;

Quarternary victims,Quarternary victims, i.e., those who are i.e., those who are concerned about the primary victims and feel concerned about the primary victims and feel sympathy for their plight;sympathy for their plight;

VictimsVictims Quinternary victims,Quinternary victims, i.e., those who “... lose i.e., those who “... lose

control when in proximity to disasters and either control when in proximity to disasters and either reveal their underlying psychopathology by their reveal their underlying psychopathology by their ghoulish preoccupation with cadavers or by their ghoulish preoccupation with cadavers or by their unruly behavior in mobs”; andunruly behavior in mobs”; and

Sesternary victims,Sesternary victims, i.e., those who feel some i.e., those who feel some connection to the disaster because they were connection to the disaster because they were lucky not to be primary or secondary victims lucky not to be primary or secondary victims themselves, failed to give a warning of impending themselves, failed to give a warning of impending danger to someone who became a victim, caused danger to someone who became a victim, caused someone to put themselves in danger, are friends someone to put themselves in danger, are friends or relatives of disaster workers, studied the or relatives of disaster workers, studied the disaster or worked with victims, or feel guilty disaster or worked with victims, or feel guilty because they benefited from the disaster (Taylor, because they benefited from the disaster (Taylor, 1989: 17-18).1989: 17-18).

Victims or SurvivorsVictims or Survivors► While some of the categories of victims are not what While some of the categories of victims are not what

we normally think of as disaster victims, those groups we normally think of as disaster victims, those groups and individuals may suffer significant distress even and individuals may suffer significant distress even though they are relatively far removed from the though they are relatively far removed from the disaster scene. They may well need stress counseling disaster scene. They may well need stress counseling and even more intensive psychological assistance. and even more intensive psychological assistance.

► Craig Fugate, FEMA administrator under the Obama Craig Fugate, FEMA administrator under the Obama administration, has argued that calling people administration, has argued that calling people “victims” tends to encourage them to think of “victims” tends to encourage them to think of themselves as victims. Instead, he has suggested themselves as victims. Instead, he has suggested that they should be thought off and referred to as that they should be thought off and referred to as ““survivorssurvivors.” Emergency managers focus on the .” Emergency managers focus on the living, i.e., the survivors, rather than those who lose living, i.e., the survivors, rather than those who lose their lives during a disaster.their lives during a disaster.

Damage AssessmentDamage Assessment► State and local governments do a preliminary State and local governments do a preliminary

damage assessment following major disasters damage assessment following major disasters in order to document the need for federal in order to document the need for federal disaster assistance so that they can qualify for disaster assistance so that they can qualify for a presidential disaster declaration or other aid.a presidential disaster declaration or other aid.

Damage assessments focusing on individual Damage assessments focusing on individual property are conducted in the immediate aftermath property are conducted in the immediate aftermath of a disaster to determine the eligibility of individual of a disaster to determine the eligibility of individual property owners for assistance.property owners for assistance.

Following Hurricane Hugo in 1989, assessors Following Hurricane Hugo in 1989, assessors encountered difficulties verifying damage and encountered difficulties verifying damage and determining the eligibility of victims for assistance.determining the eligibility of victims for assistance.

Damage AssessmentDamage Assessment Because many poor residents did not own the Because many poor residents did not own the

property on which they lived, they were not property on which they lived, they were not eligible for assistance to rebuild or repair their eligible for assistance to rebuild or repair their homes. And, even if they did own their homes, homes. And, even if they did own their homes, they often lacked the necessary documentation they often lacked the necessary documentation to prove it. Verifying personal property is also a to prove it. Verifying personal property is also a problem following major disasters because the problem following major disasters because the damage may be so great that little remains as damage may be so great that little remains as evidence.evidence.

Since Hurricanes Hugo and Andrew, the damage Since Hurricanes Hugo and Andrew, the damage assessment processes have been improved assessment processes have been improved considerably. Preliminary assessments can be considerably. Preliminary assessments can be made satellite and other aerial imaging.made satellite and other aerial imaging.

Damage AssessmentDamage Assessment► FEMA provides guidance on the methods FEMA provides guidance on the methods

and requirements for damage assessment and requirements for damage assessment and, to determine eligibility for and, to determine eligibility for Individual Individual Assistance,Assistance, activates activates Disaster Disaster Assistance EmployeesAssistance Employees (DAEs) to man (DAEs) to man the the Disaster Assistance CentersDisaster Assistance Centers and to and to verify the damage claimed by property verify the damage claimed by property owners.owners.

DAEs are trained, equipped, and sent into the DAEs are trained, equipped, and sent into the field to meet with disaster victims and to field to meet with disaster victims and to assess their property damage.assess their property damage.

Inspection reports are collected, reviewed, and Inspection reports are collected, reviewed, and used to determine eligibility for assistance.used to determine eligibility for assistance.

Damage AssessorsDamage Assessors The tasks of the DAE inspectors are to The tasks of the DAE inspectors are to

► locate the disaster victims,locate the disaster victims,► make appointments to examine the property make appointments to examine the property

in question,in question,► update addresses and telephone numbers, update addresses and telephone numbers, ► verify that the property owner actually verify that the property owner actually

occupied the property during the disaster,occupied the property during the disaster,► survey the property to determine the level of survey the property to determine the level of

damage, anddamage, and► verify ownership of the property.verify ownership of the property.

Damage AssessorsDamage Assessors The tasks of DAE inspectors may be The tasks of DAE inspectors may be

complicated by a variety of factors, such complicated by a variety of factors, such as those noted by an inspector during the as those noted by an inspector during the Northridge earthquake recovery (Klebs, Northridge earthquake recovery (Klebs, 1996), including1996), including► victims being difficult to locate after changing victims being difficult to locate after changing

housing,housing,► victims not speaking English,victims not speaking English,► some people not trusting the authorities doing some people not trusting the authorities doing

the inspections,the inspections,► verifying victim’s location during the disaster,verifying victim’s location during the disaster,

Damage AssessorsDamage Assessors►verifying the loss of personal property,verifying the loss of personal property,►locating the property when there has been locating the property when there has been

extensive damage,extensive damage,►ownership of the property,ownership of the property,►extent of the damage, particularly if the extent of the damage, particularly if the

preliminary assessment is not accurate,preliminary assessment is not accurate,►assessing damage to unusual property, e.g., assessing damage to unusual property, e.g.,

boats and unique homes, andboats and unique homes, and►fraudulent claims.fraudulent claims.

Damage AssessorsDamage Assessors Assessing damage to businesses can Assessing damage to businesses can

also be difficult. also be difficult. ► Businesses can suffer economic losses, even Businesses can suffer economic losses, even

if they are not physically damaged, if they are not physically damaged, ► lack of water or electricity may keep them lack of water or electricity may keep them

from reopening, \from reopening, \► customers and suppliers may not be able to customers and suppliers may not be able to

reach them, or reach them, or ► customers may not have the money to buy customers may not have the money to buy

their goods and services (Tierney, Nigg, and their goods and services (Tierney, Nigg, and Dahlhamer, 1996).Dahlhamer, 1996).

Business RecoveryBusiness Recovery The recovery of businesses is crucial to the The recovery of businesses is crucial to the

recovery of the community, because recovery of the community, because businessesbusinesses► provide food and other essential items for the provide food and other essential items for the

community,community,► provide jobs, and residents who have hourly wage provide jobs, and residents who have hourly wage

jobs do not have income if they are not working,jobs do not have income if they are not working,► can demonstrate that the community is can demonstrate that the community is

recovering and, therefore, can boost the morale recovering and, therefore, can boost the morale of residents, andof residents, and

► can encourage public and private investment in can encourage public and private investment in the community and thus speed recovery.the community and thus speed recovery.

Business RecoveryBusiness Recovery Small businesses, too, may lack the Small businesses, too, may lack the

financial resources to reopen, even if financial resources to reopen, even if disaster loans and grants cover most of disaster loans and grants cover most of their losses.their losses.► Some are undervalued and cannot get Some are undervalued and cannot get

sufficient loans to replace lost stock and sufficient loans to replace lost stock and rebuild facilities. rebuild facilities.

► Many are also underinsured and receive too Many are also underinsured and receive too little compensation to cover all their losses. little compensation to cover all their losses.

Business RecoveryBusiness Recovery►For some small businesses, particularly family-For some small businesses, particularly family-

owned firms, the owners simply may not have owned firms, the owners simply may not have the time and energy to rebuild and may choose the time and energy to rebuild and may choose to close instead. to close instead.

►Because of the impact on its businesses, a Because of the impact on its businesses, a major disaster can literally decimate the major disaster can literally decimate the economy of a small town, causing economy of a small town, causing unemployment and social disruption as unemployment and social disruption as businesses close and families move out. Large businesses close and families move out. Large towns and cities usually have economic bases towns and cities usually have economic bases large enough to survive disasters, but small large enough to survive disasters, but small towns may not.towns may not.

Local Recovery EffortsLocal Recovery Efforts Local governments may have to provide property Local governments may have to provide property

tax relief or use general revenue bonds in order to tax relief or use general revenue bonds in order to encourage rebuilding and/or to recruit new encourage rebuilding and/or to recruit new businesses.businesses.

The scale or scope of the damage may also The scale or scope of the damage may also complicate damage assessment. For example, complicate damage assessment. For example, flood recovery efforts typically cover such things asflood recovery efforts typically cover such things as► decontaminating water supplies;decontaminating water supplies;► replanting crops;replanting crops;► demolishing damaged buildings; anddemolishing damaged buildings; and► monitoring disease from contaminated food and water monitoring disease from contaminated food and water

supplies, as well as water-borne diseases and conditions supplies, as well as water-borne diseases and conditions caused by hazardous materials and untreated sewage.caused by hazardous materials and untreated sewage.

Flood RecoveryFlood Recovery Floods can also damage and destroy bridges, Floods can also damage and destroy bridges,

roads, schools, libraries, and other public facilities roads, schools, libraries, and other public facilities and infrastructure.and infrastructure.► Floods can knock buildings off their foundations and Floods can knock buildings off their foundations and

sweep them downstream, along with automobiles, sweep them downstream, along with automobiles, storage tanks, and other large objects.storage tanks, and other large objects.

► For example, during the south Georgia floods of 1995, For example, during the south Georgia floods of 1995, cemeteries along the banks of the rivers were inundated cemeteries along the banks of the rivers were inundated and coffins were uncovered and swept downstream. and coffins were uncovered and swept downstream. Because of the lack of identification on the coffins, there Because of the lack of identification on the coffins, there were problems determining where they belonged and were problems determining where they belonged and who should be contacted. There were potential problems who should be contacted. There were potential problems with disease and very real problems because of the with disease and very real problems because of the distress to families whose loved ones were missing. State distress to families whose loved ones were missing. State law now requires identification on coffins.law now requires identification on coffins.

Flood RecoveryFlood Recovery►A study of the south Georgia floods in 1995 A study of the south Georgia floods in 1995

determined that approximately 10 percent of determined that approximately 10 percent of the owners of flooded properties had flood the owners of flooded properties had flood insurance, and that their insurance typically insurance, and that their insurance typically covered only the outstanding balance of their covered only the outstanding balance of their mortgages and not the full value of the property mortgages and not the full value of the property or the contents of the homes and businesses. or the contents of the homes and businesses. More often than not, the loss claims exceeded More often than not, the loss claims exceeded the coverage, and property owners who applied the coverage, and property owners who applied for Small Business Administration disaster loans for Small Business Administration disaster loans generally received more from the loans than generally received more from the loans than from their insurance (Mittler, 1997: 154).from their insurance (Mittler, 1997: 154).

Flood or Wind?Flood or Wind?►Following the landfall of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, there Following the landfall of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, there

was considerable conflict between insurance companies was considerable conflict between insurance companies and their policyholders over the cause of damage. In and their policyholders over the cause of damage. In many cases, damage caused by storm surge and inland many cases, damage caused by storm surge and inland flooding was not covered by insurance unless the flooding was not covered by insurance unless the policyholder had purchased flood insurance. Damage policyholder had purchased flood insurance. Damage caused by wind was covered, although policyholders caused by wind was covered, although policyholders frequently had to sue their insurance companies to get frequently had to sue their insurance companies to get compensation (see, e.g., Birdsall, 2009).compensation (see, e.g., Birdsall, 2009).

►Many homes and businesses damaged by storm surge Many homes and businesses damaged by storm surge and inland flooding were located in areas not considered and inland flooding were located in areas not considered subject to flooding prior to Katrina’s landfall, thus subject to flooding prior to Katrina’s landfall, thus property owners did not see the need for flood insurance. property owners did not see the need for flood insurance. Floodplain maps were often out of date, as well.Floodplain maps were often out of date, as well.

Impact of TechnologyImpact of Technology► The distribution of disaster assistance The distribution of disaster assistance

has become much faster because new has become much faster because new technologies are facilitating damage technologies are facilitating damage assessment, the processing of claims, assessment, the processing of claims, and the transfer of funds directly to and the transfer of funds directly to property owners’ bank accounts. In property owners’ bank accounts. In some cases, it may only be a matter some cases, it may only be a matter of a few days between property loss of a few days between property loss and the receipt of assistance.and the receipt of assistance.

Recovery and SustainabilityRecovery and Sustainability► Disaster recovery is increasingly being tied Disaster recovery is increasingly being tied

to to sustainable development.sustainable development. Communities are encouraged to develop Communities are encouraged to develop mitigation strategies to prevent or lessen mitigation strategies to prevent or lessen the impact of disasters and to integrate the impact of disasters and to integrate those principles into the recovery effort and those principles into the recovery effort and into broader community development and into broader community development and planning efforts in order to ensure minimal planning efforts in order to ensure minimal environmental damage and increase the environmental damage and increase the quality of life in the community.quality of life in the community.

ExerciseExercise► Ask students how they feel about recent Ask students how they feel about recent

major disasters, such as the January 2010 major disasters, such as the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti, the February 2010 earthquake in Haiti, the February 2010 earthquake and tsunami in Chile, and the earthquake and tsunami in Chile, and the April 2010 earthquake in China. Vivid April 2010 earthquake in China. Vivid coverage of disasters on television and in the coverage of disasters on television and in the print media has an impact upon a wide print media has an impact upon a wide audience not directly affected by the disaster. audience not directly affected by the disaster. Ask students about disasters that may have Ask students about disasters that may have affected family members or close friends and affected family members or close friends and how the events affected them personally and how the events affected them personally and ask them whether people not directly affected ask them whether people not directly affected by a disaster should be considered victims.by a disaster should be considered victims.

ExerciseExerciseRobert Klebs’s “Memoir of a FEMA Inspector” (1996) details the Robert Klebs’s “Memoir of a FEMA Inspector” (1996) details the

activities of a damage assessor following the 1994 Northridge activities of a damage assessor following the 1994 Northridge earthquake in California. What lessons can be drawn from earthquake in California. What lessons can be drawn from Klebs’s experience in terms of the following:Klebs’s experience in terms of the following:

► The challenge of assessing damage following a major disaster The challenge of assessing damage following a major disaster (e.g., difficulty of the task).(e.g., difficulty of the task).

► The challenge of dealing with a variety of cultures (e.g., The challenge of dealing with a variety of cultures (e.g., language differences).language differences).

► The rewarding nature of disaster work (e.g., helping people).The rewarding nature of disaster work (e.g., helping people).► The image of FEMA among many of the victims (i.e., reference The image of FEMA among many of the victims (i.e., reference

to “Mr. FEMA”).to “Mr. FEMA”).► The condition of some communities (e.g., poor housing, poor The condition of some communities (e.g., poor housing, poor

living conditions).living conditions).► The human spirit (e.g., staying in damaged homes, rebuilding, The human spirit (e.g., staying in damaged homes, rebuilding,

etc.).etc.).

ExerciseExercise► Ian Birdsall’s “Looking for the FEMA Guy: Part 1,” in Ian Birdsall’s “Looking for the FEMA Guy: Part 1,” in

Administration & Society (July 2009) describes the Administration & Society (July 2009) describes the author’s experience in Waveland, Mississippi, author’s experience in Waveland, Mississippi, following the landfall of Hurricane Katrina in August following the landfall of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005. 2005.

► Why could Professor Birdsall not find a FEMA Why could Professor Birdsall not find a FEMA representative when he was seeking assistance after representative when he was seeking assistance after the loss of his home?the loss of his home?

► What should have been done to address the needs of What should have been done to address the needs of Birdsall and other residents of the Mississippi Birdsall and other residents of the Mississippi community?community?

► What should be done to help residents whose What should be done to help residents whose insurance claims were denied? insurance claims were denied?

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

►How important is it that businesses be How important is it that businesses be reopened as quickly as possible?reopened as quickly as possible?

► Should people who experience property Should people who experience property loss, loss of a relative or friend, and/or injury loss, loss of a relative or friend, and/or injury be referred to as “victims” or “survivors?” be referred to as “victims” or “survivors?” How important is that distinction?How important is that distinction?

►What kinds of problems can be encountered What kinds of problems can be encountered in doing damage assessments and how can in doing damage assessments and how can those problems be overcome?those problems be overcome?

The Politics of Disaster The Politics of Disaster RecoveryRecovery

► The common wisdom in emergency management The common wisdom in emergency management is that it is far easier to get resources for disaster is that it is far easier to get resources for disaster response and recovery than it is for disaster response and recovery than it is for disaster mitigation and preparedness.mitigation and preparedness.

► Disaster recovery efforts generally are most Disaster recovery efforts generally are most effective and quickest near the disaster assistance effective and quickest near the disaster assistance centers because victims have better access to centers because victims have better access to professional advice and assistance, agencies may professional advice and assistance, agencies may be more familiar with victim needs and the extent be more familiar with victim needs and the extent of damage in the community, and the distribution of damage in the community, and the distribution of food and other assistance will be easiest for of food and other assistance will be easiest for relief agencies. relief agencies.


► Communities are not always in agreement about Communities are not always in agreement about development (see Session No. 9 on the politics of development (see Session No. 9 on the politics of land-use planning) and fundamental development land-use planning) and fundamental development issues arise when communities suffer catastrophic issues arise when communities suffer catastrophic disasters. disasters.

► Entire neighborhoods may be demolished and Entire neighborhoods may be demolished and residents may be required to follow newer building residents may be required to follow newer building codes and zoning ordinances in the reconstruction codes and zoning ordinances in the reconstruction of their homes. New setback requirements, i.e., of their homes. New setback requirements, i.e., prescribed distances between structures and prescribed distances between structures and property lines, for example, might prevent property lines, for example, might prevent homeowners from rebuilding on the same site that homeowners from rebuilding on the same site that the original home stood on or even on the same the original home stood on or even on the same foundation. foundation.


► In flood-prone areas, officials may wish to restrict In flood-prone areas, officials may wish to restrict or even prohibit rebuilding homes and businesses or even prohibit rebuilding homes and businesses that are likely to be flooded again. This is one that are likely to be flooded again. This is one reason that areas of New Orleans flooded during reason that areas of New Orleans flooded during the Katrina disaster have not been rebuilt. the Katrina disaster have not been rebuilt.

► It is common for communities to have homes, It is common for communities to have homes, businesses, and other structures, even schools businesses, and other structures, even schools and hospitals, built in areas that pose a risk or are and hospitals, built in areas that pose a risk or are simply incompatible with neighboring properties, simply incompatible with neighboring properties, such as apartment complexes in neighborhoods such as apartment complexes in neighborhoods of single-family homes. When structures are of single-family homes. When structures are destroyed or severely damaged, property owners destroyed or severely damaged, property owners may not rebuild on the same sites may not rebuild on the same sites


► When residents have disaster loans and/or When residents have disaster loans and/or insurance to replace destroyed homes, they may insurance to replace destroyed homes, they may well choose to build with new designs and well choose to build with new designs and materials, more floor space, more floors, different materials, more floor space, more floors, different placement on their lots, and so on. Or the loans placement on their lots, and so on. Or the loans and insurance may not be sufficient to build a and insurance may not be sufficient to build a home comparable to the one lost. Neighbors may home comparable to the one lost. Neighbors may not like the plans for the new home. not like the plans for the new home.

For example, following the firestorm that decimated For example, following the firestorm that decimated hundreds of homes in the largely affluent Oakland hundreds of homes in the largely affluent Oakland Hills/Berkeley area of California in 1991, residents were Hills/Berkeley area of California in 1991, residents were concerned about “view management” as neighbors concerned about “view management” as neighbors constructed homes that blocked their views of San constructed homes that blocked their views of San Francisco Bay (see, e.g., Sutphen, 1996).Francisco Bay (see, e.g., Sutphen, 1996).


There have been controversies over using There have been controversies over using mobile homes for temporary shelter of mobile homes for temporary shelter of disaster victims when their communities have disaster victims when their communities have prohibited or strictly limited such structures. prohibited or strictly limited such structures.

Following major disasters, the rebuilding may Following major disasters, the rebuilding may begin so quickly, as it did in the Oakland Hills begin so quickly, as it did in the Oakland Hills following the fire, that city and county offices following the fire, that city and county offices may be overwhelmed by the number of may be overwhelmed by the number of property owners seeking building permits and, property owners seeking building permits and, thus, regulating construction may very thus, regulating construction may very difficult.difficult.


► As in any kind of intergovernmental As in any kind of intergovernmental and/or multi-organizational effort, and/or multi-organizational effort, conflicts arise over legal authority, conflicts arise over legal authority, organizational jurisdictions, personal organizational jurisdictions, personal prerogatives, and basic values. Such prerogatives, and basic values. Such conflicts may interfere with disaster conflicts may interfere with disaster recovery efforts or, at minimum, recovery efforts or, at minimum, make them more difficult.make them more difficult.


► Conflicts may also arise among the Conflicts may also arise among the disaster relief organizations becausedisaster relief organizations because

Organizations have missions for which Organizations have missions for which they receive public monies, private they receive public monies, private contributions and other resources; and contributions and other resources; and if they don’t fulfill those missions, they if they don’t fulfill those missions, they may find themselves without funding;may find themselves without funding;

Organizations have value systems and Organizations have value systems and cultures that may not interact well with cultures that may not interact well with other organizations; other organizations;


Organizations may even have goals that Organizations may even have goals that conflict with the goals of other disaster relief conflict with the goals of other disaster relief organizations, such as repairing homes very organizations, such as repairing homes very quickly without regard for mitigating the next quickly without regard for mitigating the next disaster or possibility that the home will be disaster or possibility that the home will be condemned and ultimately torn down; andcondemned and ultimately torn down; and

Organizations may attempt to use the Organizations may attempt to use the disaster relief effort to achieve some benefit disaster relief effort to achieve some benefit that will enhance their public image, that will enhance their public image, prestige, or resource base, such as using the prestige, or resource base, such as using the effort to identify potential customers.effort to identify potential customers.


► The very nature of disasters causes conflict, anger, and The very nature of disasters causes conflict, anger, and distrust among victims, government authorities, and other distrust among victims, government authorities, and other relief officials. The disaster itself is traumatic, and recovery relief officials. The disaster itself is traumatic, and recovery may be very frustrating for victims. Long hours, poor may be very frustrating for victims. Long hours, poor conditions, and difficult tasks create stress for disaster relief conditions, and difficult tasks create stress for disaster relief workers. When casualties are children or the injuries are workers. When casualties are children or the injuries are particularly gruesome, the stress levels increase. particularly gruesome, the stress levels increase.

For example, the first hand reports from the response to the For example, the first hand reports from the response to the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City in 1995 mention the psychological impact of the disaster on the 1995 mention the psychological impact of the disaster on the responders. Assistant Fire Chief John Hansen described responders. Assistant Fire Chief John Hansen described emergency responders as being “tortured by the victims we emergency responders as being “tortured by the victims we could see trapped in the debris” and said that the “constant could see trapped in the debris” and said that the “constant presence of death weighed heavily on the rescuers” (1995: 11).presence of death weighed heavily on the rescuers” (1995: 11).

Many disaster relief organizations limit the amount of time that Many disaster relief organizations limit the amount of time that their workers are deployed to reduce the amount of stress and their workers are deployed to reduce the amount of stress and fatigue that they experience. Deployments are often for two or fatigue that they experience. Deployments are often for two or three weeks.three weeks.


► While crises can encourage cooperation, they While crises can encourage cooperation, they also afford opportunities for people to pursue also afford opportunities for people to pursue their own interests. Agencies may be jealous their own interests. Agencies may be jealous about their jurisdictions and expertise and be about their jurisdictions and expertise and be less cooperative than they might be.less cooperative than they might be.

► As recovery progresses, too, the promise of As recovery progresses, too, the promise of federal and state assistance can create conflicts. federal and state assistance can create conflicts. There have been cases of local business people There have been cases of local business people and homeowners criticizing emergency and homeowners criticizing emergency management officials for being effective enough management officials for being effective enough to limit damage to such an extent that victims to limit damage to such an extent that victims did not qualify for low interest disaster loans and did not qualify for low interest disaster loans and other assistance. other assistance.


► The politics of disaster recovery also includes protecting The politics of disaster recovery also includes protecting victims from the onslaught of insurance adjusters, repair victims from the onslaught of insurance adjusters, repair people, “good Samaritans,” and others who converge on people, “good Samaritans,” and others who converge on the disaster area. the disaster area.

Some provide essential services and are competent and Some provide essential services and are competent and honest. Some are armed with little more than good intentions honest. Some are armed with little more than good intentions and may slow the recovery effort because they have few and may slow the recovery effort because they have few skills. And some do not have good intentions at all and may skills. And some do not have good intentions at all and may take advantage of residents who have been victimized take advantage of residents who have been victimized already by the disaster. already by the disaster.

For example, following a disastrous tornado in the suburbs For example, following a disastrous tornado in the suburbs north of Atlanta in 1998, hundreds of repair people descended north of Atlanta in 1998, hundreds of repair people descended upon the affected communities. Law enforcement authorities upon the affected communities. Law enforcement authorities first had to secure the area to prevent looting and keep out all first had to secure the area to prevent looting and keep out all but those who could prove they were residents. Then they but those who could prove they were residents. Then they had to identify those repair people who had agreements with had to identify those repair people who had agreements with property owners and should be given access to the area. property owners and should be given access to the area.


Because the state of Georgia does not strictly regulate Because the state of Georgia does not strictly regulate the building trades, property owners often do not the building trades, property owners often do not know whether building repair firms are competent and know whether building repair firms are competent and trustworthy. This is a general problem for property trustworthy. This is a general problem for property owners in the state, but a particular problem for owners in the state, but a particular problem for property owners affected by disasters, when they are property owners affected by disasters, when they are trying to arrange for repairs quickly and reputable trying to arrange for repairs quickly and reputable firms may have more business than they can handle.firms may have more business than they can handle.

A similar problem occurred in Florida following A similar problem occurred in Florida following Hurricane Andrew, and experts have suggested an Hurricane Andrew, and experts have suggested an expedited licensing process to ensure that individuals expedited licensing process to ensure that individuals and firms contracting to do repairs are competent and and firms contracting to do repairs are competent and are held legally liable for the quality of their service.are held legally liable for the quality of their service.


There were also cases in the Hurricane There were also cases in the Hurricane Andrew recovery effort in which church Andrew recovery effort in which church groups and other “good Samaritans” assisted groups and other “good Samaritans” assisted in reroofing and repairing homes that were in reroofing and repairing homes that were ultimately torn down. Because these well-ultimately torn down. Because these well-meaning groups were operating meaning groups were operating independently of the official recovery effort, independently of the official recovery effort, they were unaware of the status of they were unaware of the status of structures and wasted time and materials structures and wasted time and materials that could have been used elsewhere that could have been used elsewhere (Waugh and Hy, 1996).(Waugh and Hy, 1996).

Managing RecoveryManaging Recovery► The National Association of Independent Insurers The National Association of Independent Insurers

(NAII) recommends that property owners take (NAII) recommends that property owners take steps to minimize their likelihood of being steps to minimize their likelihood of being victimized by contractors following a disaster. victimized by contractors following a disaster. NAII suggests that property owners avoid NAII suggests that property owners avoid contractors whocontractors who

arrive without being called;arrive without being called; have no office or local telephone number;have no office or local telephone number; lack references and equipment;lack references and equipment; quote below-market prices;quote below-market prices; demand cash or payment before starting work or;demand cash or payment before starting work or; cannot show licenses, proof of insurance, or bonding cannot show licenses, proof of insurance, or bonding

(USAA, 1998: 35).(USAA, 1998: 35).

Managing Recovery Managing Recovery ► Some insurance companies bring in Some insurance companies bring in

their own designated contractors to seal their own designated contractors to seal storm-damaged buildings to prevent storm-damaged buildings to prevent rain and other secondary damage until rain and other secondary damage until the buildings can be repaired. Quick the buildings can be repaired. Quick action can mitigate the effects of the action can mitigate the effects of the disaster. Such programs reduce disaster. Such programs reduce property losses, speed recovery, provide property losses, speed recovery, provide quick assistance to policyholders, and quick assistance to policyholders, and reduce the costs to the insurance reduce the costs to the insurance company (Hicks, 1998: 34).company (Hicks, 1998: 34).

Managing RecoveryManaging Recovery► Other options may be to Other options may be to

Limit access of outsiders to the disaster area Limit access of outsiders to the disaster area until such time as residents choose to let them until such time as residents choose to let them help (i.e., contract for their services or invite help (i.e., contract for their services or invite them to help as volunteers);them to help as volunteers);

License builders and repair people to ensure License builders and repair people to ensure that they are competent and reliable;that they are competent and reliable;

Require that all builders and repair people be Require that all builders and repair people be bonded (insured), so that anyone not receiving bonded (insured), so that anyone not receiving the service they paid for can seek legal redress the service they paid for can seek legal redress with reasonable expectation of repayment;with reasonable expectation of repayment;

Managing RecoveryManaging Recovery Impose strict penalties on contractors and Impose strict penalties on contractors and

vendors who victimize disaster victims vendors who victimize disaster victims (similar to legislation that imposes such (similar to legislation that imposes such penalties on those who defraud or cheat penalties on those who defraud or cheat elderly residents); and/orelderly residents); and/or

Develop a “black list” of individuals and Develop a “black list” of individuals and firms that are not allowed to offer their firms that are not allowed to offer their services to disaster victims because of services to disaster victims because of prior behavior. [This option may have prior behavior. [This option may have legal repercussions.]legal repercussions.]

ExerciseExercise►Disaster victims may be victimized a Disaster victims may be victimized a

second time by incompetent and/or second time by incompetent and/or dishonest building contractors, tree dishonest building contractors, tree trimmers, and other contractors. They trimmers, and other contractors. They may also be victimized by clergy and may also be victimized by clergy and others who are not trained to provide others who are not trained to provide grief, stress, and other psychological grief, stress, and other psychological counseling. Should untrained counselors counseling. Should untrained counselors also be excluded from disaster areas and also be excluded from disaster areas and what might be the effect of such what might be the effect of such limitations. limitations.

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions► How should communities deal with conflicts How should communities deal with conflicts

that arise over rebuilding of homes and that arise over rebuilding of homes and businesses?businesses?

► How should communities deal with pressures How should communities deal with pressures to issue building permits and approve plans to issue building permits and approve plans very quickly when staff resources may be very quickly when staff resources may be insufficient to monitor building appropriately?insufficient to monitor building appropriately?

► Why might there be conflict among disaster Why might there be conflict among disaster relief agencies?relief agencies?

► How should governments protect disaster How should governments protect disaster victims from “good Samaritans” and victims from “good Samaritans” and dishonest people, alike? dishonest people, alike?

Major Administrative IssuesMajor Administrative Issues► As well as raising political issues for state and As well as raising political issues for state and

local officials, disaster recovery efforts raise local officials, disaster recovery efforts raise serious administrative issues for local serious administrative issues for local governments. For example, local officials governments. For example, local officials typically are concerned withtypically are concerned with

maintaining essential public services;maintaining essential public services; securing funding for damage to public facilities and securing funding for damage to public facilities and

infrastructure and reimbursement for the local infrastructure and reimbursement for the local government’s expenditures during the disaster government’s expenditures during the disaster operation;operation;

replacing equipment lost during the disaster operation; replacing equipment lost during the disaster operation; andand

addressing the longer-term health and safety needs of addressing the longer-term health and safety needs of residents and government employees.residents and government employees.

Major Administrative IssuesMajor Administrative Issues► Disaster recovery often puts extraordinary Disaster recovery often puts extraordinary

demands on local governments. For example,demands on local governments. For example, police and fire departments have to provide police and fire departments have to provide

normal public safety services as well as providing normal public safety services as well as providing extra security or protection for structures that may extra security or protection for structures that may have been damaged or left unsecured;have been damaged or left unsecured;

building inspection offices may be overwhelmed building inspection offices may be overwhelmed with applications for building permits, with too with applications for building permits, with too little staff to provide timely review and adequate little staff to provide timely review and adequate inspection of construction;inspection of construction;

Major Administrative IssuesMajor Administrative Issues public works departments may have to defer public works departments may have to defer

normal maintenance of water, sewer, and storm normal maintenance of water, sewer, and storm water lines so that equipment can be used to water lines so that equipment can be used to repair damage sustained during the disaster and repair damage sustained during the disaster and to remove debris;to remove debris;

public schools and other facilities that may have public schools and other facilities that may have been used as temporary shelters and/or feeding been used as temporary shelters and/or feeding stations may have clean-up and repair costs; andstations may have clean-up and repair costs; and

all departments may be understaffed as personnel all departments may be understaffed as personnel mobilized for the disaster operation are permitted mobilized for the disaster operation are permitted time to rest and recover before transitioning into time to rest and recover before transitioning into normal operations.normal operations.

Major Administrative IssuesMajor Administrative Issues► Securing funding for damage to public Securing funding for damage to public

facilities and infrastructure and facilities and infrastructure and reimbursement for local government reimbursement for local government expenditures during the disaster operation expenditures during the disaster operation will take time.will take time.

► Because state and federal disaster assistance Because state and federal disaster assistance is largely contingent upon documented need is largely contingent upon documented need at the local level, local officials are obliged to at the local level, local officials are obliged to provide a reasonably accurate assessment of provide a reasonably accurate assessment of damage in order to qualify for assistance.damage in order to qualify for assistance.

► There are a variety of disaster assistance There are a variety of disaster assistance programs for which state and local programs for which state and local governments may qualify. governments may qualify.

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► Specific federal Specific federal Public Assistance, Public Assistance, to restore to restore

facilities that serve public purposes and to help facilities that serve public purposes and to help whole communities recover from disasters includeswhole communities recover from disasters includes

FEMA’sFEMA’s program for repair or replacement of disaster- program for repair or replacement of disaster-damaged facilities and infrastructure, such as public roads damaged facilities and infrastructure, such as public roads and streets; dams, levees, and drainage channels; police and streets; dams, levees, and drainage channels; police and fire stations, libraries, public office buildings and and fire stations, libraries, public office buildings and similar structures; utility systems; and public park and similar structures; utility systems; and public park and recreational facilities;recreational facilities;

The The Farm Service Agency’sFarm Service Agency’s program for rural water program for rural water systems and waste disposal systems;systems and waste disposal systems;

The The U.S. Department of Health and Human U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’sServices’s program to assist state and local social service program to assist state and local social service agencies with disaster-related health measures; andagencies with disaster-related health measures; and

The The U.S. Department of Defense and other agencies,U.S. Department of Defense and other agencies, through FEMA, for such services as debris removal (FEMA, through FEMA, for such services as debris removal (FEMA, 1997: 3-24 to 3-27; McCarthy, 2007).1997: 3-24 to 3-27; McCarthy, 2007).

Public AssistancePublic Assistance The The Farm Service Agency’sFarm Service Agency’s program for program for

rural water systems and waste disposal rural water systems and waste disposal systems;systems;

The The U.S. Department of Health and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’sHuman Services’s program to assist program to assist state and local social service agencies state and local social service agencies with disaster-related health measures; andwith disaster-related health measures; and

The The U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Department of Defense and other agencies,other agencies, through FEMA, for such through FEMA, for such services as debris removal (FEMA, 1997: services as debris removal (FEMA, 1997: 3-24 to 3-27; McCarthy, 2007).3-24 to 3-27; McCarthy, 2007).

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► Because state and federal disaster Because state and federal disaster

assistance is largely contingent assistance is largely contingent upon documented need at the local upon documented need at the local level, local officials are obliged to level, local officials are obliged to provide a reasonably accurate provide a reasonably accurate assessment of damage in order to assessment of damage in order to qualify for assistance.qualify for assistance.

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► For reimbursement of expenditures For reimbursement of expenditures

during a disaster operation and the during a disaster operation and the recovery effort, local governments recovery effort, local governments have to have to

determine what expenditures are determine what expenditures are reimbursable under federal law;reimbursable under federal law;

document those expenditures; anddocument those expenditures; and submit a request for reimbursement.submit a request for reimbursement.

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► Separating out the extraordinary Separating out the extraordinary

expenditures incurred during the disaster expenditures incurred during the disaster operation from those expenditures that operation from those expenditures that reflect the regular costs of government reflect the regular costs of government operations can be very time consuming and operations can be very time consuming and difficult. difficult.

► The regional office of FEMA will provide The regional office of FEMA will provide guidance concerning reimbursable guidance concerning reimbursable expenditures and proper documentation, but expenditures and proper documentation, but it is the responsibility of local agencies to it is the responsibility of local agencies to collect the needed information and to submit collect the needed information and to submit the documentation.the documentation.

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► Reimbursement may take months as federal and Reimbursement may take months as federal and

local officials review the documentation and local officials review the documentation and make determinations concerning the nature of make determinations concerning the nature of the expenditures.the expenditures.

► The uncertainty of federal reimbursement, as The uncertainty of federal reimbursement, as well as the opportunity to invest in well as the opportunity to invest in redevelopment, may also force local redevelopment, may also force local governments to raise taxes to fund some of the governments to raise taxes to fund some of the recovery.recovery.

► Federal disaster assistance programs may Federal disaster assistance programs may provide funding to replace some of the provide funding to replace some of the equipment damaged or lost during the disaster, equipment damaged or lost during the disaster, but may not replace all.but may not replace all.

► Other sources may be found to replace equipment Other sources may be found to replace equipment lost or damaged during the disaster operation, lost or damaged during the disaster operation, such as donations from other jurisdictions. But such as donations from other jurisdictions. But local agencies may find themselves having to take local agencies may find themselves having to take money out of their regular budget to replace heavy money out of their regular budget to replace heavy equipment, vehicles, communications equipment, equipment, vehicles, communications equipment, and even office equipment and thereby losing and even office equipment and thereby losing some capacity to provide regular services.some capacity to provide regular services.

► For many small local governments with small For many small local governments with small budgets, equipment as relatively inexpensive as budgets, equipment as relatively inexpensive as personal computers and printers may be capital personal computers and printers may be capital expenditures that require special budget expenditures that require special budget allocations. Therefore, agencies in small allocations. Therefore, agencies in small communities may have little or no flexibility in communities may have little or no flexibility in their budgets for such items.their budgets for such items.

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► The experience of communities that have suffered serious The experience of communities that have suffered serious

structural failures (in particular) has demonstrated that structural failures (in particular) has demonstrated that failing to address the psychological trauma of such failing to address the psychological trauma of such disasters can result in the loss of emergency response disasters can result in the loss of emergency response personnel. personnel.

► For example, in Kansas City in 1981, the collapse of two For example, in Kansas City in 1981, the collapse of two suspended concrete walkways onto the lobby of the Hyatt suspended concrete walkways onto the lobby of the Hyatt Regency Hotel killed 113 people and created a gruesome Regency Hotel killed 113 people and created a gruesome scene for emergency responders. The city experienced a scene for emergency responders. The city experienced a sharp decline in the number of emergency personnel sharp decline in the number of emergency personnel following the disaster as some responders developed following the disaster as some responders developed stress-related health problems and many chose to find stress-related health problems and many chose to find less stressful jobs. Untreated stress is a personal problem less stressful jobs. Untreated stress is a personal problem andand a personnel problem (Waugh and Hy, 1996). a personnel problem (Waugh and Hy, 1996).

Public AssistancePublic Assistance► To reduce the loss of essential emergency personnel, To reduce the loss of essential emergency personnel,

police departments, fire departments, emergency medical police departments, fire departments, emergency medical services, and other departments are increasingly adopting services, and other departments are increasingly adopting policies and implementing programs to deal with the high policies and implementing programs to deal with the high levels of levels of stress stress during disaster responses and in their during disaster responses and in their immediate aftermath.immediate aftermath.

► Emergency responders often do not see the need for Emergency responders often do not see the need for psychological counseling, because they think that it is psychological counseling, because they think that it is “unmanly” to seek assistance or do not recognize the “unmanly” to seek assistance or do not recognize the symptoms of stress. The stress-related problems may be symptoms of stress. The stress-related problems may be masked by other, personal or family-related, or job-related masked by other, personal or family-related, or job-related problems. Men, in particular, are reluctant to seek problems. Men, in particular, are reluctant to seek assistance. Historically, there has been a stigma attached assistance. Historically, there has been a stigma attached to psychological counseling, and responders may fear to psychological counseling, and responders may fear being ridiculed or penalized for seeking such assistance.being ridiculed or penalized for seeking such assistance.

Psychological StressPsychological Stress► The level of stress (or distress) is related to the The level of stress (or distress) is related to the

“number of fatalities dealt with, rather than “number of fatalities dealt with, rather than aspects of occupational stress like number of aspects of occupational stress like number of hours worked” (Gibbs et al., 1996: 31).hours worked” (Gibbs et al., 1996: 31).

► Regardless of the quality of the emergency Regardless of the quality of the emergency response training, workers are often ill-prepared response training, workers are often ill-prepared for the kinds of situations they will encounter for the kinds of situations they will encounter during disasters, particularly the handling of during disasters, particularly the handling of fatalities (Gibbs et al., 1996: 31).fatalities (Gibbs et al., 1996: 31).

► Training can better prepare responders for the Training can better prepare responders for the experiences that they may have during experiences that they may have during disasters, but it is difficult to be realistic enough disasters, but it is difficult to be realistic enough to simulate some disasters.to simulate some disasters.

Psychological StressPsychological Stress► To address the stress problem, some To address the stress problem, some

agencies have institutedagencies have instituted Critical Incident Critical Incident Stress DebriefingsStress Debriefings (CISD) which are formal (CISD) which are formal interventions to encourage emergency interventions to encourage emergency workers and victims to talk about their workers and victims to talk about their experiences and to help them understand experiences and to help them understand their own reactions. The purpose is to help their own reactions. The purpose is to help people cope with the psychological trauma people cope with the psychological trauma and recover more quickly by helping lessen and recover more quickly by helping lessen the impact of the event (Anderson and the impact of the event (Anderson and Mattingly, 1991: 316). Mattingly, 1991: 316).

Psychological StressPsychological Stress► However, there is considerable scientific However, there is considerable scientific

evidence that CISD will not help many evidence that CISD will not help many responders and, in fact, may be detrimental responders and, in fact, may be detrimental to their mental health. The National to their mental health. The National Institute of Health, part of the Centers for Institute of Health, part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends “psychological first aid” to deal recommends “psychological first aid” to deal with post-traumatic stress (PTSD). with post-traumatic stress (PTSD). “Psychological first aid” may include “Psychological first aid” may include cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) (NIMH, cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) (NIMH, 2010). 2010).

Psychological StressPsychological Stress► Counseling is now routinely Counseling is now routinely

prescribed when an organization, prescribed when an organization, such as a school, has experienced a such as a school, has experienced a traumatic loss, such as the deaths of traumatic loss, such as the deaths of students. However, counseling is students. However, counseling is less likely to be mandatory.less likely to be mandatory.

Other Health IssuesOther Health Issues► Other kinds of health problems may also be suffered Other kinds of health problems may also be suffered

by emergency responders and residents. For by emergency responders and residents. For example, firefighters, police officers, search and example, firefighters, police officers, search and rescue team members, and others, including rescue team members, and others, including residents and volunteers, who worked at lower residents and volunteers, who worked at lower Manhattan after the 9/11 attack are experiencing Manhattan after the 9/11 attack are experiencing “Ground Zero cough.” The cough is caused by dust “Ground Zero cough.” The cough is caused by dust and hazardous materials (such as asbestos) in the air and hazardous materials (such as asbestos) in the air in the hours and days following the attack and the in the hours and days following the attack and the effects have been debilitating for many. The city and effects have been debilitating for many. The city and the State of New York have been monitoring the long-the State of New York have been monitoring the long-term effects of the exposure and the courts are term effects of the exposure and the courts are dealing with the issue of compensation. dealing with the issue of compensation.

ExerciseExercise

► Have you experienced a violent event or Have you experienced a violent event or accident at your school in which counselors were accident at your school in which counselors were brought in to talk to students, faculty, staff, brought in to talk to students, faculty, staff, and/or parents? and/or parents?

► How was the counseling structured?How was the counseling structured?►What kinds of issues were addressed?What kinds of issues were addressed?► How helpful was the counseling?How helpful was the counseling?►Was the counseling mandatory or voluntary?Was the counseling mandatory or voluntary?►Were you expected to participate? Were you expected to participate?

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions► What kinds of federal assistance can local What kinds of federal assistance can local

governments expect following a major governments expect following a major disaster?disaster?

► Why do local agencies have to document Why do local agencies have to document their expenditures very accurately during their expenditures very accurately during disaster operations?disaster operations?

► Why do emergency workers often avoid Why do emergency workers often avoid psychological counseling after traumatic psychological counseling after traumatic disasters?disasters?

► How should emergency responders be How should emergency responders be compensated for health problems caused compensated for health problems caused by disaster operations? by disaster operations?

Documents

Session 10 Disaster Mitigation