Theories of Personality PDF (1)

8/17/2019 Theories of Personality PDF (1)

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THEORIES OF PERSON ALITY

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

I. Psy ch oanal ytic Theory – Sig mn! "re !

“Turn your eyes inward, look into your own depths, learn to first know yourself.”

Psychoanalysis Attempt to explain personality, motivation and psychological disorders by

focusing on the influence of early childhood experiences, on unconsciousmotives and conflicts, and on the methods people use to cope with theirsexual and aggressive urges

"OC#S$ unconscious – people are not aware of the most important

determinants of their behaviour/body language; and such contains theunresolved issues of one’s self

*the dynamic unconscious has the motivations or energies that caninfluence behaviour and experience

"re!:• sychoanalysis emphasi!ed unconscious forces, biologically based drives

of sex and aggression and unavoidable conflicts in early childhood

• "atisfaction of the libido• #eredity $ environment % personality

• unconscious consists of sexual and aggressive instincts that areunacceptable to the conscious personality

%e&els o' Personality (The ICE)ER*+

&' Conscios (ncludes all the sensations and experiences of which we are aware at any given

moment A portion above the surface of the water – tip of the iceberg

"re!$ conscious is a limited aspect of personality because only a small

portion of our thoughts, sensations and memories exists in consciousawareness at any time

)' Preconscios etween the conscious and the unconscious +he storehouse of memories, perceptions and thoughts, of which we are not

consciously aware at the moment but that we can easily summon intoconsciousness


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' #nconscios #ome of the instincts, those wishes and desires that direct our behaviour -ontains the driving power behind all behaviors and is the repository of forces

we cannot see or control

Instincts$ The Pro,elling "orces o' Personality

Instincts

+he motivating force that drives behaviour and determines its direction

(t aim to satisfy the need and thereby reduces tension #omeostatic approach – people are motivated to restore and maintain a

condition of physiological e.uilibrium or balance, to eep the body free of tension

Ty,es o' Instincts

&' %i'e Instincts

0or survival of the individual and the species by seeing to satisfy the needsfor food, water, air and sex

%i-i!o a form of psychic energy which is manifested by the life instincts, thatdrives a person toward pleasurable behaviors and thoughts


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Catheis an investment of psychic energy in an ob1ect or person

)' Death Instincts +he unconscious drive toward decay, destruction and aggression – Tanathus

Aggressi&e Dri&e one of the components of death instincts that compels us to destroy,con.uer and ill

Strctres o' Personality

&' I! 2eservoir of the instincts and libido and vitally and directly related to the

satisfaction of bodily needs 3nly nows instant gratification – it drives us to what we want, when we

want it, without regard for anyone else’s wants 4o awareness of the reality 3perates in accordance with the Pleasure Principle – increase pleasure

and avoid pain +he ways that it can attempt to satisfy it needs are through reflex action and

wish5fulfilling hallucinations or fantasy experience labelled as Primary Thoght Process

)' Ego re5conscious 2ational master of personality

urpose: to help the id obtain the tension reduction it craves 6oes not prevent the id but it postpone, delay or redirect the id in terms of the

demands of reality (t perceives and manipulates the environment in a practical and realistic

manner so that it will operate in accordance with the Reality Principle 6etermines the appropriate and socially acceptable times, places and ob1ects

that will satisfy the id impulses which involves the Secon!ary ThoghtProcess

' S,erego (nternal morality of conscience

A powerful and largely unconscious set of beliefs – we ac.uire through ourexperience, childhood, rules and regulations, do’s and don’ts

urpose: to inhibit the id and the ego completely, particularly to thosedemands concerning sex and aggression


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Parts$

a' Conscience contains the behaviors for which a child has been punished where guilt comes from

b' Ego/i!eal consists of the good or correct behaviors for which children have been punished

"re!$• +he three parts of the psychic structure are in a perpetual conflict – the

continuing conflict between the id, ego and superego

• +he dynamics of personality involve a continuous interaction and clash betweenid impulses which sees to be released and the inhibitions or restraining forcesagainst such impulses – these urges or impulses and counter5forces motivate

personality

+he inevitable result of the friction between the id, ego and superego, and the ego isseverely strained, is the development of aniety '

"re!$

• Anxiety is the fundamental development of neurotic and psychotic behaviour

• +he prototype of all anxiety is the -irth trama

Three Ty,es o' Aniety

&' Reality or O-0ecti&e Aniety

(nvolves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world

)' Nerotic Aniety +he unconscious fear of being punished for impulsively displaying id5

dominated behaviour 6oing without thining

' Moral Aniety +he fear of one’s conscience

*oals o' Psychoanalysis

+o maintain and regain an acceptable level of dynamic e.uilibrium thatmaximi!es pleasure and minimi!ing tension

Role o' Psychoanalysis "trengthen the ego; to mae it independent of the overly strict concerns of the

superego, and to increase its capacity to deal with formerly repressed behaviour hidden in the id


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De'ense Mechanism Against A n.iety

&' Re,ression +he unconscious denial of the existence of something that causes anxiety

)' Denial 2efusal to admit the existence of an existence of an external threat ortraumatic event

' Asceticism +he renunciation of needs A person renounces his interest in what other people en1oy

7' Isolation 1 Intellectali2ation "tripping the emotion from a difficult memory or threatening impulse "omething that is to be treated as a big deal is treated as if it was not –

deadma

8' Reaction "ormation 9xpressing an id impulse that is the opposite of the one that is truly driving

the person

' #n!oing agical gestures or rituals that are meant to cancel out unpleasant thoughts

or feelings after they have already occurred ' I!enti'ication 3ith the Aggressor 0ocuses on the adoption of negative or feared traits A person can partially overcome the fear of another by becoming more lie

them

?' Pro0ection +he attributing a disturbing impulse to someone else

&@' Altristic Srren!er A form of pro1ection; when a person attempts to fulfil his own needs

vicariously, through other people

&&' Regression 2etreating to an earlier, less frustrating period of life and displaying the

usually childish behaviors characteristic of that more secure time


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&)' Rationali2ation 2einterpreting our behaviour to mae it more acceptable and less threatening

to us

&' Dis,lacement

"hifting id impulses from a threatening ob1ect or from one that is unavailableto an ob1ect that is available

&7' Trning against the Sel' A form of displacement wherein the person becomes his own substitute

target, i'e' suicide

&8' S-limation

Altering and displacing id impulses by diverting instinctual energy intosocially acceptable behaviors

Ho3 to ta, the nconscios$

0ree Association – spea freely about anything 6ream Analysis – manifest and latent contents of dream/s

9veryday life – little mistaes, slips of the tongue, body language, lapses inmemory

#umor – what has already been repressed thoughts in a society at approvedmanner; what a person finds humorous

Psychoseal Stages o' Personality De&elo,ment

"re!$

A person’s uni.ue character develops in childhood largely from parent5childrelationship

6evelopment consists of several stages and each psychological stage is defined by an erogenous !one of the body

Erogenos 2ones Areas of the body that are sensitive to pleasant and sensual feelings, hence

giving rise to sexual feeling when simulated

*the conflict that exists in each developmental stage must be resolved before theinfant/child can progress to the next stage

*if the conflict has not been resolved or when the needs have been supremely satisfied by the parent, the individual is said to be fixated at his stage of development

"iation A portion of the libido or psychic energy remains invested in a that

developmental stage, leaving less energy for the following stage


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A' Oral Stage @5&> months 9rogenous !one: outh Activity: sucing, biting and swallowing rimary 3b1ect of ibido: mother or caregiver

-onclusion/6evelopmental ilestone: time of weaning 0ixations:a' Oral Passi&e Personality – oral incorporative behaviour Btaing inC b' Oral Aggressi&e )eha&ior – oral aggressive or sadistic behaviourBbiting or spitting outC

' Anal Stage )5 years old 9rogenous !one: anus Activities: retention of feces and wilful defecation 6evelopmental ilestone: Toilet Training – gratification of an instinctual

impulse is interfered with as parents attempt to regulate the time and place of defecation

0ixations:a' Anal E,lsi&e1Aggressi&e Personality – defying attempts at

regulation, anal expulsion over generous b' Anal Retenti&e Personality – holding the feces in problem with

discipline, perfectionist, orderly, stingy

-' Phallic Stage )5 years old 9rogenous !one: genitals Activities: exploring and manipulating the genitals, i'e' masturbation

Oe!i,s Com,le – the unconscious desire of a boy for his motheraccompanied by a desire to replace or destroy his father; he interprets his fearto his father as becoming fearful that his father will cut off the offending organBpenisC castration anxiety

Electra Com,le – the unconscious desire of a girl for her fatheraccompanied by a desire to replace or destroy her mother; she comes to envy her father and transfers her love to him because he possesses the highly valued sex organ penis envy

Phallic Personality – strong narcissism, difficulty in establishing matureheterosexual relationships,

Se,aration In!i&i!ation – separation of the child to the mother, with the

help of the father; establishing own identity which may results to promiscuity seductivity or masculinity

6' %atency Stage years old – puberty "ex instinct is dormant, sublimated in school activities, sports and hobbies,

and in developing friendships with members of the same sex -onflict: social interaction with others


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9' *enital Stage &) years old – adulthood 9rogenous !one: genital area Genital Personality – person en1oys a satisfying adult sexuality full

development; reciprocity being capable of genuine love, the narcissism on

the pregenital stages is overcome and the individual begins to love others foraltruistic behaviour 0ixation: exhibitionist behaviour/sexual deviant behaviour

((' I n! i&i!a l Psy ch ol og y – Al' re! A!l er

“The goal of the human soul is conuest, perfection, security, superiority. !verychild is faced with so many o"stacles in life that no child ever grows up without striving for some form of significance.#

*Adler’s theory focused on the ni4eness of each person, and not by the biological motives and goals as ascribed by 0reud

A!ler$ 9ach individual is primarily a social being ersonality is shaped by people’s uni.ue social environments and interactions +he conscios is the core of personality people are actively involved in

creating themselves and directing their future

The Sorce o' Hman Stri&ing

&' In'eriority "eelings

otivating forces in behaviour D+o be human being means to feel oneself inferior

)' Com,ensation (ndividual growth results from people’s attempt to overcome real and

imagined inferiorities

' In'eriority Com,le oor opinion of one’s self and feels helpless and unable to cope with the

demands of life

Three Sorces$

i' Organ In' eriority defective parts or organs of the body through person’s efforts tocompensate for the defect or weaness


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ii' S,oiling or Pam,ering this child naturally develops the idea that he is the most importantperson in any situation and that other people should always defer to him when confronted with obstacles to gratification, a spoiled child comes to believe that he has some personal deficiency that is thwarting him

delayed gratification, tolerance and no sense of autonomy

iii' Neglect an! Re0ection lac of love and security this child develops the feelings of worthlessness, or even anger, and view others with distrust, i'e' street children

7' Mascline Protest

(nferiority was ain to femininity, however, Adler widened and strengthenedit to include the generali!ed idea that all manind is inferior at birth and thatinferiority has nothing to do with femininity, but it is the result of hereditarycondition, followed after "irth "y a feeling of "eing incomplete

8' S,eriority Com,le A person may tend to overcompensate; the exaggeration of opinions of one’s

capa bility oasting, vanity, self5confidence and a tendency to denigrate others

Stri&ing 'or S,eriority or Per'ection

S,eriority +he ultimate goal towards which a person strives An effort to perfect one’s self and to mae his self complete or whole

A' "ictional "inalism eople have an ultimate goal, a final state of being and a need to move

towards it according to their cognitive constructs DAEAAF – own understanding

' Teleology otivation is a matter of moving towards the future eople are drawn towards their goals, purposes and ideals

-' Style o' %i'e

+hrough many different behaviour patterns eople develop a uni.ue pattern of characteristics, behaviours and habits

i' The Creati&e Po3er o' the Sel' choose personality and character the person creates the style of life – creates himself, his personality andhis character


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the way a person interprets his heredity and environment form the basis of the creative construction of his attitude towards life

ii' Mista5en Styles o' %i' e people develop strategies for improving their situations that are

mala!a,ti&e

a' Rling Ty,e see to dominate others, may actively confront life’s problems ina selfish way becoming delin.uents, tyrants, sadists !e,recation com,le – people express their sense ofsuperiority over others by belittling them

b' *etting Ty ,e leaning on others; dependent adopt a passive attitude towards life

becoming user5friendly

c' A&oi!ing Ty,e try not to deal with problems, thereby, avoiding the possibility of defeat tends to be isolated and nay strie others as cold avoids commitments

iii' The Healthy Style o' %i'e the lifestyle is adaptive therefore, the person is said to be the socially useful type

the person must act in ways beneficial to others – those persons whotaught us how to see, how to thin and how to feel such persons have a well5developed sense of social interest

Social Interest


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(((' Analy tical Psy ch olog y – Ca rl 6 ng

7 %y life is a story of the self&reali'ation of the unconscious. !verything in theunconscious seeks outward manifestations, and the personality too desires toevolve out of its unconscious conditions.”

*Gung’s theory focused on middle and late ages of life – self5actuali!ation'(t is a hopeful theory' an is gradually becoming through the ages, a better andmore civili!ed human being, operating in a better frame of reference'

*Gung preferred the wor ,syche which means spirit or soul ' (t alsosuggests the integration of all aspects of personality'

6ng$ +otal personality or psyche is composed of several systems or structures that can

influence one another

Ma0or Systems o' the Psyche

&' Ego 9go with the consciousmind +he part concerned with perceiving, thining, feeling andremembering erson’s awareness of himself and is responsible for carrying out the normal

activities of waing life gateeeper of the consciousness – as it acts in a selective way, admitting into

conscious awareness only a portion of the stimuli to which a person is exposed

the center of an individual’s will, enabling him to strive for consciousgoals Ego in'lation – overly focused on the ego and identifying too closely with

one’s conscious experience and intentions especially in the first half of life which puts the person out of balance

A' Attit!es

a' Etra&ersion attitude of the psyche characteri!ed by an orientation toward theexternal world and the other people

open, sociable, socially assertive and prefer the external worldthings, people and activities

b' Intro&ersion attitude of the psyche characteri!ed by an orientation towardone’s own thoughts and feelings withdrawn and often shy, tend to focus on themselves and prefertheir internal world of thoughts, feelings, fantasies and dreams


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' Psychological "nctions o' the Psyche different and opposing ways of perceiving and apprehending both theexternal and real world and one’s sub1ective inner world

a' Sensing

irrational 'nction – involved ,erce,tion rather than 1udging of information getting of information by means of the senses

b' Thin5ing rational 'nction – involves !ecision ma5ing or 0!gingrather than simple intae of information evaluating information or ideas rationally or logically

c' Intiting irrational or ,erce,tal but comes from the com,leintegration o' large amonts o' in'ormation rather thansimple hearing or seeing the ind of perception that wor’s outside of the usual consciousprocesses

d' "eeling rational matter of evaluating information, this time, by weighing one’soverall emotional response

*eople all have these functions but in different proportions S,erior "nction – preferred and best developed in a person

Secon!ary "nction – one is aware of and uses in support of thesuperior function

Tertiary "nction – slightly less developed but not veryconscious

In'erior "nction – poorly developed and so unconscious thatthe person might deny its existence in himself

-' Psychological Ty ,es

a' Etra&erte! Thin5ing Ty,e lives according to fixed values and society’s rules

feelings are repressed to be ob1ective in all aspects of life and to be dogmatic in thoughts and opinions may be perceived as rigid and cold

b' Etra&erte! "eeling Ty,e very emotional and conforms to the traditional values and moralcodes he has been taught


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thining mode is repressed hence, the person is unusually sensitive to the opinions and expectations of others emotional responsive, mae friends easily and sociable

c' Etra&erte! Sensing Ty ,e

focuses on pleasure and happiness and on seeing new experiences strongly oriented to the real world and adaptable to differentinds of people and changing situations intuiting function is repressed outgoing and en1oys life

d' Etra&erte! Intiting Ty,e with een ability to exploit opportunities, creative and attractedto new ideas person is able to inspire others to accomplish and achieve maing decisions based more on hunches than on reflection

sensation is repressed

e' Intro&erte! Thin5ing Ty,e focuses on thought rather than on feelings and has poor practical 1udgment feeling is repressed concerned with privacy and prefers to understand himself does not get along well with others and has difficulty communicating ideas stubborn, aloof, arrogant and inconsiderate

f' Intro&erte! "eeling Ty ,e rational thought is repressed person avoids outward expression of deep emotion has little consideration for other’s feelings and thoughts andappears withdrawn, cold, self5assured, mysterious, inaccessible,.uiet, modest and childish

g' Intro&erte! Sensing Ty ,e loos most on human activities with benevolence andamusement aesthetically sensitive but appears positive, calm and detached

from the everyday world intuition is repressed

h' Intro&erte! Intiting Ty ,e focuses on the intuition that leads to little contact with reality visionary and daydreamer – aloof, unconcerned with practicalmatters and poorly understood by others


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odd and eccentric, has difficulty coping with everyday life andplanning for the future

)' Personal #nconscios Anything which is not presently conscious but can be made conscious anytime

(t includes both memories that are easily brought to mind and those that have been forgotten or suppressed for some reason 0ocuses on information not vivid, repressed or forgotten but are easily

recalled

Com,le a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions and wishes organi!edaround a common them

*reoccupation of certain theme directs thoughts and behaviour in various ways, thus determining how the person perceives the world'

' Collecti&e #nconscios an’s Dpsychic inheritanceF 2eservoir of man’s experiences as a species, a ind of nowledge people are all

born with 6eepest and least accessible level of psyche

A' Archety ,es contents of the collective unconscious unlearned tendency to experience things in a certain way

i' Sha!o3

sex and the life instincts in general the dar side of the ego and the evil that people are capable of isoften stored here unwanted part of the body / repressed part of the person’s life

ii' Persona man’s public image / external self the mas that a person puts before he shows himself to theoutside world

iii' Anima an! Anims anima – female aspect present in the collective unconscious of

men animus – male aspect present in the collective unconscious of women together, they are called sy2ygy 1 an!rogyny

8Anima may be personified as a young girl, very spontaneous andintuitive, or as a witch or as the mother earth'


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* Anims may be personified as a wise old man, or often a numberof males, and tends to be logical, often rationalistic, evenargumentative'

iv' The Sel'

most important archetype represents the transcendence of all opposites, so that every aspect of the personality is expressed e.ually through developing the self results to self&reali'ation a new center, a more balanced position for the psyche

6ng$ erfection of the personality is only achieved in !eath

The Dynamics o' the Psyche

A' %i-i!o the life energy or the psychic energy by which the wor of the personality isperformed the creative life force that could be applied to the psychological growth of the person the driving force behind the psyche which is focused on the needs, whetherpsychological or spiritual

Three ,rinci,les that !escri-e ho3 the ,syche o,erates$

A' Princi,e o' O,,osites

it is the opposition that creates the power or libido of the psyche in order to have a concept of the good, one must have a conceptof the bad, 1ust lie one cannot have up without down or "lackwithout white

' Princi,le o' E4i&alence the energy, created from the opposition, is given to both sidese.ually

-' Princi,le o' Entro,y tendency of the oppositions to come together, and so for theenergy to decrease over a person’s lifetime

tendency of all physical systems to run down, that is, for allenergy to become e.ually distributed transcen!ence – the process of rising above one’s opposites, of seeing both sides of who one is Bmetaphysical aspectC

' Synchronicity the occurrence of two events that are not lined causally, nor linedteleologically, yet are meaningfully related


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De&elo,ment o' Personality

A' Chil!hoo! a little more than reflection of the parents’ personalities consciousness forms when the child is able to say D(F or when the child

becomes able to distinguish between himself and other people or ob1ects inthe world

' Teenage to Yong A!lthoo! psychic "irth Bfirst transitionC – the psychic assumes a definite form andcontent; mared by difficulties and the need to adapt the aim of life is to achieve goals and establish a secure, successful place foroneself in the world

-' Mi!!le Age time of personal crisis Bsecond transitionC shift of focus on the ob1ective world of reality – education, career andfamily – to one’s inner, sub1ective world that had earlier been neglected when one naturally begins the process of self5actuali!ation to a new level of positive psychological health called in!i&i!ation

*In!i&i!ation the process of restoring wholeness to the psyche in adult development goal: to move the center of personality from the ego to some midpoint between the ego and the unconscious

*Transcen!ence "nction occurs in the later phase of the individuation process

an aspect of personality that integrates the diverse aspects into a unified whole restoration of the balance in the psyche

(H' Pers onolog y – Henr y Mrra y

“(or me, personality is a )udge without "oundaries.”

Personology +he study or system of personality

Mrray$

ersonality is rooted in the -rain which guides and governs every aspect of thepersonality'

+he ideal state of human nature involves always having a certain level of tensionto reduce' (t is the process of acting to reduce the tension that is satisfying,ratherthan the attainment of condition free of all tension'

(ndividual’s personality continues to develop over time and is constructed of allthe events that occur during the course of that person’s life

ersonality changes and progresses


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9mphasi!ed the uni.ueness of each person while recogni!ing similarities amongall people

Di&ision o' Personality

A' I! contains the primitive, amoral and lustful impulses described by 0reud, butit also contains desira"le impulses such as empathy and love

' S,erego the internali!ation of the culture’s values and norms shaped not only by parents and authority figures, but also by the peergroup and culture

Ego/i!eal a component of the superego that contains the moral or ideal behaviour for which a person should strive

*Ihile the superego is developing, so is the ego5ideal, which provides people with long5range goals for which to strive'

-' Ego

the central organi!er of behaviour consciously reasons, decides and wills the direction of behaviour

Nee!s$ The Moti&ation o' )eha&ior

Nee! A physiochemical force in the brain that organi!ers and directs intellectual

and perceptual abilitiesTy,es o' Nee!s

A' Primary Nee!s A'E'A' viscerogenic needs arise from internal bodily states and include those needs re.uired forsurvival, as well as such needs as sex and sentience

' Secon!ary Nee!s

A'E'A' psychogenic needs arise indirectly from primary needs and are concerned with emotionalsatisfaction and include psychological needs such as achievement andaffiliation

-' Reacti&e Nee!s involve a response to something specific in the environment and arearoused only when that ob1ect appears


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6' Proacti&e Nee!s spontaneous needs that elicit appropriate behaviour whenever they arearoused, independent of the environment or of the presence of a particularob1ect

Characteristic o' Nee!s

A' Pre,otency urgency with which needs impel behaviour basic needs

' "sion when some needs are complementary and can be satisfied by one behaviour or a set of behaviours

-' S-si!iation a situation in which one needs is activated to aid in the satisfaction of another need i'e', dependant and dominant

6' Press the pressure caused by environmental ob1ects or past events to behave in acertain way

9' Thema the combination of press Bthe environmental factorC and need Bthe personalfactorC that brings order to a person’s behaviour

PSYCHOSOCIA% THEORIES O" PERSONA%ITY

(' "emini ne Psy ch olog y – 9aren Horne y

“The "asic evil is invaria"ly a lack of genuine warmth and affection.”

Horney$ en are envious of women for their capability to give birth B 3om- en&y C


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-hildhood was dominated by the safety need Bif satisfied will result to trustC which means that the needs for security and freedom from fear determines thenormality of one’s personality development'

A child’s security depends entirely on ho3 the ,arents treat the chil!'

Parental In!i''erence 1 )asic E&il A ma1or way parents weaen or prevent security in the child’s perception

)asic Hostility -hildren’s first reaction to parental indifference 3ften, it is anger – an aggressive coping strategy “*f * have power, no one can hurt me.”

)asic Aniety -hildren’s fear of helplessness and abandonment

*for survival’s sae, basic hostility is suppressed and let the parents win; if thisseems to wor for the child, it may become a coping strategy called com,liance*”*f * can make you love me, you will not hurt me.F

"ome children find that neither aggression nor compliance eliminates theperceived parental indifference' +hey solve the problem by 3ith!ra3ing from family involvement into themselves, eventually becoming sufficient unto themselves'“*f * withdraw, nothing can hurt me.”

Aniety$ The "on!ation o' Nerosis

Aniety (nsidiously increasing, all pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a

hostile world – (ree &floating anxiety the foundation on which later neurosis develop, and it is inseparably tied to

feelings of hostility

ways:(n childhood, people try to protect themselves against basic anxiety in four B7C

&' Secring a''ection an! lo&e from other people

)' )eing s-missi&e as a means of self5protection which involves complying withthe wishes of wither of one particular person or of everyone in the socialenvironment

' Attaining ,o3er o&er others wherein a person compensate for helplessnessand achieve security through success or through a sense of superiority

7' :ith!ra3ing psychologically from other people wherein the person attempts to become independent of others, not relying on anyone else for the satisfaction of internal and external needs


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(n a healthy, normal person, all three trends can be expressed as circumstances warrant' +here is flexibility in behaviours and attitudes and he/she can adapt tochanging situations'

Sel' Theory

#orney’s another way of looing at neurosis – Self-image because the sel' isthe core of one’s being and one’s potential'

(f a person is free to reali!e his/her full potential which is a state of sel'/reali2ation, the self5image must clearly reflect the true self'

A neurotic has a different view of things' +he neurotic self is split into a!es,ise! sel' and i!eal sel' '

+he neurotic’s ideal self is not a positive goal' (t is unrealistic and ultimately impossible' (t is based on illusion, an unattainable ideal of absolute perfection'

s el ' / real i2a tion &a cilla tion

rea

lsel

f

Despis

edself

Ideal self

#ealthy erson 4eurotic erson

Ihile vacillating between the two impossible selves, the real self is distorted ordenied and the ideal self escapes the real self' +he neurotic is alienated from his/her truecore and prevented from actuali!ing his/her potentials' +he neurotic’s self5image is anunsatisfactory substitute for a reality5based sense of self5worth, i'e' being paranoid'

Eternali2ation A way in which neurotic attempt to defend themselves against the inner

conflicts caused by the discrepancy between ideali!ed and real self5images +his is through pro1ecting the conflicts unto the outside world

i'e' internali!ing the insecurity

Protecti&e Strctres +lower level of efforts

A' )lin! S,ots being unaware of aspects of behaviour that are blatantly incompatible orinconsistent with the ideali!ed5self +repression


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' Com,artmentali2ation allowing the incompatible behaviours to be consciously recogni!ed, but notat the same time; each is allowed to experience in a separate DcompartmentFof life dividing one’s life into various compartments

-' Rationali2ation explaining behaviour in a way that it seems consistent with what is socially acceptable and with the desirable .ualities one has accepted as part of thepersonality giving good reasons to excuse conduct, rather than giving the real reason toexplain conduct sour5graping

6' Ecessi&e Sel'/control avoiding emotion; the person prevents being overwhelmed by a variety of emotions, including Denthusiasm, sexual excitement, self5pity or rageF

living life within narrow limits

9' Ar-itrary Rightness

attempting to settle conflicts once and for all by declaring arbitrarily anddogmatically that one is invariably right; rigidly declaring that one’s own view is correct inner doubts are denied and extreme challenges are discredited everything is final; authoritarian

0' Elsi&eness avoiding commitment to any opinion or action because of Dhaving

established no definite ideali!ed imageF to avoid the experience of conflict


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)' Society/Cltre Princi,le An individual’s personality is a product of his/her interactions with other

people or social forces; these interactions are affected by the traditions,folways and mores that are taught by his/her culture

+hese interactions are bounded not only by the society in which he/she lives

but as well as the past societies in which he/she had lived and the culturalrules he/she had to follow

' Character/Strctre Princi,le +hroughout an individual’s life, he/she creates a structural character which

may be changed; such character sets the limits within which the individualhas a free choice on how to behave

7' Sel'/Conce,t Princi,le Awareness of oneself as a human being and the importance or the significance

of oneself in the roles of life 6istinguishes the person’s self from all the other selves he/she sees around

+he actual or real self is all that people have to operate within life

8' Com,lementation/Con'lict Princi,le A protective mechanism 6isturbances in the parent5child relationship produce conflict and anxiety An individual has at its disposal, ma1or and minor techni.ues

' Sel'/Analysis Princi,le Acceptance of what is real

(ndividual has the capacity to analyse his/her own defects and with roughsills to solve many of his/her problems

An individual must learn to use his innate creative powers through developinghis/her ability to analyse his/her role

)EHA


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A' Res,on!ent )eha&ior A response made to or elicited by a specific stimulus

Re'le )eha&ior an example of respondent behaviour

this behaviour is unlearned as it occurs automatically and involuntarily

2espondent behaviour can also be learned through con!itioning whichinvolves the substitution of one stimulus to another'

Pa&lo&$ A conditioned response cannot be established in the absence of reinforcement +he act of reinforcing a response strengthens it and increases the lielihood

that the response will be repeated

Rein'orcement is the act of strengthening a response by adding a reward, thusincreasing the lielihood that the response will be repeated'

An established conditioned response will not be maintained in the absence of reinforcement' Etinction is the process of eliminating a behaviour by withholdingreinforcement' +he learned response can be extinguished if reinforces or rewards are nolonger provided'

' O,erant )eha&ior ehaviour emitted spontaneously or voluntarily that operates on the

environment to change it

O,erant Con!itioning

the behaviour is followed by a conse.uence, and the nature of theconse.uence modifies the organisms’ tendency to repeat the behaviour in thefuture*a reinforcing stimulus has the effect of increasing the operant – the behaviouroccurring 1ust before the reinforce

Sche!les o' R ein' orcement atterns or rates of providing or withholding reinforcers

A' Continos Rein'orcement Sche!le 9very time that an organism or an individual does the desired behaviour, he

gets a reward roduces a .uic learning, provided that reinforcement follows the desired

behaviour immediately Although learning is fast, extinction is also rapid

' Partial Rein'orcement Sche!le 3nly some of the response or behaviours are followed by reinforcement "low learning but greater resistance to extinction


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i' "ie! Ratio Sche!le if the individual or organism emits the desired behaviour xnumber of times, he gets a reward

ii' "ie! Inter&al Sche!le

if the organism or individual emits the desired behaviour at leastonce during a particular stretch of time Bi'e' )@ secondsC, then hegets a reward; if he fails to do so, he doesn’t get a reward even if he emits the desired behaviour a hundred times duringthe )@ seconds, he still gets only one reward

iii'


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S,erstitios )eha&ior ersistent behaviour that has a coincidental relationship to the reinforcement

received Accidental reinforcement happens after a display of some behaviour

The Sel'/Control o' )eha&ior +he individual has the ability to use self5control or the ability to exert controlover the variables that determine behaviour

"elf5control alters the impact of external events 2ationale: behaviour can be directed by manipulating the application of

reinforcement contingencies

A' Stimls A&oi!ance one removes himself from an external variable that affects his behaviour avoiding a person or situation reduces the control that person or situation has

over one’s behaviour

' Sel'/a!ministere! Satiation 3ne exerts control to cure one’s self of bad habits by overdoing the behaviour

until one becomes disgusted, uncomfortable or ill, so that one .uits engagingin the undesirable behaviour

-' A&ersi&e Stimlation Knpleasant or repugnant conse.uences are involved 3ne engages in the desired behaviour so as to prevent unpleasant

conse.uences

6' Sel'/rein'orcement

3ne rewards the self for displaying good or desirable behaviours

A&ersi&e Stimls 3pposite if a reinforcing stimulus; something one might find unpleasant or

painful A behaviour followed by this ind of stimulus results in a decreased

probability of the behaviour occurring in the future

Pnishment +he application of an aversive stimulus following a behaviour in an effort to

decrease the lielihood that the behaviour will recur

S5inner$ unishment is ineffective in changing behaviour from undesirable to desirable

or from abnormal to normal


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Positi&e Rein'orcement Administered for desirable behaviours is much more effective than

punishment

Negati&e Rein'orcement

An already aversive stimulus is removed after one performs a certain behaviour (t maes one Dfeel goodF when the aversive stimulus stops or is removed, so

this serves as a reinforce ehaviour followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus results in an

increased probability of that behaviour occurring in the future

S5inner;s Theory$6evelopmental


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As the genetic endowment interacts with one’s social environment, theinevitable result is a uni.ue personality'

-onsidered personality to be discrete or discontinuous; there is no continuumof personality

+here are two B)C personalities:&' 0or childhood whereby primitive biological urges and reflexes drive

infant behaviour)' 0or adulthood whereby psychological forces drive adult functioning

9mphasi!ed the conscios rather than the unconscious, the ,resent an!'tre rather than the past

2ecogni!ed ni4eness o' ,ersonality rather than proposing generalities

or similarities for large groups of people -hose to study normal rather than the abnormal

Personality Traits as !istingishe! 'rom Personality Dis,osition= Ha-itsan! Attit!es

Personality Traits redispositions to respond, in the same or a similar manner, to different

inds of stimuli -onsistent and enduring ways if reacting to the environment -ommon among humans

Characteristics o' Traits$

a' 2eal and exist within each of us b' 6etermine and cause behaviourc' -an be demonstrated empirically d' (nterrelated; they may overlap even though they represent different

characteristicse' ay vary with the situation

Personality Dis,ositions +raits that are peculiar to an individual as opposed to traits shared by a

number of people

a' Car!inal Traits ost pervasive and powerful or influential human traits, that they touch

almost every aspect of a person’s life

All,ort$ +he Druling passionF – a powerful force that dominates behaviour


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b' Central Traits +he handful outstanding traits that describe a person’s behaviour

c' Secon!ary Traits +he least important and least influential individual traits, which a person may

display inconspicuously and inconsistently

Ha-its "pecific or inflexible responses to stimuli in order to initiate and guide

behaviour #ave a more limited impact on traits and personal dispositions "everal habits that share some adaptive function combine, these may form a

single trait

Attit!es +hese are similar to traits, attitudes differ from traits in two B)C general ways:

attitudes have some specific o")ect of reference and attitudes involve either positive or negative evaluations

Personality an! Moti&ation

A' +he influence of a person’s present situation not only in personality but also inthe view of motivation; the past is no longer active and does not explain adult behaviour unless it exists as a current motivating force

' -ognitive processes – one’s conscious plans and intentions – are also important'6eliberate (ntentions/ersonality +raits are an essential part of one’s personality'hat one wants and what one strives for are the keys to understanding human

"ehaviour.

-' "nctional Atonomy o' Moti&es otives of normal, mature and emotionally healthy adults are independent of

or not functionally connected to the prior experiences in which they initially appeared

0orces that motivated an individual early in life become autonomous orindependent of their original circumstances

i' Per&asi&e "nctional Atonomy elementary level of functioning autonomy that is concerned with

such behaviours as addictions and repetitive physical actions suchas habitual ways of performing some everyday tas the behaviours continue or persevere on their own without any external reward

ii' Pro,riate "nctional Atonomy

more important level of functioning autonomy that relates toone’s values, self5image and lifestyle


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essential to the understanding of adult motivation the ego determines which motives will be maintained and which will be discarded an individual retains motives that enhance his self5image or self5esteem; thus, a direct relationship exists between one’s interests

and one’s abilities

Pro,riate Moti&es aspects which are uni.ue to each person; hence, these unite one’sattitudes, perceptions and intentions

Pro,riate "nctioning

an organi!ing process that maintains one’s sense of self determines how one perceives the world, what one remembersfrom his experiences and how one’s thoughts are directed

Three (>+ Princi,les$a' Organi2ing an! energy le&el explains how one ac.uires new motives

b' Mastery an! com,etence refers to the level at which one chooses to satisfy motives

c' Pro,riate ,atterning describes a striving for consistency and integration of thepersonality

Personality De&elo,ment$ The #ni4e Sel'

A' Stages o' De&elo,ment o' the Pro,im B"elf/9goC

a' )o!ily Sel'

the infants become aware of their own existence and distinguish theirown bodies from ob1ects in the environment

b' Sel'/i!entity children reali!e that their identity remains intact despite the many changes that are taing place

c' Sel'/esteem children come to recogni!e the ob1ects and people that are part of theirown world

d' Etension o' sel' children come to recogni!e the ob1ects and people that are part of theirown world


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e' Sel'/image children develop actual and ideali!ed images of themselves and their behaviour and become aware of satisfying or failing to satisfy parentalexpectations

f' Sel' as a rational co,er children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday

problems

g' Pro,riate Stri&ing young people begin to formulate long5range goals and plans

' arent@child relationship is vitally important' 3f particular significance is theinfant&mother "ond as a source of affection and security'

(f the mother or primary caregiver provides sufficient affection and security, thepropium will develop gradually and steadily, and the child will achieve positivepsychological growth' A pattern of personal dispositions will form and the result will be a mature, emotionally healthy adult'

(f the childhood needs are frustrated, the propium will not mature properly' +heresult is a neurotic adult who functions at the level of childhood drives' Adultmotives do not become functionally autonomous but remain tied to their originalconditions' +raits and personality dispositions do not develop and the personality remains undifferentiated, as it was in infancy'

-' (n adulthood, normal and mature adults are functionally autonomous,independent of childhood motives' +hey function rationally in the present and

consciously create their own lifestyle' The sel' has -ecome the knower.

The Healthy A!lt Personality

Si (?+ Criteria$

&' +he mature adult extends his sense of self to people and to activities beyondhimself'

)' +he mature adult related warmly to other people, exhibiting intimacy,compassion and tolerance'

' +he mature adult’s self5acceptance helps him achieve emotional security'7' +he mature adult holds a realistic perception of life, develops personal sills

and maes a commitment to some type of wor'8' +he mature adult has a sense of humor and self5ob1ectification'' +he mature adult subscribes to a unifying philosophy of life, which is

responsible for directing the personality toward future goals'


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PARENT/CHI%D ATTACHMENT

ropium propriate motives propriate functioning/striving propriate patterningBhealthy personalityC

PHENOMENO%O*ICA% THEORIES O" PERSONA%ITY 0ocus on the individual’s immediate and sub1ective experiences, his personal

view of the world and of himself and his private concepts

(' Pers on/Cente re! Theory – Ca rl Rog ers

“The organism has one "asic tendency and striving – to actuali'e, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism.”

Dynamics$ organisms valuing process evaluate life experiences B$/5C

De&elo,mental *oal$ self5actuali!ation

De&elo,mental Tas5$ fully functioning person

Rogers$ Attention to the concept of the self and experiences related to the self (llustrates a conscious focused effort to combine clinical intuition with

ob1ective research /umanistic psychologist0 emphasi!ed the importance of considering the

whole person, and the special need to pay attention to sub1ectiveexperience, the self and purpose striving

!xistentialist0 shared the focus upon present conscious, experiences butespecially those Demotionally tingedF experiences that he called7'eelings@

+heory – emphasi!es the uni.uely experienced reality of the person ehaviour is the result of immediate perceptual events as the individual

actually experiences them 1ehaviour is "asically the goal&directed attempt of the organism to

satisfy its needs as experienced in the filed perceived

The Actali2ation Ten!ency

eople are motivated by an innate tendency to actuali!e, maintain and enhancethe self'

+he governing process throughout the life span is the organismic &aling,rocess' +hrough this process, we evaluate all life experiences by how they serve theactuali!ation tendency'


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Positi&e


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a' Denial loc out the threatening situation altogether (ncludes re,ression – eeping a memory or an impulse out of awareness

which are being refused to be perceived

b' Perce,tal Distortion 2einterpreting the situation so that it appears less threatening Accepting life’s realities

Sel'/actali2ation Process

Characteristics o' "lly "nctioning Person

&' O,enness to E,erience 4ot only aware of all experiences but has accurate perception of his/her

experiences in the world, including his/her feelings


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+here is acceptance of reality and of his/her feelings +he person is open to positive feelings and to negative feelings

)' Eistential %i&ing 0reshness of appreciation for all experiences / all experiences are potentially

fresh and new +he person lives in here5and5now 9xperiences cannot be predicted or anticipated, but are participated fully 9ach moment allows the self to emerge, possibly changed by the new

experience wherein the self becomes experiences as a fluid

' Organismic Trsting +here is trust in one’s own behaviour and feelings

(nner experience is used at each moment to guide behaviour +rust own reactions rather than "eing guided "y the opinions of others, "y a

social code or "y their intellectual )udgments

7' E,eriential "ree!om 0reedom of choice, without inhibitions but taes responsibility for his/her

choices

"ense of power – they do not feel compelled, wither by themselves or by others, to behave in only one way

8' Creati&ity an! S,ontaneity -reative and live constructively and adaptively as environmental conditions

change

0lexible and see new experiences and challenges which includesparticipating in the world and as one self5actuali!es, one also feels obliged to

contribute to the actuali!ation of others, or of even life itself

' Continal nee! to gro3= to stri&e= to maimi2e one;s ,otential -ontinually testing, growing, striving and using all of one’s potential, a way of

life that brings complexity and challenge

((' Sea rch ' or Mea ni ng – < i5t or "ra n5l

“ithout suffering and death, human life cannot "e complete.”

"ran5l$ #uman motivation arise from the 3ill to meaning – for his life and to

transcend himself – to go beyond the limitations of and concern of himself A will to meaning is not only e.ual but also ultimately more fundamental than

the theories of 0reud and Adler; this is on the observation that man can live ordie for his ideals or that man can be heroic

+he person himself does not invent the meaning of existence, rather, he discoversit and it is Dout thereF in some sense


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The Meaning o' %i'e

ife is unconditionally meaningful in every person’s life; there are uni.uesituations in which he/she has a uni.ue person can find a uni.ue meaning' (t is up tothe person to find the meaning that each situation holds for him/her' Conscience is

the gi!e.

Conscience Knconscious spirituality +he core of the human being and the source of personal integrity (ntuitive and highly personali!ed A real person in a real situation and cannot be reduced to simple Duniversal

lawsF

The E,erience o' "in!ing the Meaning o' %i'e

&' E,eriential


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The E,erience o' "rstration o' the :ill to Meaning

A' Noogenic Nerosis 1 S,irital or Eistential Nerosis 1 S,iritalDistress eople of today’s world are suffering from a frustration of their will to

meaning

Eistential


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(n every self5actuali!ing personality, there is a hierarchy of need priorities wherein on person must successfully achieve the first degree in order to goon the second degree

+he man is more intended in need gratification than in need of frustration an is essentially and innately good

+he badness in man’s behaviour comes out of a bad environment ratherthan an inherent rottenness

Personality De&elo,ment$ The Hierarchy of N eed s

+hese needs are called instinctoi! which he meant that they have a hereditary component' #owever, these needs can be affected or overridden by learning, socialexpectations and fear of disapproval'

sychosocial

4eeds

hysical 4eeds

a' The Physiological Nee!s (nclude the needs for oxygen, water, protein, salt, sugar and other minerals

and vitamins (nclude the need to maintain p# balance and temperature +he needs to sleep, rest, get rid of wastes, avoid pain and have sex

b' The Sa'ety an! Secrity Nee!s

+he needs in finding safe circumstances, stability, protection, structure, order

and some limits

c' The %o&e an! )elonging Nee!s (nclude the needs for friends, sweetheart, children, affectionate relationships

in general and even a sense of community

d' The Esteem Nee!s +wo versions:


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i' %o3er "orm the need for respects of others the need for status, fame, glory, recognition, reputation, appreciation,dignity, dominance

ii' Higher "orm the need for self5respect feelings of confidence, competence, achievement, mastery,independence and freedom

e' The Sel'/Actali2ation Nee!

i' Cogniti&e Nee!s

the innate needs to now and to understand

ii' Aesthetic Nee!s the needs for aesthetically pleasing experiences and beautifulsurroundings the continuous desire to fulfil potentials, to Dbe all that you can beF, to become the most complete and the fullest DyouF

Characteristics o' the Nee!s

A' #igher needs appear later in lif e'hysiological and safety needs arise in infancy'elongingness and esteem needs arise in adolescence'+he need for self5actuali!ation arises in midlife'

' 0ailure to satisfy a higher need does not produce a crisis'0ailure to satisfy a lower need does produce a crisis'

Maslo3$ -alled the lower needs – !e'icit or !e'iciency nee!s; failure to satisfy

these produces a deficit or lac in the individual -alled the higher needs – gro3th or -eing nee!s although these are

less necessary for survival, these contribute to survival and growth –satisfaction of the higher needs leads to improve health and permanency

Note$ A need does not need to have be satisfied fully before the next need in

hierarchy becomes important'

The St!y o' Sel'/Actali2ers

Metamoti&ation 1 )/moti&ation 1 )eing/moti&ation A motivation for self5actuali!ers (nvolves the maximi!ing personal potential rather than striving for a

particular ob1ect


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Metanee!s +he states of growth or being – such as goodness, uni.ueness and perfection

–toward which self5actuali!ers ev olve

Meta,athology

0ailure to satisfy metaneeds +hwarts the full development of the personality

D/moti&ation 1 De'iciency Moti&ation otivation of people who are not self5actuali!ers (nvolves the striing for something specific to mae up for something that is

lacing within

Characteristics o' Sel'/Actali2ers

a' An e''icient ,erce,tion o' reality +hey perceive their world, including other people, clearly and ob1ectively,

unbiased by pre1udgments or preconceptions

b' An acce,tance o' themsel&es= others an! natre Accept their own and others’ strengths and weanesses +hey do not try to distort or falsify their self5image and they do not feel guilty

about their failures

c' A s,ontaneity= sim,licity an! natralness ehaviour is open, direct and natural 0eel secure enough to be themselves without being overly assertive

d' A 'ocs on ,ro-lems otsi!e themsel&es #ave a sense of mission, a commitment, to which they devote their energy

e' A sense o' !etachment an! the nee! 'or ,ri&acy 9xperience isolation without harmful effects and seem to need solitude more

than persons who are not self5actuali!ers

f' A 'reshness o' a,,reciation #ave the ability to perceive and experience their environment with freshness,

wonder and awe Appreciate what they have and tae little for granted

g' Mystical an! ,ea5 e,eriences Enow moments of intense ecstasy that can occur with virtually any activity 6uring these experiences, the self is transcended and the person feels

supremely powerful, confident and decisive

h' Social Interest #ave sympathy and empathy for all humanity


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0eel a inship with and an understanding of others as well as a desire to helpthem

i' Pro'on! inter,ersonal relations -ircle of friends is not large but have a deep, lasting friendships

1' A !emocratic character strctre Knconditional acceptance +olerant and accepting of the personality and behaviour of others Iilling to listen to and learn from anyone capable of teaching them and are

rarely condescending

' Creati&eness #ighly creative and exhibit inventiveness and originality in their wor and

other facets of life 0lexible, spontaneous and willing to mae mistaes and learn from them

l' Resistance to encltration Autonomous, independent and self5sufficient 6o not openly rebel against cultural norms or social codes, but they are

governed by their own nature rather than the structures of society

6onah Com,le 0ailure to become self5actuali!er 3ne’s doubts about his own abilities +here is a fear that maximi!ing one’s potential that will lead to a situation

with which one will be unable to cope

CO*NITI


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3n the basis of the pattern, the person maes predictions about one’s self andabout other people and events, then these predictions are used to formulate one’sresponses and guide one’s actions

odel of human nature reflects that people function in the same way scientistsdo – lie scientists, a person constructs theories or personal constructs, by which

he tries to predict and control the events in his life -onstructs can become nown only through behaviour which means that to study

an individual’s constructs, one has to find behavioural examples or referents forthem

Personal Constrct Theory

Constrct System

A uni.ue pattern created by an individual wherein his personal interpretation,explanation and in construing his experiences represent his uni.ue view of events within which he places his experiences

Constrct An intellectual hypothesis devised to explain and interpret events asis of behaviour which later on evaluates the effects Anticipatory – used to predict the future so that an individual has some idea

of the conse.uences of his actions or of what is liely to occur if he behaves ina certain way

Constrcti&e Alternati&ism An individual is free to revise or replace his constructs with alternatives as

needed 9nables a person to cope with new situations

Antici,ating %i'e E&ents

&' "n!amental Postlates An individual’s psychological processes are directed by the ways in which he

anticipates events

rocesses individual’s feelings, thoughts, experiences and behaviours which are determined by the individual’s efforts to anticipate the world, otherpeople and himself

)' Ele&en Corollaries 1 Characteristics o' Constrcts

a' Constrction because of repeated events, an individual can predict or anticipate how he will experience such event in the future

b' In!i&i!ality people perceives events in different ways


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c' Organi2ation an individual arranges his constructs in patterns, according to his view of his constructs’ similarities and differences

d' Dichotomy

constructs are bipolar

e' Choice an individual chooses the alternative for each construct that wors best forhim, the one that allows him to predict the outcome of anticipated events

f' Range an individual’s constructs may apply to many situations or people, or thesemay be limited to a single person or situation

g' E,erience an individual continually tests his constructs against life’s experiences tomae sure these remain useful

h' Mo!lation an individual may modify his constructs as a function of new experiences

i' "ragmentation 1 Discrimination an individual may sometimes have contradictory or inconsistentsubordinate constructs within his overall construct system

1' Commonality although people’s individual constructs are uni.ue to them, people in

compatible groups or cultures may hold similar constructs

' Sociality in individual tries to understand how other people thin and also predicts what they will do and he modifies his behaviour accordingly

0undamental ostulate L M -34"+2K-+"

Anticipates 9vents -ause L 9ffect

interpret

predict

ehaviour

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