SPECIAL REPORT

Sweden: Nuclear power policyand public opinion

More favourable attitudes toward nuclear power are emerging

In 1990, nearly half — 45% — of Sweden'selectrical energy was generated by nuclearpower, 50% by hydropower, and 5% by fossilfuels. During a year of normal temperaturesand precipitation levels, more than 50% ofSweden's electrical energy is generated bynuclear power plants.

Twelve nuclear plants with a total rating of10 000 megawatts-electric (MWe) are commer-cially operating in Sweden. Their annual elec-trical generating capacity is around 70 terawatt-hours.

Nuclear power in Sweden has proved to betechnically, economically, and environmentallyhighly successful. This is demonstrated by thefact that:• Construction time (from beginning of con-struction to synchronizing to the grid) for everyunit has been less than 6 years.• Plant performance has been consistentlyhigh; average availability has been around85%.• Radiation exposure of plant personnel hasalways been far below the average at theworld's light-water reactors.• Few cases of fuel damage have occurred,and radioactive emissions have been very low.In terms of safety, Swedish nuclear powerplants have been among the best in the world.• Radioactive waste management hasbenefited from pioneering work done at a veryearly stage in Sweden. Swedish radioactivewaste technology has become a world leader inseveral areas.

Mr Wikdahl is a consultant with Energiforum AB,P.O. Box 94, S-182 71, Stocksund, Sweden.

Manufacturers, power utilities, and safetyauthorities have thus done everything in thefield of safety engineering that can reasonablybe expected to build up a credible technology.But the superficial impression may remain thatthe nuclear power industry has failed to instillconfidence in nuclear power engineeringamong the general public and the politicians.

The 1980 referendum

Following a referendum back in 1980, theSwedish Riksdag (Parliament) decided that theSwedish nuclear power system shall be phased

byCarl-Erik Wikdahl

Forsmark nuclear powerstation. (Credit: FotografGoran Hansson)

IAEA BULLETIN, 1/1991 29

SPECIAL REPORT

out no later than the year 2010. No decision ofthis nature has been taken by any other country.In addition, the Riksdag decided in 1988 thatthe phase-out would begin by shutting downtwo units in 1995 and 1996.

However, no Swedish commercial nuclearpower unit has yet been shut down, either as aresult of political decisions or the dictates ofsafety authorities. In contrast, nuclear powerunits have been compulsorily shut down

FORSMARKO

OSKARSHAMNO

BARSEBACK

RINGHALS

Nuclear

• F1• F2• F3

Total

• O1• O2• 03

Total

• B1• B2

Total

• R1• R2• R3• R4

Total

power in Sweden

Rating(MW)

970970

1150

3090

440600

1150

2190

600600

1200

820860915915

3510

Commissioningdate

198119811985

197219741985

19751977

1976197519811983

• Boiling-Water Reactor (BWR)• Pressurized-Water Reactor (PWR)i Nuclear fuel cycle facilities

O SFRD CLAB.

Radioactivewaste facilities

RINGHALS

BARSEBACK

STOCKHOLM

rSTUDSVIK AB (R + D)

OSKARSHAMN

elsewhere in the world, including in Austria,United States, Italy, Spain, USSR, andGermany.

Reappraisal in 1991

Towards the end of February 1991, theSwedish Government published a draft billwhich represents a reappraisal of nuclearpower. If adopted by the Riksdag, the Govern-ment's proposal will rescind the 3-year-olddecision to start phasing out nuclear power by1995. No new date has been set for shuttingdown the first reactor.

The proposal does not represent a reversal ofthe decision that nuclear power should bephased out by the year 2010. The Governmentproposed that US $700 million be allocatedover the next 5 years to the development ofalternative energy sources, such as wind powerand bio-energy, and to conservation measures.If this development work should lead to tech-nology that will enable nuclear power to bereplaced without national economic hardship,planning will begin for phasing out nuclearpower. If not, nuclear power plants will be keptin operation.

Practically all political observers agree thatthe new Government decision represents a sig-nificant U-turn, and that further changes mayfollow in the future.

Many reasons are responsible for this turn ofevents. On the one hand, it is due to Swedenbeing an exceptionally open society, withstrong environmental opinions that began toemerge at a very early stage. On the otherhand, optimism in technical development haslong been firmly established in Sweden and isfounded on a very broad public opinion base. Itis particularly strongly supported by tradeunion organizations.

Political problems of nuclear power

Swedes tend to believe that they are knownabroad as living in a clean, pristine country,and that they have a high technological and eco-nomic standard. This image describes the ambi-tions of Swedes, but it also reflects conflicts inSwedish society.

Way back in the mid-1970s, these conflictsfocused on nuclear power. This phenomenonbecame an important symbolic matter, both forthe technological optimists and for the environ-mental optimists. It became a principal issue forseveral of the political parties back in 1976. Inpractice, the nuclear power issue was the down-

30 IAEA BULLETIN, 1/1991

SPECIAL REPORT

fall of two Swedish governments. The currentgradual reversal of the opinions of severalpolitical parties concerning nuclear power ispartially the result of fatigue with the subjectmatter. Fifteen years is far too long for nuclearpower to remain a dominant political issue.

Another reason for the Swedish Governmentnow wishing to change the country's energypolicy is that it has become increasingly obvi-ous that prematurely phasing out Swedishnuclear power would cause serious problems tothe national economy. Since 50% of the electri-cal energy typically is generated by nuclearpower, a phase-out would exert strong upwardpressure on the costs of generating electricpower. Swedish authorities have estimated thatthe cost of electrical energy to industry woulddouble. Since much of the country's welfare isdependent on the export of paper, steel, andtimber — all of which are intensive users ofelectrical energy — the upsurge in prices wouldbecome a serious threat to employment inindustry, and would thus jeopardize the welfarepolicy.

Nuclear power information

How has information on nuclear power beendisseminated to the general public and decision-makers, and how has the work been organized?

Ever since the introduction of nuclearpower, the responsibility for disseminatinginformation has rested with all of the companiesengaged in the field of nuclear power, i.e. thepower utilities and the reactor manufacturer,ABB Atom (formerly ASEA Atom). In recentyears, the economic consequences of phasingout nuclear power have played a major role inmoulding opinions. Industries that use electricpower and the trade union movement have beenresponsible for a substantial part of the infor-mation work. No co-ordinated effort by a jointorganization, such as is common in many othercountries, has ever emerged in Sweden.

During the late 1980s, the dissemination ofinformation has been pursued roughly asfollows:• The power utilities have centrally dissemi-nated low-key information on nuclear powerand other energy sources.• Comprehensive local and regional informa-tion activities have been pursued at the fournuclear power stations. Each station is consid-ered to have a range of influence of around100 kilometres.• The Nuclear Training and Safety Centre(KSU) and the Swedish Nuclear Fuel andWaste Management Company (SKB), both ofwhich are owned by the power utilities, have

pursued comprehensive dissemination of tech-nical and scientific information concerningtheir respective specialities of reactor safetyand radiation protection, and nuclear wastemanagement. KSU and SKB also have beenresponsible for running periodic opinion polls.(See box.)• ABB Atom has pursued low-key informa-tion activities, principally for decision-makers.

• A separate public relations company,owned by industrial users of electric power, hasdisseminated information to all of its employeesand to local and regional decision-makers con-cerning the local consequences companieswould suffer if nuclear power were phased out.

Information to the general public

Local activities at the nuclear power stationshave been diversified and very successful.Nuclear power has gained the highest degree ofacceptance by the general public in the regionswhere the plants are located, in spite of the factthat waste storage facilities were taken into ser-vice between 1986 and 1988 at two out of thefour stations. An intermediate storage facilityfor spent fuel (CLAB) was built at Oskars-hamn, and a repository for waste from nuclearpower plants (SFR) was built at Forsmark.

Local activities hinge on the exhibitioncentres at the plants and on the facilitiesprovided for guided tours of the plants. Two ofthe places, Oskarshamn and Forsmark, are alsoof cultural and historic interest, and touriststherefore have an added reason for enjoying a

Swedish paper, steel,and timber industriesheavily depend uponelectrical power, half ofwhich is nuclear gener-ated. (Credit: Jan HakanDahlstrom, Bildhuset)

IAEA BULLETIN, 1/1991. 31

SPECIAL REPORT

visit to the plant. In addition, extensive activi-ties are pursued at all levels in the schools. Spe-cial personnel visit the schools to hold lecturesand to make simple demonstrations, often inpreparation for the pupils paying a visit to thestation.

In most places, monthly advertisements arepublished in the local daily press, with newsitems of general interest from the plant. In addi-tion, periodicals that are free of charge aremailed to all households a few times a year.Each periodical is published in a run of between100 000 and 200 000 copies.

QuestionWhat is your personal attitude to the use of nuclear power0

Phase out nuclear powerbelore the year 2010

Keep nuclear power afterthe year 2010

November 1989 February 1990 May 1990 November 1990

QuestionIf evaluation shows that the best site for terminaldisposal of high-level radioactive waste is your municipalitywould you accept nuclear waste being stored there7

Would accept Would not accept

53 52

Don't know

53

37

November 1988 May 1989 November 1989 March 1990 October 1990

Nole Results of public opinion research by SIFO on behalt of the Swedish Nuclear Training andSafely Centre (KSUi and Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Company (SKBi

Scientific information

Through an analysis group, KSUadministersthe publication of a technically and scientifi-cally based information bulletin concerningnuclear safety and radiation protection, and thisis circulated to decision-makers and journalists.The bulletin is also widely distributed toemployees in the nuclear power industry. Thedetailed background information is written andchecked by specialists in reactor safety andradiation protection at the power utilities, ABB

Atom, and the universities. Typical subjectsdiscussed include:• analysis of the Chernobyl accident and itsconsequences;

life cycle of nuclear power plants;environmental matters in uranium mining;safety of reactor pressure vessels;nuclear power accident insurance;systematic review of the arguments ad-

vanced by nuclear power opponents.In addition, the analysis group pursues

extensive immediate debate activities. Mislead-ing or incorrect information in the mass mediaor in the political debate is countered speedilyand consistently, either by official statements orby mail.

Information on radioactive waste

In recent years, SKB has been using a float-ing exhibition. During the annual holidayperiod, MV SIGYN, a vessel normally used forshipping spent fuel and radioactive waste, hasbeen docking in harbours along the Swedishcoast, with a radioactive waste exhibition onboard. During such exhibitions, specialistsfrom SKB have been there to answer questionsfrom visitors and invited students. The activi-ties were so successful that a mobile exhibitionof the same type has now been arranged. Themain benefit is that it can effectively be takento all regions of the country. The keen interestaroused in the local daily press is an importantelement associated with these exhibitions.

During 1990, SKB launched a series ofadvertisements in periodicals and the dailypress concerning the safety of terminal storageof high-level radioactive waste.

Economic consequences

Information activities concerning the risksassociated with nuclear power and its safetyhave proved to be of fundamental importancefor better understanding and acceptance ofnuclear power. But it is undoubtedly the infor-mation concerning the economic consequencesof prematurely phasing out nuclear power thathas been of greatest importance to the reversalof public opinion in recent years.

It is principally industrial users of electricpower that have been responsible for dis-seminating information concerning the eco-nomic consequences. It was decided at an earlystage that no efforts would be made in the formof advertising in the national daily press.Efforts were instead focused on employees, on

32 IAEA BULLETIN, 1/1991

SPECIAL REPORT

local and regional politicians, and on the massmedia. The companies involved in this workare scattered throughout the country, althoughthey have a high concentration in northernSweden, where job security is traditionallypoorer than farther south. Industrial plants thatare intensive users of electric power are oftenthe dominant employers in many places. Insome cases, the collapse of a company couldthus represent a direct threat to the whole of theregion.

In many places, it was relatively straight-forward to show that the cost of electricalenergy to a company is normally of the samemagnitude as the company's profit or evenhigher. If the cost of electrical energy weredoubled, the company's entire profit, and morebesides, would disappear, and it would have togo out of business.

During the late 1980s, signs also emergedthat industries that are intensive users of electri-cal energy were unwilling to invest in Sweden.Wherever opportunities existed, such invest-ments instead were made abroad.

Attitude of the trade unions

Trade union organizations have undertakentheir own studies, and have arrived at the sameresults. As a result of the collective flow ofinformation, many individual trade union mem-bers exerted pressure on their leaders. Conse-quently, the entire collective trade unionmovement launched a very hard debate in theautumn of 1989 against the energy policy of theSwedish Government. This open debate, whichinvolved known and credible persons who didnot normally take a stance in energy policy mat-ters, had a strong influence on public opinionand was probably the most important individualfactor behind its reversal.

Another factor was a series of concreteattempts by the power industry to obtain per-mission for building new fossil-fired powerplants to replace nuclear power units that wereto be shut down. It was suggested that the newplants should be located adjacent to the nuclearpower plants. The proposals sparked off alively local environmental debate, which in onecase gave rise to a decision to invoke amunicipal veto. Many people considered thatthe fossil-fired alternatives were environmen-tally inferior to nuclear power. They alsodemonstrated in very concrete terms that windpower or bio-energy, for instance, were stillnot available as realistic alternatives.

It remains to be seen whether the favourableattitude towards nuclear power will persist inSweden and develop further. But it is clear that

nuclear power now has the wind of publicopinion in its sails. The principal reason is thehigh technical quality of Swedish nuclearpower, which has instilled confidence in thegeneral public and decision-makers. Thesecond important reason is that well-knowntrade union leaders have declared that con-tinued operation of nuclear power is essential tothe maintenance of full employment and wel-fare in Sweden.

In this advertisement bySKB, Swedes are in-formed that nuclearwaste is being managedsafely. It points out thatthe accumulated volumeof Sweden's nuclearplant waste in the year2010 will be only one-third of the volume ofthe Globe, a nationallandmark. (Credit: SKB)

Ar 2010 har Sverige sa har mycketradioaktivt avfall.

Globeni Stockholm harvolym pa 600.000 m3.Ar 2010 kommer de

totals mangdenradioaktivt avfall altmotsvara en tredjedelav Clcbms volym.

Vi har redan borjat ta hand om detSverige har producerat el med hjalp av kara-kraft sedan 1972. Men karnkraften har ocksagett upphov till radioaktivt avfall.

Med alia kSmkraftverk i drift till ar 2010 farvi 200.000 m' radioaktivt avfall art ta hand om.Detmotsvararen tredjedel avGlobens volym.

VadgSrvimeddet?

Allt tas om hand.I Sverige ansvarar Svensk Karnbranslehante-

kraft, sjukvard, industri och forskning tas omhand pa ett sa'kert saU

I SKBs system ingar ett slutfiirvar for drift-avfall, ett mellanlager for anvant bransle, ettfartyg och ett antal specialbyggda transport-fordon och behallare. -t

Eftersom alia svenska kamkraftverk lig-gervid kustenkansamtliga transporter ske tillsjfiss. Fartyget Sigyn 3r byggt uteslutande fordetta andamal. Sigyn motsvarar mycket hflgtstallda sSkerhetskrav. men sSkerheten garan-teras framst av transportbehallama som harupp till 30 cm tjocka stalvaggar.

Slutffrvaring av driftavfall.Det radioaktiva driftavfallet fran kamkraft-verken utgors av t ex filter, Sverdragskladeroch utbytta delar. Detta avfall behiiver hallas

isolerat nagra hundra ar innan det ar ofarligtDriftavfallet slutfb'rvaras i berget 50 meter

under havets botten i narheten av Forsmarkskarnkraftverk. NSr karnkraftverken rivs kom-mer det radioaktiva rivningsavfallet ocksa attfb'rvaras i denna anlaggning.

Branslet mellanlagras i 40 ar.Anvant kambransle, som 5r en hard keramik,avger straining under mycket lang tid ochmaste ha!!a5 isolerat (ram &i! efter nUsta is-tid om hundra tusen ar.

Det anvanda karnbranslet mellanlagras ien anlaggning strax utanffir Oskarshamn.MellanlagringenskerivattenbassSngerbelSg-naibergrum25meterunderrnarkytanochskapaga i 40 ar. Efter denna tid har radioaktivitet

ochvarmeutvecklingminskatmed90%ochdaar brSnslet lampligt for slutforvaring.

• 500 meter ner i urbergetDet som aterstar att bygga Sr ett slutfbrvar fordet anvanda branslet. Detta ska pabOrjas ar2010ochtasidrift2020(nardetaldstabranslethar mellanlagrats i 40 ar).

Branslet kommer da att inneslutas i 10 cmtjocka kopparkapslar som baddas in i lera 500meter ner i urbergeL

Under 90-talet kommer SKB att finslipadetaljerna och undersoka iMmpIiga platserfSrslutfdrvaret. Den slutliga platsen bestams avregeringen. troligen omkring sekelskifteL

I—ti Sveriges radio- |! Vill du veta m<

I aktiva avfall?Fyll i kupongen och skicka den i ett ofrankeratkuventill: FRISVAR

SKB11005 Stockholm

Vi tar hand om Sverigesradioaktiva avfall. I I

Future attitudes among people in Swedenwill depend on a number of factors. Highamong them are the international developmentof nuclear power and the opportunities avail-able for making alternative energy sourcescompetitive on the market and environmentallyacceptable.

IAEA BULLETIN, 1/1991 33