Theories of Personality Notes

8/13/2019 Theories of Personality Notes

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Theories of Personality 8/28/2013 5:32:00 AM

8/28/13

Chapter 1A

I am introverted, agreeable, conscientious, studious, loyal, motivated,caring, devoted, open-minded, stubborn, independent

What is personality?

Origin of personalityo Latin persona (mask)o Typical nature

Technical definition:Psychological qualities that contribute to anindividuals enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking

and behaving

o Enduing: somewhat consistent across time and situationso Distinctive- different individuals from each other

Issues addressed in the field

Human universals vs. cultural differenceso Ex: basic emotions

Individual differences and uniqueness Investigation based on personality theories

Topics to be covered:

Scientific study of people Personality studied and analyzed through numerous viewpoints

o Psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, biological, behaviorism,personal construct theory, social cognitive theory

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What is a theory?

Related assumptions used by scientists for logical deductivereasoning to formulate testable hypothesis

Theories are not hypothesis Tool for gathering and organizing


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Reliable, coherent and parsimonious Leads to hypothesis 1. Organize info

o Keep track of what we know 2. New knowledge

o Help scientists create new knowledge about field 3. New issues to study

o New areas that otherwise would not have been studied(Hypotheses- statements about predicted relationships between variables,

should be clear and testable )

TheoryHypothesisResearchData reshape/build theoryTheory (gives

meaning to data)

Theory (general), Hypothesis (Specific)

Why different theories?

Theory comes fromo Scientific evidenceo Theorists perspective

Psychology of science- scientists personality traits influence theirtheories

Theories as toolkits

No one complete, comprehensive theoryo Each separate theory provides unique insights

Multiple theories not necessarily bado Not question of right vs. wrong

Elements of different theories as different tools to help inunderstanding of personality

o Individual differenceso Human motivationo Development of self-concepto Causes of emotionso Performance in work settings

Five goals of personality theory


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1. Scientific observationo Systematic descriptions of peopleo 3 requirements

Large, diverse sample Objective observations Use of specialized tools

2. Systematic natureo Provide understanding of peopleo Logical, coherent description

3. Testabilityo Testable through objective scientific evidence

4. Comprehensivenesso Significant factors related to human functioning

Behaviors, cognitions, emotions 5. Applications

o Conversion of theoretical ideas to real world applications Clinical, educational, developmental, i/o psychology

Understanding Personality

3 Questions about personalityo 1. What?

Peoples characteristics Organization

o 2. How? Influences on development

o 3. Why? Reasons for behavior

Important aspects of personality

Structureo Building blockso Stable and enduring

Body partso 5 factor model (openness to experience, conscientiousness,

extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism- we all have these 5

to varying degrees)


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o Hierarchical nature Analogous to organizations

Processo Dynamic aspects of personality

Motivation, emotion, actiono Emphasis on different motivational processes

Biology, future, conscious vs. unconscious Growth and development

o Patterns of development common across people Developmental stages Individual differences

o Nature vs. nurture Psychopathology and behavior change

o Change How people change Resistance to change

o Theorists as therapists Systematic lessons from therapy

o Importance of applicability, practicality of theoryRelated issues in personality

1. Internal and external determinantso Internal

Temperament Emotional, behavioral tendencies

Fearfulness Evolutionary psychology

Predisposition toward certain behaviors Human universals

o External Culture

Behaviors, rituals, beliefs Social class

Status, roles, duties, privileges Family

Parents:


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Role models Shape behavior

Peers Varying levels of emphasis on internal vs. external

Freud vs. Skinner Now: both as essential aspects of behavior

2. Consistencyo Consistency vs. inconsistency in behaviorso Time and consistency

3. States of awareness and the unconsciouso Mental activities outside of conscious awareness

Aspects of personality Motivation Emotions

4. Influence of past, present and futureo Agreement regarding influence of present factorso Influence of past on presento Influence of future on present

5. Personality as a scienceo Other sciences mostly reductionisto Should personality be reductionist?

Conclusion

Theories in personalityo What is a theory?o Key functions of theorieso Theories as toolkitso Goals of personality theory

Understanding personalityo Important aspects (personality structure)

Issues to consider5-6 questions based on reading or assign own article to the class but it must

be approved 2 weeks before presentation and include brief summary of

article on how it relates to topic +3 bonus points

Are the questions though provoking?


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Do you demonstrate that you understand the reading? How well the group facilitates class discussion- ask interesting

follow up questions

How well prepared the group is?9/11/13

Theory and Research

Theory without researcho Speculation

Research without theoryo Aimless fact gathering

LOTS data

Life history or life recordo School records (test scores, report cards), Court records

Observed datao Information from observers (teachers, parents, friends),

Questionnaires

Tests and experimentso Intelligence tests, Standardized tests, Experimental

manipulation (disgust makes judgment harsher, mood makesproblem solving better, rejection and aggression)

Ayduk, Gyurak & Luerssen Influence of rejection sensitivity (anticipate

rejection) on participants after rejection

Anxious about rejection Ambiguous situations- more likely to see

rejection

Participants told they were involved in studyabout partner selection on dating websites

Wrote short bio sketches Were told bio sketches would be sent to

member of opposite sex

Waited at computer to see if otherparticipant selected them


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Control condition Technical difficulties Internet access cut off- no one rejected or

liked you

Rejected condition Email from Beth (actually experimenter)

regarding rejection

Then- asked helped set up for second stage ofexperiment for Beth

Beth hates spicy food Participant left alone with hot sauce

Rejectionincreased aggression (hot sauceplaced on Beths food) only in high RS participants

High rejection sensitivitymore aggressionafter rejection

Self-reporto Questionnaireso Advantages

Convenient Sometimes only way to get at topic

Self-monitoring scale Limitations

Response distortion Social desirability/ faking

Self-knowledge Match.com article

Context Time of day Order of questions

Wording Retrieval

Schwarzo How you phrase questions with scales

can shape the answers

Attempts to get around limitations Situational judgment tests


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Conditional tests (eye for an eye meaning) More than one method

Implicit measures Diary methods

Fixed vs. flexible measures Fixed

Same measures given to all participants Advantages

o Simpleo Objective

Limitationso Irrelevant to someo Not sufficient for some

Nomothetic approacho Scientific lawso Fixed personality variables

Flexible Unstructured personality tests Idiographic approach

o Tailored to individual participantso Unique individual

Assessment type and data Guided by theory Unit of analysis

Theory needed to collect, interpret dataConclusion

Theory and Researcho LOTS data

Types Limitations Fixed vs. flexible measures

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Goals of research

Reliabilityo Internal consistency


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o Replicability, stability Test- retest (youll get the same scores if you take it

twice)

o Factors affecting reliability Test takers (age...) Aspects of test (wording...)

Validityo Are you accurately describing/ measuring the psychological

phenomenon you are interested in?

o Problems with pervious methods E.g. phrenology

Different parts of brain responsible for differentfunctions, characteristics

Some parts underdeveloped, while otherdeveloped

Validity and Reliabilityo Must be reliable to be valido Both necessary aspects of sound measures

Personality measurement nowo Recent examples

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extraversion- Introversion Intuition- Sensing Thinking- Feeling Judging- Perceiving

NEO Personality Inventory Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Ethical behavioro APAs Ethical Principles

Treatment of participants Informed consent Confidentiality


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Interpretation, presentation of resultso Institutional Review Board

Risks/ benefits3 Approaches to research

Case studies and clinical researcho In-depth analysis of each case

Focus on: Structures Processes

o More common in clinical psychologyo Matthew- dependent personality disordero Advantages

More in-depth May be only way to study certain psychological

variables

Takes individuals into accounto Limitations

Not always generalizable No definite causal explanation High level of subjectivity Verbal reports not always accurate

Correlational researcho Relationships among variables

Positive vs. negativeo Use of personality measures

How certain variables are correlated E.g. tendency to experience positive emotions and

life expectancy

o Correlation coefficient Degree to which variables related -1 to 1

o Advantages No need for manipulation More info about variables that are impossible or

unethical to manipulate


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Childhood abuse and adult aggressiono Limitations

Ambiguous interpretation of cause and effect Correlation does not equal causation

o Questionnaires Advantages

Large sample sizes can be studied relatively easy Reliability, validity

Limitations Narrow range of info Self-report not always accurate Response style

Acquiescence (more likely to check true) Social desirability

Experimental studieso Participants assigned randomly to conditionso Variables manipulated

Alcohol consumption Rejection

o Causal effects Random assignment Effect of manipulation

o Advantages More info regarding cause-effect

o Limitations Artificiality of lab setting Applicability of finding to real world settings Extraneous influences

Demand characteristics Experimenter expectancy

Some things cannot be studied in a lab9/18/13

Freud: Early history

Born 1856 raised in Vienna


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7 siblings, 2 step-siblingso Mothers favorite

So felt like a conqueror and had confidence 1873: University of Vienna med student

o Met Josef Breuer Josef met Anna O

1880: Symptoms after fathers death Headaches Paralysis of certain body parts Multiple personalities Visual disturbances Difficulties with speech Hallucinations Inability to drink

o Woman with dog at a party (led tofear of drinking)

Treatmento Hypnosiso Talking seemed to reduce symptomso Catharsis method

Release of pent-up emotions Ultimately recovered True identity

o Bertha Pappenheimo Feminist, social worker

Implications of catharsis for Freud Mind as energy system

o Release of energy Energy of mental content that people are

not aware of

o Different parts of mind unconscious Catalyst for psychoanalysis Disagreement between Breuer and Freud

Freud- role of sexual interpretation Considered cornerstone case for psychoanalysis Beginning of use of talking treatment


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o 1885: Went to France to study with Jean-Martin Charcot Charcot known for :

Hypnosis Hysteria treatment Studies regarding traumatic paralysis

Hysteria and genitals Freuds subsequent theory regarding sexual issues and

neurosis

o 1897: Father dies leading to depression Self-analysis

o 1900: The Interpretation of Dreams (Book)o Late 1900s: Gains recognitiono 1939: Dies in London

Freuds view of the person

Architecture of mental life Biological, mechanistic point of view

o Mind and body are connectedo Energy system

Active nature of mental contentso Instinctual driveso Forces on mind

Limited amount of energyo Energy used for one purposeless available for others

Energy doesnt simply disappear Desire for state of balance, calmness

o Tension from bodily needsbehaviorbalance/calmness E.g. no foodhungersearch for foodsatiation

o Goal of all behavior Common view in this time: tabula rasa Freuds view

o Sex, aggression innateo Pleasure principle

Society to restrain natural tendencies Taboos Social norms


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Freuds Personality theory

Reliance on case study evidenceo No labs, no testso Importance of details

Structure of the mindo 2 models of the mind

Levels of consciousness Conscious

Aware of at any moment Preconscious

Not currently conscious of but can be ifasked to be

Unconscious Drives, urges, instincts, not in awareness Still motivate behaviors, thoughts Anxiety- provoking

Influence on unconscious on conscious Freudian slip

Manifest content (dreams) Storyline

Latent content Unconscious ideas, emotions, instinct High levels of symbolism Unconscious wishes

3 Reasons we dream Wish fulfillment Release of tension Sleep protection

Functional systems Id

Oldest, most primitive Present in everyone

o Stays same over time Pleasure principle

o Release of tension/anxiety


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o Non-moral Drive energy

o Life instincts+ death instincts Completely unconscious

Ego Reality principle

o Rationalo Mediator between id and external

world

3 masterso Desires of IDo Constraints of external environmento Morals on superego

Changes over time Superego

Changes over timeo Life experiences, parents, culture

Moral compasso Ideals, ethical standardso Control over behavior

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Development of thinking

Primary vs. secondaryo How the mind processes information

Primary process- language of unconscious Unconscious Illogical No distinction between reality, fantasy Young children Dreams

Secondary process- language of conscious Conscious Logical Developed after primary process, with ego


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Personality process

Motivationo Instincts, drives

Energy Questions to be addressed

o Basic human instinctual drives Life and death instincts

Part of id Energy driving human lives Life instinct (eros)

Preserve self Reproduce Libido Primarily sexual in motivation

Death instinct (thanatos) Death Self-destruction Aggression Search for calmness

Expression of instincts Blocked Modified expression Expressed directly

Object of gratification Change Displacement

Anxiety in psychodynamic theoryo Painful emotional experience

Information regarding potential threat Signal of danger to ego Previous trauma Conflict between ids desires and threat of punishment

o Defense mechanisms Protections from anxiety


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Repression- avoiding anxiety by not allowingpainful or dangerous thoughts to become

conscious

Isolation of affect/ Intellectualization- Avoidingpainful feelings by focusing only on ideas,separate emotions from thoughts

Projection- Attributing own unacceptableimpulses, motives, desires to others

Undoing- Person tries to make up forunacceptable desires or acts through magical

ritualistic behavior

Displacement- Feelings toward dangerous objectswitched onto safer substitute

Reaction formation- Express opposite ofunacceptable impulse

Sublimation- Expression of impulse or desire insocially acceptable manner, funneling energy into

higher order goal

Growth and Development

All people develop in stageso Significant events and development of personality styles

Influence on personalityo Development of instinct

Erogenous zones through development Psychosexual stages

Oral (infancy)- oral pleasuresoral fixation Anal (2-3 yrs)- pleasure from excretion,

retention of fecesanal fixation; first

conflict between individual (pleasure

principle)and society

Phallic (4-5 yrs)- pleasure from genitals,castration anxiety in boys, penis envy in

girls, oedipal complex/ electra complex


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Latency (6-puberty)- sex drive dormant,repression of desires, energy funneled to

other pursuits

Genital (puberty-adult)- refocus on genitals,normal heterosexual relationship, energyfocused on opposite sex

Maturity- never fully conceptualized,ultimately psychologically healthy person

(rare)

o Erikson- personality develops throughout life, personalitydetermined by psychosocial development

Trust vs. mistrust (1 yr) (Oral)- Trust, optimism ormistrust, pessimism

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-2 yrs) (Anal)- Selfcontrol, can make choices or rigid, doubtful, self

conscious

Initiative vs. guilt (4-5 yrs) (Phallic)- happy withaccomplishments, purpose or guilt about goal-directed

behaviors

Industry vs. Inferiority (6- adolescence) (Latency)-productivity, pride in completed work vs. cannot work

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) (Genital)-Confidence in consistent personality or unsure of self,

no consistent standards

Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adolescence)- sharing ofthoughts, feelings work or avoid intimacy, superficial

relationships

Generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood)- can loseoneself in work, relationships or loss of interest in work,

relationships

Integrity vs. Despair- order and meaning, content withself or fear of death, bitterness

o Marcia Identity achievement- exploration then sense of

identity, high functioning, independent thought and


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resistance to group pressure, intimacy in relationships,

moral reasoning

Identity moratorium- identity crisis, can be highfunctioning, struggle with who they are

Identity foreclosure- commitment to identity withoutexploration, rigidity, conforming, conventional, reject

deviation from norm

Identity diffusion- no strong sense of identity, self-esteem very sensitive, problems with intimacy

Cultural differences

Self and groupo Individualist

The self should be independent of the groupo Collectivist

The self should be dependent on the group Self- concept

o Individualist Self-concept primarily defined by internal attributes

o Collectivist Self- concept primarily defined by social roles and

relationships

Socializationo Individualistic

People socialized to be unique, to validate internalattributes

o Collectivists People socialized to belong occupy their proper place

Self- esteemo Individualistic

Based on ability to engage in self- expression andability to validate internal attributes

o Collectivists Based on ability to adjust to the group, restrain his or

her own desires, and maintain social harmony

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Assessment in psychoanalysis

Should be:o Valido Efficient

Problem with assessment in psychoanalysiso Unconscious contento Clients hesitationo Free association

Projective testso Ambiguous itemso Clients interpretationo Personality, unconscious content revealed in indirect ways

Rorschach Testo Symmetrical inkblots on papero Shown to hospital patientso 10 cards selected

Based on responses from different psychiatric groupso Patients asked:

Interpretation of inkblot Reasons

o Interpretation Response formation Match to inkblot Content

Interpretation based on content details Behavior during session Hypothesis formed

Thematic Apperception Testo Cards with ambiguous sceneso Patient creates storyo Unconscious content thought to be exposed in story

Sentence Completion testso I regret...

Word completion testo CH_ _R


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Draw a person test Evaluation

o Are these tests valid? Multiple outcomes Different scoring procedures, testing systems Test scope Long term research, scholars suggest no

o Are these tests reliable? Interrater reliability

Psychoanalysis and psychopathology

Freud: Neuroses found in everyone Personality types

o Influence on developmental stageso Psychopathology based on fixations from developmento Stages of psychosexual development

Too little, too much gratification Seeking similar satisfaction later in life

o 3 types: Oral

Narcissistic View of others related to what they might provide Envious, jealous Quick to anger Depressed Always asking for something Success= I get

Anal Struggle with power Anal triad

Cleanliness Stinginess Obstinacy (stubborn)

Seek power, control Concern with duty, responsible Avoid waste, loss of control


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Conflict between submitting and rebelling Success= I control

Phallic Gender differences

Meno Hyper masculineo Excessively demonstrates masculinity

Convince others that he has notbeen castrated

o Competitiveo Success= I am a man

Womeno Overly feminineo Seductive, flirtatious but deny

sexuality

o Naveo Idealization of partners, love

o Conflict and defense Fixation at developmental stages Problem

Want gratification Past trauma Conflict

Anxiety Defense mechanisms

Successful: anxiety reduced Less successful: pathological symptoms

Repressed impulse being expressedo Therapeutic process

Psychopathology: fixation, conflict, anxiety Freuds therapeutic process

Free association Dream interpretation

Patient must gain insight regarding wishes, anxiety Transference


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Attitudes, conflicts towards parental figuresdirected toward therapist

Oral patients: concern with feeding andreceiving

Anal patients: control Phallic patients: competition Transferences encouraged

Patient on couch Frequent appointments Therapist as blank screen

Transference neurosis Play out old conflicts

o Understand nature of conflictso Gain satisfaction that was previously

denied

Freedom to gratify desires in more healthymanner

Deal with conflicts in safe environment Corrective emotional experience from:

Less intense conflict Analyst does not behave like parents Patients more mature (ego more developed)

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Evolution of psychoanalysis

Freud devoted entire life to psychoanalysis Had numerous disciples Authoritarian nature

o Cut off those who strayed from his ideas Alfred Adler

1870: Born in Vienna Sickly child

Desire to prove doctor wrong 1895: Medical degree from University of Vienna


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Read Interpretation of Dreams and went intopsychiatry

First to break from Freud Libido as more general life force Influence of inferiority complex and

compensation

o Inherent inferiority of infants/obstacles from environment

Emphasis on social factors Role of conscious planning for the future

Presented ideas to Vienna Psychoanalytic society Hostile response Left with 8 members

Individual psychology Society for individual psychology

Emphasis on social urges, conscious thoughts Compared to Freuds focus on sexual

instincts, unconscious

Striving for future (rather than result of past) Feelings of inferioritycompensation Will to power

Striving for superiorityo Neurotic formo Healthy from

Carl Jung 1875: Born in Switzerland Religious and troubled family In childhood, noticed Personality 1 and 2

1: school boy 2: man in touch with past

1900: Medical degree 1906: Published article gets Freuds attention

Very close to Freud: crown prince ofpsychoanalysis

1909: Deterioration begins 1913: Psychology of the Unconscious


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Resigns as president of APA Disagreement with Freud:

Libido as life energyo Jungs vs. Freuds reason for breakup

(Jung was going through oedipalcomplex)

Emphasis on reasons for current behavioro Instinctual urges vs. meaning in life

Evolutionary foundations of mind Unconscious

Collective unconsciouso Experience from past generationso Universalo Shared by everyoneo Archetypes

Across cultures E.g. mother archetypes

Opposing forces in humans Face (private self) vs. mask (persona) Masculine (animus) vs. feminine (anima)

o Man rejecting feminineo Woman rejecting masculine

The self= most important archetype Fundamental goal of people: find unity

Introversion vs. extraversion Introvert: inward orientation

o Hesitant, reflective Extravert: outward orientation

o Active, adventuresome Additional theories

Mid 1900s: Motivational forces and personality Role on interpersonal interactions

Freud: Biological urgespersonality structures

social relationships

Interpersonal psychodynamic theorists


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Social relationshipspersonality structures Karen Horney

Cultural influences on individual development Culture and gender identity European vs. American culture 1922: Presentation at psychoanalytic

congress in Berlin

o Womb envy Explanation for consistent

discrimination against women

Feelings on inferiority Basic anxiety

Influence of social factors Feeling of being lonely, helpless in hostile

world

Coping with basic anxiety in neurotic form Move toward

o Want to be accepted, approved ofo Dependento Unselfish, undemanding

Moving againsto Assumption that world is hostileo Struggle against otherso Deny need for others

Moving awayo Detachment, including emotional

detachment

Object Relations theory Developmental processes before oedipal period Object= person

Drive toward object that can reduce tension E.g. object= mother

Influence of early relationships on: Self Relationship with others

Focus on development of mental models


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Attachment theory John Bowlby

Influence of separation from parents Attachment Behavior System (ABS)

o Present from birtho Motivation

Formation of mental representationso Selfo Parents

Mary Ainsworth Strange situation Role in interpersonal relationship

o Secure Feel comfortable in relationships From secure attachment to

caregiver

o Anxious Want to be close to others, but

others do not reciprocate

Seek approval From insecure attachment to

caregivero Avoidant

Little to no desire to for closerelationships with others

Wish to remain independent From insecure attachment to

caregiver

Relationship Rating Fromo Viability

Acceptance Respect Trust

o Intimacy Confiding

o Understanding


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o Passion Fascination Exclusiveness Sexual intimacy

o Care Giving Assistance

o Global satisfaction Success Enjoyment Reciprocity Esteem

o Commitment Time 1

o Avoidant men- lowest levels of: Commitment, satisfaction, trust,

acceptance, intimacy, caring,

commitment

o Women with avoidant men- lessnegative ratings

o Anxious and avoidant women Less satisfaction, intimacy and

caring

o Men with anxious partner More conflict, less commitment,

less satisfaction and intimacy

o Thus: men and women both lesssatisfied when a woman is anxious

Time 2o Stability

Anxious men- lowest Time 3

o Stability Anxious women- highest

Highest stabilityo Avoidant men


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o Anxious women Expectations for romantic partner based on

attachment style

o Problems with Avoidant- avoidant Anxious- anxious

Lowest stability for:o Anxious meno Avoidant women

Not set in stoneo Timeo Relationships

Limitations of studying relying on self-reportPsychodynamic theory: evaluation

5 criteriao 1. Basis in scientific observations

No objective data Freud and free- association Limitations

Lack of diversity in patients Subjectivity

Suggestion in therapyo 2. Systematic

Logical, interconnected nature of theory Connection of process and structure

Id, ego, superego (structure) Gratification of instincts (process)

o 3. Testability Impossible to prove wrong

Can explain any outcomeo 4. Comprehensive

Extremely comprehensive Issues addressed

Mind Relationship between individual and society


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Dreams Sexuality Development Therapies

o 5. Applications Therapy for clients who need change

Other therapies also beneficial No emphasis on underlying drives

TEST #1

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Carl Rogers

4thof 6 children Close to mother Religious household

o Early focus on moral, ethical issueso Hard work

Studied agriculture, seminary, then clinical psychology 1931: PhD from Columbia View of the individual

o Subjectivity of experience Perceptions of reality Phenomenal field

Subjective construction Make up reality

Influenced by Outer world Inner world

Subjective needs, goals, beliefso Authenticity vs. alienation

Psychological distress from psychological detachment Approval vs. adhering to ones own values Path to alienation Instincts as wisdom


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Society vs. adhering to ones own values Well adjusted individual

o Human nature Fundamentally positive

Desire for growth Destructive, evil behaviors result of:

Fear Defensiveness

Freedom= positivityo Phenomenological perspective

Emphasis on conscious, subjective experiences How does individual experience the world?

o Humanistic Person as whole Self-perceptions Potential for growth

o Structure The self

Part of phenomenological experience Conscious

Organized pattern that is pervasive Idea of me or I Actual self vs. ideal self

o Measuring self-concept Two methods used

Q- Sort Technique Set of cards with personality characteristics

on each

o Has high aspiration level for selfo Expresses hostile feelings directlyo Values own independence and

autonomy

Cards sortedo 7-Most descriptive of _me/idea

self__

o 1-Least descriptive of ___


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Forced distribution Semantic Differential

Rate concepts on each polar oppositeadjective scale (bad-good, clean-dirty,

beautiful-ugly, strong-weak, active-passive,cruel-kind)

o My selfo My ideal selfo Fathero My college

o Personality Process Self-actualization

Fundamental motivational principle Simplicity to complexity Dependence to independence

Self consistency and Congruence Maintain consistent notion of self

Value system Organization of values, behaviors Consistency of behaviors Congruence vs. incongruence

o Congruence Self and experience Values and behaviors

o Incongruence Untrue to self Distress Anxiety Defensive processes

Denial Distortion-I am a bad

student self-concept and

good grade

Need for positive regard Desire to be accepted and respected by others


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Own values, own actualization vs. othersacceptance

Detachment Alienation

In childhood Unconditional love Conditions of worth

o Natural tendencies vs. parentspositive regard

o Denying aspects of selfo Growth and Development

Is the child free to self-actualize? Self actualization process throughout the life Developmental factors

Parent-child relationships Unconditional positive regard Acceptant, democratic attitudes

Internal psychological structures Congruence vs. incongruence and defense

Healthy development Unconditional acceptance

o Self-esteem Self-evaluation Influencing factors

Parental: Acceptance, affection, interest, warmth,

permissiveness and punishment, style

(democratic vs. dictatorial)

Rogers view of the cliento Power of client

Capable agent (rather than dependent patient)o Inborn drive toward health, growtho No differentiation between pathology typeso Pathological functioning

Discrepancy between self and experiences Defense against incongruent experiences


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Distress from ideal self vs. actual self discrepancyo Healthy functioning

Congruence between self and experience Incorporate experiences into self-concept

o Psychological change Main focus psychotherapy Conditions necessary for change

1. Reflection of feeling Therapist as a mirror

2. Client-centered therapy Actively understanding client

3.Therapeutic climate Nature of relationship, interactions between

therapist and client

o Conditions 1. Genuineness

Comfortable relationshipbetween therapist and

client

2. Unconditional positive regard Caring, respect for client

3. Empathic understanding Active listening,

understanding

o Efficacy of client-centered therapy Distress from incongruence, feelings of inadequacy Evidence for therapeutic change from Rogers methods

1. Reflection of felling 2. Client-centered therapy 3. Therapeutic change

Types of changes Decrease in defensiveness More congruent self More positive feelings toward others

Human potential movement


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Emphasis on self-growth Self-actualization Maslow

o Focus of positive factorso Individuals fundamentally good

Desire for goodo Psychopathology

Frustration Stifling of potential

o Improvement from freedom to express oneselfo Motivation

Biological vs. psychological needs (physiological, safety,love/belongingness. Esteem, actualization)

Higher level motivational processeso Focus on self-actualizing individuals

Einstein, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela Common characteristics

Acceptance of self, others Care for self, others Intimate relationships Resist conformity Remain realistic

Positive psychology movement

Other schools of thoughto Overemphasis on psychopathology, problems with human

condition

E.g. Freudo Classification of human strengths

Criteria used Enduring Beneficial across numerous domains Encouraged by parents, society as a whole

Seligman and Peterson Six categories of qualities

Wisdom, Courage, Love, Justice,Temperance, Transcendence


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Importance of listing qualities Different focus of positive psychology

Shimai Et Al

Kindness, love, humor, gratitude, open-mindedness, fairnessEvaluation of humanistic theories

5 criteriao Scientific observation

Objectivity in data collection Objective methods

Q sort Limitations

Explicit measures Lack of diversity

o Systematic nature Integrated propositions regarding individual personality

Parent-child interactions Types of self-concept Psychological distress vs. well-bring

Limitation Not enough information in theory

o Testability Certain elements testable, while others now Testable elements

Actual self vs. ideal self Q sort

Conditions of therapeutic change Limitations

No evidence of universal nature of selfactualization motive

No clear construct No objective assessment tool

o Comprehensiveness Not enough info regarding the influence of:

Evolution, emptions, biological impulses, genetics


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o Applications Importance of client-therapist relationships

Techniques for building relationships Client as person

Capable of improving selves10/15/13

Overview: Freud, Rogers Vs. Trait Theorists

Freudo No objective collectiono Case studies

Rogerso More focused on measuremento Still no way of measuring some key concepts

Trait theoristso Emphasis on measuremento Approach personality much like a physical science

Trait Concept

Personality traito Colloquial useo Definition: consistent patterns in how people

Behave, feel, thinko Connotations of traits

Consistency Across roles, time

Distinctiveness View of personality

o Focus on measurement Reliable and valid

o Theory based on collected data (not speculation) Contrast to Freud and Rogers

o Purpose of trait constructs Description

Describe typical behavior


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Basic descriptive facts Taxonomy

Personality scheme Aid in classification based on traits

Prediction Predict everyday behavior Important applications

E.g. selection for jobo Myers-Briggs typeo OCEAN

Explanation Scientific understanding of causes

NOT the same as prediction Not pursued by all trait theorists

Includes: Traits explaining behavior Figuring out possible biological factors

o Shared assumptions across theories People have predispositions to behave in certain ways There exists a relationship between having a certain

trait and trait-related behaviors

Direct relationship Extraverted behaviors related to higher

levels of extraversion

Contrast to psychoanalysis Behavior, personality in hierarchy

Trait theorists

Allport, Cattell, Eysencko Allport

Youngest of 4 children Protestant upbringing

Strict Purity of thoughts, behaviors

1919: Graduated from Harvard


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Emphasis on healthy, organized parts of humanbehavior

Criticism of psychoanalysis Too much focus on unconscious

Traits as building blocks of personality Three properties of traits

Frequency Intensity Range of situations

Personality structure Focus on traits as units

Consistent, stable tendencies Separate from temporary states, activities

Types of traits Cardinal traits

o Extremely influential in every behavioro Rare

Central traitso More limited in influenceo More common

Secondary dispositionso Least generalized, least consistent

(across situations)

Influence of situation Traits not expressed in all situations

o E.g. extraversion at party vs. first dayat job

o Trait: general tendencies across manysitautions

Limitations to Allports theory Not enough research conducted

Trait idea No research on influence of heredity

No model to explain psychological processes behindbehavior

Motivation for trait-related behaviors


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Problem with use of case studies, idiographicmethods

Traits: factor analysis

How do we know that certain behaviors are related to a certainunderlying trait?

Intuitive correlation- sea monsterso By looking at the correlations between all the parts we can

see (observable behaviors), we can infer something about

their underlying nature (theoretical constructs)

o Factor analysis- statistical method that looks at how lots ofdifferent observations correlate and determines how many

theoretical constructs could most simply explain what you see

Patterns in correlations Set of factors that summarize how different variables

are inter-correlated

Factor analytic study Test items given to participants Certain items will correlate with others

E.g. Do you often go to loud and noisyparties? And Do you enjoy spending time

with large groups of people? Clusters of correlated items may be influenced by

underlying factors

Relatively objective Can only show patterns of co-variation

No explanation of why Different explanations from different psychologists

Some subjectivity Number, nature of factors

10/16/13

Trait theorists

Cattello Lab of Personality Assessment (U. of Illinois)


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o Extremely prolific 200 articles 15 books

o Huge influence on 20thcentury psychologyo Need for taxonomy of traitso Use of factor analysiso Personality structure

Surface traits Observable behavioral tendencies

Source traits Underlying structures Responsible for relationship between surface traits

o Cattells 16 personality traitso Behavior: stability vs. variability

People not same all the time Behavior depends on traits and:

State Emotion at a particular point in time E.g. anxiety, fatigue, arousal

Role Social roles one has to play

o Influence of settingo Strengths and limitations

Strengths Systematic approach Foundation for future trait based research Development of 16 PF measure

Limitations 16 PF not parsimonious Structure based solely on factor analysis

May not cover all of personality Hans J. Eysenck

o Fled to England to escape Naziso Work influenced by

Factor Analysis European psychologists (Jung)


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Research on heredity and psychology Pavlovs work on classical conditioning

o Founded journal- Personality and Individual Differences Personality traits Temperament Biological foundations

o Measures of individual differences Importance of underlying biology

o Personality structure Superfactors

Higher order factors than initial factors Continuous dimensions Initially two:

Introversion-extraversion (sociability,liveliness, excitability)

Neuroticism (anxiety, feelings of guilt,shyness)

Used Ancient Greeks chart Later added third superfactor

Psychoticismo Abnormal traits (aggressive, cold,

egocentric, antisocial, unsympathetic) More objective measures

Lemon drop test Lemon juice placed on tongue Difference in amount of saliva produced Introverts vs. extraverts: who produced

more? Introverts

o Biological bases- introversion vs.extraversion

Differences in arousal level inbrain

Introverts Over- aroused by intense

environmental stimuli

Extraverts


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Less aroused byenvironmental stimuli

Need more stimulus fromenvironment

Necker cube experiment Extraverts switched viewing of cube more

than introverts

Research in brain activity Support for Eysencks ideas

Twin studies Support notion of hereditary influence

Other biological functionso Social context

Introverts Higher pain sensitivity More easily fatigued Performance inhibited by excitement More careful, slower Higher school performance Seek solitary jobs Lower need for novelty Intellectual humor Study habits

Quiet, solitary locations Extraverts

Performance enhanced by excitement Seek jobs that involve working with others Like diversion from routine Enjoy more explicit, sexual humor Study habits

Library Frequent study breaks

o Neuroticism Influence of autonomic nervous system

High neuroticism had overly active autonomicnervous system


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o Psychoticism Much less known compared to others Genetic influence

Gender Testosterone

o Psychopathology Psychopathology related to traits (and other biological

roots) + environmental factors

Neurotic patients High neuroticism, low extraversion

Criminals, antisocial people High neuroticism, high extraversion, high

psychoticism

Limitations to Eysencks theoryo Alternate models provide better fit

Influence of impulsivity, anxietyo Lack of consistent support for biological baseso Personality and Individual Differences as isolating factoro Model not comprehensive enough

Honesty, reliability, creativity10/21/13

Five factor model

Need for taxonomy Individual differences into 5 dimensions

o The big five Factor analytic trait approach Supported by research evidence Description vs. explanation Each factor present in everyone Biological basis on factors

o Genetic influenceo Downplay influence of nurtureo Causal influence on development

Universal raw material of personality


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o High reliability, high validityo Relative stability throughout adulthood

3. Relationship to other questionso NEO-PI-R

Five factors Six narrower facets Format

Self report Observer report

Relationship with: Eysencks inventories

E & N P: low agreeableness, low conscientiousness

Cattells 16 factors Temperament

Big five facetso Hierarchical organization

Extraversion Gregariousness, activity level, assertiveness,

excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth

Bill Clinton Agreeableness

Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty,tender mindedness, compliance

Conscientiousness Self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, order,

deliberation, achievement striving

Neuroticism Anxiety, self consciousness, depression,

vulnerability, impulsiveness, angry hostility

Openness to experience Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, ideas, actions,

values

o Stronger relationship with School performance

E.g. Anxiety and impulsivity facets of neuroticism


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Job performance and attitudes Organizational citizenship behaviors

Growth and developmento Over time, people become less neurotic, extraverted and

openness More agreeable, conscientious

Personality in childhoodo More complex in childhoodo 7 personality factors in childreno Instead of extraversion:

Sociability Activity

o Instead of neuroticism: Fearfulness Irritability

o Merging in adolescence Five factor limitations

o Main problems: 1. Link between personality structures and processes

Not enough info on processes No clear link between psychological

2. (Lack of) influence of social factors Traits said to be unaffected by external factors Twenge

Changes in US in 20thcenturyo Increase in anxiety, extraversion

10/23/13

A 6thfactor

Person A vs. Person Bo Person B-honesty

HEXACO model Research suggests there may be one more factor

o Honesty/humilityo Truthfulness, sincerity


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o Genuineness Findings from 7 languages Relation to type of religious orientation

o Intrinsic orientation: truly believe in religious teachings andlive life according to religious beliefs

Significantly correlated with honesty-humility,conscientiousness

o Extrinsic-personal orientation: focused on what religion cangive you (ex: comfort during difficult times)

Significantly correlated with agreeableness,conscientiousness

o Extrinsic- social orientation: religiousness based on formingsocial connections

Not strongly correlated with any Big Five or HEXACOtraits

Applications of 5 factor model

Conscientiousness and life expectancyo Sample followed for 70 yearso Conscientious children

Significantly longer lives 30% less likely to die each year

o Reasons: Less likely to:

Face violent death Less likely to smoke Less likely to drink heavily

More likely to: Exercise regularly Eat well Have physicals Follow medication schedule Avoid toxins

Predicting job performanceo Extraversion- Social enterprising (e.g. sales)


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o Openness to experience- artistic, investigative (e.g.filmmaking)

o Conscientiousness- various roles Predicting academic performance

Conscientiousness (higher) Neuroticism (lower)

Personality type and therapy optionso High openness to experience

Exploration (free association)o Low openness

Directive Medication

o No one specific therapy for all patients Related trait measures

o MMPI 567 True/False questions General pattern of responding 10 clinical scales

Paranoia, psychasthenia (Ocd), hypomania, socialintroversion

Validity scaleso 16 PF

16 primary personality traits Personality profile is created

Person-situation controversy

How much consistency do people demonstrate in their behaviors?o Enough consistency to support the notion of traits?

Walter Mischelo Behavior varies based on situationo Ability to examine situations and adapto May explain why people do not always act in accordance with

their traits

Consistency over time vs. situationso Skepticism about cross-situational consistency

Evidence for trait consistencyo Seen more within domains across time


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Research on conscientiousnesso Measures twice in one semestero Highest for class-related behaviors and lower for other

domains

Trait theories evaluation

Scientific observationo Strong foundation of data

Emphasis on: Statistical analyses of objective personality tests

Diversity of subjects Age, ethnicity, sociocultural factors

Different sources of data Self reports, observer reports, life data,

physiological measures

o Limitations Lack of in-depth methods

Focus on traits, general qualities Surface characteristics Not enough focus on individual uniqueness

Systematic natureo Cattell

Systematic theorizing about: Traits, states, roles, motivation

Problem: not enough influenceo Eysenck

Relationship between trait and biological factors Structures (traits) and processes (nervous

system)

Problem Other than extraversion-introversion, not much

evidence

o McCrae and Costa (5 traits) No explanations of dynamic processes that influence

behavior

o Trait theories in general


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Not enough systematic explanation regardingpersonality

Testabilityo Testable through objective methodso Many aspects that can be tested

Comprehensivenesso Strengths

Incorporations of important individual differences Factor analysis methods

o Limitations Focused primarily on taxonomy of traits and influence of

traits on behaviors, leading to deficits in other areas

Not enough info regarding: Interaction between conscious and unconscious Influence of sexuality Dreams Relationship between therapist and client Role of parents Not enough focus of personality processes

Theories more about structures Not enough focus on individual

Traits across populations Cannot conclude that identified traits exist

in everyone

Applicationso Helpful in prediction

Accepted set of traits Used to predict behaviors

o Limitations Not very useful in clinical setting

No therapy for psychological changeTEST #2

10/30/13


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Phineas Gage

Construction foremano Accident involving explosiono Iron bar shot through his face

Left check, front of brain, top of heado Results

Damage to left frontal lobe Maintained ability to walk, speak, remember Changes in:

Disposition, preferences, goals, personality Implications:

Frontal brain and personalityTemperament

Individual differenceso Mood, emotional response, activity level

Inherited (for the most part) Biologically based Early views (from ancient Greeks)

o Melancholico Phlegmatico Cholerico Sanguine- outgoing, sociable

19thcenturyo Darwin

The Origin of Species The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals

Emotional expression in humans and othermammals are similar

Contribution to Study of temperament, evolutionary

psychology

o Gregor Mendel Experiments on plant hybrids

Modern genetics on personality developmento Ernst Kretschmer


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Physique and character Pyknic

Plum, rounder body Extraversion

Athletic Muscular Vigorous

Aesthenic Frail Introversion

Temperament longitudinal studieso NY Longitudinal study

Over 100 subjects followed from birth to adolescence Parental reports regarding infants:

Activity level, mood, attention span, persistence Infant temperament types

Easy Playful, adaptable

Difficult Negative, unadaptable

Slow to warm up Low reactivity, mild responding

o Buss and Plomin: 4 Dimensions of temperament Emotionality- arousal in upsetting situations, level of

general distress

Activity- vigor of movement, fidgety nature Sociability- responsiveness to other people, ease of

making friends

Impulsivity- ability to control behavior, later droppedo Kagan

Neural bases of differences in: Emotions Behavioral tendencies

Research Observe behaviors in lab settings

Infants (4 months)


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Presented infants with novel stimulio Voice of stranger talkingo Balloon popping

Resultso Low reactivity: calm, laid backo High reactivity: strong negative

reactions to novel stimuli

Children (4.5, 8 yrs old) Presented with novel stimuli

o Flashing lights, stranger in costume High reactive infantsgreater

fear responses at ages 4.5 & 8

Some changes: role ofenvironment

Temperament profiles Inhibited temperament (high reactive)- react to

novel stimuli with

Restraint, avoidance, distress More time needed to relax in new situations More unusual fears Timid, cautious

Uninhibited temperament (low reactivity) Likes unfamiliar situations Responds with laughter, smiling to novelty

Temperament in adulthood Adults categorized as inhibited vs. uninhibited

children

Presented with novel stimuli fMRI to note active brain activity

(amgydala)

Inhibited children have much more activeamygdala compared to uninhibited

Evolutionary psychology

Need to belongo Universal need seen across cultures, time


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Chances for survival, reproductiono Social ostracism

Akin to physical pain Evolutionary alarm

Evolved psychological mechanismso Help solve problems important to reproductive success

Social behaviorso Domain specific

Fear for certain stimuli Specific adaptive emotions (jealousy)

Participants asked to predict distress from sexualvs. emotional infidelity

60% of male sample: greater distress fromsexual infidelity

83% of female sample: greater distressfrom emotional infidelity

Proposed evolutionary explanations Womans mate value

o Reproductive capacity Youth Markers of fertility Chastity

Paternal probability Mans mate value

o Resources Earning capacity Ambition

o Causes of jealousy: counterevidence Question format unrealistic Participants asked to rate reaction to:

Sexual infidelity Not at all upset.... Extremely upset

Emotional infidelity Sex differences no longer present

Both upset more by sexual infidelity


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Evolutionary theory and the big five

Goldberg: Lexical hypothesiso OCEAN from desire to categorize important behaviorso Value of recognizing people who are

Responsive, dependable (vs. unreliable) Agreeable (vs. disagreeable) Emotionally stable (vs. unstable)

o Consistent focus on certain traitsTrait terms in lexicon Sex differences in the big five

o Big five traits in men and women across 55 nations More and less developed, egalitarian

o Findings Women higher on: neuroticism, extraversion,

agreeableness, conscientiousness

Male-female differences greater in: More developed countries, more egalitarian

countries

Evolutionary theory

Strengthso Explanation for:

Behaviors Social structures

Culture Limitations

o Humans not bound by evolutionary influenceso Not enough focus on environment

11/4/13

Genetics

Behavioral geneticso Influence on genes on:

Cognitive ability, personality, interestso Interaction between genes and environmento Cognitive ability


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Most inherited Males in Denmark

Correlations for full siblings Reared apart: .47 Reared together: .52

Correlations for adoptive siblings Reared together: .02

Strong influence of environment in childreno Specific mental abilities

Evidence for less influence of heredity for: Verbal ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed,

memory

o Interests Occupational interests

Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,Enterprising, Conventional

Somewhat weaker genetic influence and strongerenvironmental influence compared to personality

o Gene- Environment interactions Shared vs. non-shared environments

Shared environment Shared by siblings in the same family

Non-shared environments Unique experiences not shared by members

in the same family

Differential treatment from parents Which is more important in personality

development? Non-shared

Indications that non-shared environmentalinfluences much stronger than shared

Variance explained Genetic factors 40% Non-shared environments 35% Shared environments 5%

Does not mean within family experiencesunimportant


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Focus on experience of individual Environmental effects

Significant differential treatment of siblingso Much of this due to genetic

characteristics of child Again, importance of unique experiences of

child

o Phenomenological experience ratherthan objective events

Difficulty in measuremento Measurement error

Three nature-nurture interactions 1. Environment affects individuals differently

based on genetic makeup (passive)

E.g. conscientious vs. lazy child andintelligent parents

2. People with certain genetic makeup bring forthdifferent responses from environment (evocative)

E.g. difficult baby may cause differentreactions in parent compared to easy baby

3. People choose, create different environmentsbased on genetic makeup

E.g. extraverts choice of hobbies, friendscompared to introverts

Research methods 3 main research methods in genetics

1. Selective breeding studieso Animals with desired trait mated

Create separate strain Study behavior Manipulate environmental

experiences

Separate genetic vs.environmental influences on

behavior

2. Twin studies


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o Monozygotic (MZ0 vs. Dizygotic (DZ)twins

MZ twins genetically identical DZ twins share 50% of genes

o Genetic influence High: MZ twins more similar

than DZ twins

Low: MZ and DZ twins similaro MZ twins reared apart

Evidence of genetic influence MZ twins raised together

not more similar with

regard to personality

traits

3. Adoption studieso Individual raised by adoptive parentso Genetic influence

Biological siblings Neuroscience

o Influence of Specific parts of the brain Neurotransmitters Hormones

o Hemispheric dominance Depressed people: decreased left brain activity Inhibited children: greater activity in right hemisphere Uninhibited children: greater activity in left hemisphere

o Role of neurotransmitter Dopamine

Feel good chemical Associated with pleasure Cocaine as imitation

Serotonin SSRIs and depression

o Neurotransmitters and emotionality Model of emotionality


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1. Negative emotionality High NE individuals

o Higher levels of negative emotionso Environment seen as:

Threatening, problematic,distressing

o Report feelings of: Fear, sadness, anger, guilt,

disgust

Low NE individualso Calm, emotionally stable, self-

satisfied

Neurobiologyo Low levels of serotonin in high NE

Depression, anxiety, OCDbehaviors, negative view of

environment

2. Positive Emotionality High PE individuals

o Higher levels of positive emotions,sociable, energetic, cheerful,

enthusiastico Report feelings of

Joy, interest, attentiveness,excitement, pride

Low PE individualso Reserved, low energy, low confidence

Neurobiologyo Association with dopamineo Relationship to left hemispheric

dominance

3. Disinhibition vs. Constraint Manner of regulating emotions High DvC individuals

o Impulsive, reckless, focus on feelingsin the moment


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o Behaviors Lower grades, lower job

performance ratings, higher

alcohol drug consumption

o Night owls Low DvC individuals

o Careful, more focused on future, avoidrisk, morning people

Neurobiologyo Association with serotonin

Aggression, drug useo Possible relationship with testosterone

Competitiveness, aggression Neurotransmitters and love

o High dopamine, low levels of serotonin, high levels ofaggression

o In love but rejected Recently rejected participants fMRI to study brain activity

Picture of rejecter Fillers

Activation in brain regions associated with: Craving, emotion regulation, addiction

Greater understanding of irrational, obsessive behaviors Decrease in activation with time

Plasticityo Changes in biologyo Monkey leaders and serotonin- serotonin levels change when

become a leader (higher levels)

o Aggression and testosterone Lower testosterone levels after:

Losing at sports, being fan of losing team11/6/13

Antecedents of behaviorism

Darwin


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o Link between animals and humans Rise of animal psychology

George Romaneso Introspection by analogy (using what we know about our

thinking to infer behavior or what animals are thinking)o Comparative psychology

C. Lloyd Morgano Morgans Canono Limit introspection by analogy to mammalso Comparative psychology closer to experimental science

Edward L. Thorndikeo Influenced by Morgano Cats in puzzle-boxes

Reward for escape Trial and error for effective behaviors These animals dont have insight

Rules out reasoning Interested in learning and adaptive advantages Law of effect

Law of reinforcement Instrumental learning

Behaviorism: View of the person Analogous to machine

o Mechanisms to be studied Determinism

o Contrast to free willBehaviorism: View of personality

Causal influence of environment on individualo No interest in internal factorso Focus on environments impact

Understanding of people built on lab researcho Peopleo Animals

Environmental determinismo Human behavior guided by laws

Behavior causes by environmental factors


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Comparable to rock thrown in airo Individuals thoughts, feelings all caused by environment

Selection of major Selection of classes Beginning, ending relationships

Research methods

Environmental manipulationo Manipulate individual variables

Influence on behavioro Study only observable factors

Contrast to other theories Behaviorists: other theories too speculative, unscientific

Simple systems strategyo Simpler system than area of researcho Reasons:

Complexity of environment Unethical to conduct certain tests

E.g. airplanes reaction to certain elements E.g. drug testing E.g. experiments on addiction

Theories of learning

Pavlovs Classical conditioning/Skinners Operant conditioningo 2 Complementary theories

Foundation of behaviorismo Mid-20thcentury: predominant school of thought

John Watsono Founder of behaviorism

Research with animals Classes in neurology, physiology Philosophy then psychology

o Examined how rats travel through mazes Explored the significance of the kinesthetic sense

o Behaviorist manifesto Call for:

New methodology, new topic of study End focus on:


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Immediate conscious experience, self-observation, internal perception, introspection

The time seems to have come when psychology mustdiscard all reference to consciousness

Watsons psychology begins with: Organisms adjustment to environment Certain stimulicertain responses

o Little Albert Experiment Report on conditioned emotional reactions in Little

Albert

Conclusion Fears as conditioned emotional reactions

NOT from unconscious or other areaso Watson- most famous American psychologist of 20thcentury

Forced to resign from scandal Went on to career in advertising and business

Ivan Pavlovo Studied digestive system, salivary responses of dogs

Placed food powder in mouth, measured resultingsalivation

After several trials, dogs began to salivate in responseto:

Sight of food dish Approach of researcher

o Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response During conditioning

Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditionedstimulus to elicit conditioned response

Generalization Reponses to similar stimuli

E.g. salivation to other noises Discrimination

Animal learns which CS lead to UCS Extinction


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CS presented without UCSanimal no longerresponds to CS

11/11/13

Behaviorism

Psychopathologyo Explained in terms of learned response patterns

Individuals not sick or diseasedo Failure to learn proper responses

Behavioral deficit E.g. social inadequacies

o Learning of maladaptive responses Conditioned emotional reactions

o Little Albert Combination of white rat+ loud noise

Ratfear Conditioned emotional reaction

Generalization of fearo Watson and Rayner- fears as conditioned emotional reactions

Contrast to psychodynamic explanationso Psychopathology and treatment

Psychopathology not internal Abnormal behavior from maladaptive environments Treatments

Provide new environment Learn different, more adaptive behaviors Want to extinguish (unlearn) abnormal anxiety Effectiveness for:

Phobias OCD PTSD

Systematic desensitization Relaxation training: remain calm through

regulation of breathing, bodily sensations

Go through fear hierarchy


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o Feared situations from least to mostfearful

Disconnect association between hierarchicallevels and fear through new connection

Flooding Prolonged exposure to feared object or

situation

OCD Exposure and response prevention: have

thoughts without performing compulsive

rituals

PTSD Prolonged exposure through imagining

o Weaken link between actual traumaand things that cause anxiety

Skinner and operant conditioning

Interest in building things Initially waned to become a writer Became interested in Pavlovs, Watsons work Harvard

o Animal behavior Explanation based on environment

Personality structureo Behavior as result of environment

Change in situationChange in behavioro No need for stable personality structure

Non-scientific Skinners behaviorism

o Learning in animalso Skinner boxeso Rejected the notion of intervening variableso Operant conditioning

Contrast to Pavlov: stimulus- response Instead, consequence- behavior Focused on:


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Positive and negative reinforcement Positive- give something pleasurable

likelihood of behavior being repeated goes

up

Negative- take away somethingunpleasurablelikelihood of behavior being

repeated goes up

Positive and negative punishment Positive- give something unpleasurable

likelihood of behavior being repeated goes

down

Negative- take away somethingpleasurablelikelihood of behavior being

repeated goes down

Focused on: Shaping Acquisition Extinction Schedules of reinforcement

o Skinner as inventor WWII: Project Pigeon 1940s: Baby tender 1950s: Teaching machine

o Growth and development Increasing number of responses learned from

reinforcement experiences

Parents should pay attention to which behaviors arereinforced

Most effective: reinforce good behavior No reference to specific stages Behavior change

Token economy Desirable behaviors rewarded Rewards exchanged for desired goods Used in schools, hospitals Evidence for short-term effectiveness


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Behaviorism: evaluation

1. Scientific observationso Strengths

Systematic research major part of behaviorism Information not based on speculation

Limitations Limited database

Information primarily from animals Humans have capabilities not shared with

animals

o Languageo Reason about pasto Plan for future

Overlooked phenomenological issues 2. Systematic nature

o Strengths Extremely systematic Various phenomena explained through one system

Behaviors in response to reinforcement Learning of responses Response persistence

o Limitations Not enough information about other areas

Internal processes 3. Testability

o Testable in labo More difficult in real world

4. Comprehensivenesso Extremely comprehensiveo Skinner (1953)

Behaviorist principles applied to: Analysis of individual, group behavior Government, laws Psychotherapy Economic Education


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Culture 5. Applications

o Not enough information regarding differences betweenpeople, animals

o However, many application seen today Token economy Variable reinforcement schedules

11/13/13

George Kelly

Early work in Kansas public schools Examination of teachers referrals

o Construct systems/ interpretation of environmento E.g. teachers complaint that student is lazy

Kelly observed Behaviors of child Teachers perception/ interpretation

No absolute trutho Reality can be reconstructed

Kellys Personality theory Truth vs. Utility

o Search for trutho Kellys view- utility

Tools for prediction Different theories as different viewpoints Constructive alternativism No one correct theory

Kellys beliefso Too much emphasis on measurement

No traits within people that need to be measured Role of psychologists as statisticians

Statisticians vs. experts on mind Role of clinical methods Emphasis on important issues


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Understand people Work on problems

View of persono Person as a scientist

Constructs used to predict events Whether or not we will succeed at certain goals What might help us achieve these goals

Theory development/ hypothesis testing Weigh evidence from the past People focused on future People actively

Think about environment Think about selves and others

Can alter theories to make new predictions Change point of view Modify assumptions

Kelly: fundamental corollaryo A persons thoughts, feelings, behaviors and actions are

psychologically affected by the ways in which they anticipate

events

A person lives his life by expecting what comes nextand the only information we have about what comesnext comes from the constructs we create for ourselves

Personal constructso Categories to help us make sense of world

Individual categories Difference in

Types of categories When certain categories used

E.g. mother who fusses over child Attentive Overbearing

Understanding of individualo Built from previous experienceso Used to gain new knowledgeo Interpretation of environment


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Cognitive processes Categorization Attributions Predictions

Bring order to environmento Individual predicts events by noticing patternso Necessary elements

Similarity pole Contrast pole E.g. kind/cruel construct

o Need similarity/ contrast comparison Cannot fully understand individuals construct without

both

E.g. respectful Need individuals views of respectful actions =

disrespectful actions for full understanding

Provides information regarding individuals idea ofconstruct

E.g. supportive- cold vs. supportive- unreliableo Used to interpret events in environment + anticipate future

Construct systems and applicationso Construct systems

Core constructs Integral to functioning E.g. religious beliefs

Sinful/ holy Peripheral constructs

Less important Can be changed without affecting individuals core

structure

E.g. views regarding arto Creative/ uncreative

Hierarchical organization Differences in breadth, inclusiveness

Superordinate constructs Broadest


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Most inclusive E.g. nice/ not nice

Subordinate constructs More narrow More specific E.g. good math student/ poor math student

o Failure to communicate between Clinical health professionals Hospital managers Due to different background experiences, training,

language

Clinician, managers asked to describe Culture Ideal clinician and ideal manager Discussions between clinicians and managers Reveal constructs regarding common values

Similarities in constructs Increased communication

o Personality assessment Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test

Two steps Role Title List

o Names of people who fulfill differentroles (20-30)

o Elements Construct elicitation

o 3 people selectedo How are two of them alike? Different

from the third?

Learn about test taker based on categorization E.g. shy/outgoing construct How individual views/interprets important

individuals

o Personality process Activity directed toward more accurate predictions of

future events


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Experiencesindividual notices similarities, contrastconstruct development

Constructs used to predict future events Tested repeatedly Modified, developed with experience

Desire for validation of construct systemo Psychopathology

Maintenance of poorly functioning construct system People stick with construct system to avoid

Anxiety Current construct system not applicable

Threat Feeling that imminent change in core

construct(s) is about to occur

Treatment Focus on changing personal construct system

Improve predictions through betterconstructs

Some constructs replaced, some added,some dropped

Goal: help client create more efficient constructsystem

Personality sketch New person for client to try out Aid in expansion of construct system Client becomes new person

o Behaviorso Thoughtso Communication with others

New person different from cliento Catalyst for changes in construct

system

o Safe way to try out new personality Goal: client reconstructs self

o Experimentation with constructso Changes in constructs


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o Construct system that makes moreaccurate predictions

Cultureo Symbols

US- eagle, flag Baruch- bearcat NYC- taxi, empire state, MTA, statue of liberty

o Rituals US- pledge of allegiance

o Beliefs/assumptions US- freedom

TEST #3

11/20/13

Focus of Social-Cognitive theory

1. Cognitive processes as main focus 2. Influence of social environment on cognitive development

Critique of previous theories

Psychoanalysiso Too much emphasis on unconscious

Conscious processes more importanto Too much focus on early childhood

Individuals can continue to develop Trait theory

o Average personality tendencies not personality Variability also informative

Evolutionary psychologyo Cannot explain changes over time

E.g. Current presence of women in the workplace Behaviorism

o Too much emphasis on external rewards/ punishments Individuals have some control Importance of thinking capabilities Human agency


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Learned behavior without reward/ punishmentsAlbert Bandura

Learning theory Rigorous experimental testing Familial influences on aggression in children Focus on self processes

o Goalo Self- evaluationo Beliefs about ones own abilities

Influence on personal agencyo Includes social factors

E.g. SESWalter Mischel

1965 Peace Corps projecto Global trait measures: poor predictor of performanceo Skepticism regarding trait theory, psychoanalysis

1968 Personality and Assessmento Challenged psychoanalysis, trait theoryo Person- situation controversy- which is more important?

View of the person Three essential qualities of people

o 1. Reason using languageo 2. Thoughts about present, past and futureo 3. Self-reflection

Fundamental aspects of personality Focus on:

o Individuals ability to overcome environmental influenceso Control over animalistic impulses

Humans as:o Active, aware, problem solving, benefit from experiences,

mental capabilities

Not just about habits, traits, environment, genesView of science of personality


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Reliance on advances ino Developmental, social, cognitive psychologyo Neuroscienceo Other areas of science

Emphasis on individuals Focus on practical applications

o Need tools to benefit humankindPersonality Structure

Components (Cognitive Affective Units)o 1. Competencies and skills

Individual differences based on differing abilities toperform certain types of behaviors

E.g. extraverts E.g. conscientious people

Problem solving Different ways to analyze problems Behavioral skills to execute solutions

Two types of knowledge Declarative- facts that individual knows and is

aware of

Procedural- performance, unable to describeprecisely

Implications Context specificity

Different situations call upon differentcompetencies, skills

Contrast to trait theories Psychological change

Competency acquisition possibleo 2. Beliefs and expectancies

Beliefs regarding what world is like + expectationsabout what may happen in the future

Expectations about Other people Potential rewards/ punishments


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Self Contrast to behaviorism

Behavior caused by reinforcements, punishmentsfrom environment

Social cognitive theory Peoples expectations about potential rewards,

punishments

Focus on expectations Explanations for why different people

behave differently in same environment

Perceived self efficacy Beliefs regarding abilities to perform certain

actions (in the present and future)

Self efficacy is Not Self esteem

o Overall, global evaluation of worth Outcome expectations

o Can know likely outcome of behaviorsbut not feel capable of performing

them

E.g. chemical engineering major Greater influence of self efficacy on behaviors Self efficacy and behaviors

High self efficacyo Try difficult taskso Maintain efforto Calm during performanceo Organize thoughts analytically,

coherently

Low self efficacyo Not attempt activitieso Give up easilyo Exhibit anxiety during performanceo Rattled in thoughts

Potential negative impact Self efficacy and self doubt


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o Less motivation Vancouver and Kendall

o Measures Self-efficacy (anticipated grade) Planned and actual resource

allocation (study time)

Performance (grades)o Results

Within persons: higher selfefficacy associated with:

Less planned and actual studytime

Lower performanceo Discrepancies from goals and resource

allocation

o Implications for self efficacy trainingo 3. Goals

Aim of behaviors Individuals

Imagine future Set goals Direct behaviors to help achieve goals

Goals Guide priorities Help individuals decide between situations Guide organization of behaviors Organized hierarchically Flexible Proximal vs. Distal goals

Proximate goal- closer in timeo E.g. good grades on quizzeso E.g. losing 1 lb. this week

Distal goals- far in the futureo E.g. getting into good grad schoolo E.g. losing 50 lbs. in 6 months

o 4. Evaluative standards


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Standard Criteria for judging whether person, thing, or

event is good vs. bad

Evaluative standards about self Internalized personal standards used to rate

behaviors

E.g. term paper Judgments regarding moral vs. immoral behaviors

Moral disengagement Temporarily disengaging from moral

standards in certain situations

Nature of personality structureso Not things in peoples mindso Ways of thinking that interact to form personalityo Personality too complex to be described by scores

Individuals have many different goals, beliefs,standards, skills

Change across time11/25/13

Personality Process Addressed in 2 ways

o 1. General theoretical principles Reciprocal determinism

Bandura Cause and effect 3 factors involved in behavior

Individual Behavior Environment

Mutual influence between 3 forces (reciprocaldeterminants)

Conversation with person you find attractive Behaviors Influence of environment


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Influence of personality structure Too simplistic to say behavior stems from solely

internal (psychodynamic, trait theories) or

external (behaviorism) forces

Reciprocal interactions of behaviors, environmentand personality characteristics

Cognitive- affective personality system (CAPS) Personality as system 3 features

1. Cognitive and emotional variables andcomplex interactions between them

o Goals, competencies and skills,expectancies, evaluative standards

and reactions

2. Situational featuresspecific aspects ofpersonality system activated

3. Therefore, peoples behavior will differfrom one situation to another

Personality system as a whole system If... then... Profile Analysis

Individuals behavior observed in varioussituations

o Measure systematic differences If... then... Children observed at summer camp

o Responses to various situations Teasing by peer Praise from adult Punishment from adult

o Results Evidence of distinctive, stable

personality profiles

Different reactions to differentsituations

o Different profiles based on individualsbehaviors in specific situations


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Behavioral signatureso Captures more info regarding unique

patterns than global measures

2 people with identical globalanxiety score

o 2. Key psychological functions 1. Attainment of new knowledge, skills

Observational learning Learning from observing model

o Bandura, Internal mentalrepresentations

Basic skills Acceptable vs. unacceptable

o More complex than just imitation ormimicry

o Influence of reality tv Issues- gossiping as normal part

of relationships between girls

78% of viewers agreed, vs/

54%

Difficulty of trusting other girls63% of viewers vs. 50% of non-viewers

Respect though meanness 37%of viewers vs. 25%

Acquisitions vs. Performanceo Acquisition

Learning (with or withoutreinforcers)

Does not necessarily lead tobehavior

o Performance More dependent on

reinforcement, punishment


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o Bandura- three groups of childrenwatched model aggress against Bobo

doll

Group 1Models aggressivebehavior was rewarded withcandy, praise

Group 2Models aggressivebehavior was punished with

reproach

Group 3Models aggressivebehavior had no consequence

Children taken to room full oftoys

Stage 1- No incentivecondition (children left

alone in room with toys,

including Bobo doll)

Stage 2- Incentive Vicarious learning

Learning responses byobserving models

Rewards, punishments,reactions (phobias)

o Use of acquired knowledge and skillso Focus on thinking processes

Personal expectations Goals

o Self-regulation Guidance od behavior toward

goals

o Involvement of personality structures Setting goals Evaluating behavior against

standards

Self-efficacy Emphasis on foresight


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Anticipation of

Documents

Theories of Personality Notes