2º BACHILLERATO: GRAMMAR REVIEWGETTING STARTED

PRESENT SIMPLEFORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I work. He/she/it works. You/we/they work. N: I do not (don’t) work. He/she/it does not (doesn’t) work_. You/we/they do not (don’t) work.

Q: Do I work? Does he/she/it work_? Do you/we/they work?

1-to talk about general truth and permanent actions(facts):The Earth rotates round its axis. It rains a lot in autumn. I speak English and French.2-to talk about repeated, customary actions: He gets up at 8 o’clock every morning. They never listen to their teacher.3-to talk about a planned future action (a timetable or schedule ) The train leaves at 3 tomorrow.

always, every day/month/year never, often, normally, seldom, sometimes, usually, twice a week/day…, all the time

PRESENT CONTINUOUSFORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I am (I’m) working. He/she/is is (he’s) working. You/we/they are (we’re) working.

N: I am not (I’m not) working. He/she/it is not (isn’t) working. You/we/they/ are not (aren’t) working.

Q: Am I working? Is he/she/we working? Are you/we/they working?

1-to talk about actions that are happening now, at the moment of speaking: Look! The boys are playing football. Hurry up! The train is coming.2- to talk about actions that are happening around now, but not exactly at the moment of speaking:We are studying very hard these days. We have to prepare for our exams.3-to speak about what you have already arranged to do: -What are you doing on Saturday? -I am meeting my friend at the station. She is arriving at 8 pm.

now, at the moment, at present; Look!, Listen! these days,this morning,today

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to be (am/is/are) + verb + -ing

PAST SIMPLE

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I worked /went. He/she/it worked/went. You/we/they worked/went .

N: I did not (didn’t) work_/go. He/she/it did not (didn’t) work_/go. You/we/they did not (didn’t) work_/go.

Q: Did I work_/go? Did he/she/it work_/go? Did you/we/they work_/go?

1-to talk about actions performed in the past (with finished time expressions): I met my friend yesterday. Did you go to the seaside last summer?2-to talk about a succession of past actions (stories): He opened the door, switched on the light and fed his cat.3- to talk about an action taking place in the middle of another action: He fell asleep while the teacher was explaining new grammar rules.

yesterday,2minutes/hours/days/years ago, in 1970, the other day,last month/year/ week/ Sunday

PAST CONTINUOUS

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I was working. He/she/it was working. You/we/they were working.

N: I was not (wasn’t) working. He/she/it was not (wasn’t) working. You/we/they were not (weren’t) working.

Q: Was I working? Was he/she/it working? Were you/we/they working?

1-to talk about a temporary action taking place at a given moment in the past: What were you doing at 6 o’clock yesterday?2-two or more actions happening at the same time in the past: She was cooking dinner and her kids were watching TV.3- action interrupted by another shorter action in the past: I was working on computer when the telephone rang.4- background information in a story:The sun was shining and the birds were singing…

at 6 o’clock yesterday, from 3 to 6 On Monday, when Mum came, while

FUTURE SIMPLE

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Regular verbs + ed : worked, played, Irregular verbs – II column: went, ate

to be(was/were) + verb + -ing

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I/we shall*/ will work. He/she/it will work. You/they will work.

N: I/we shall not (shan’t) * work will not (won’t) work.

He/she/it will not (won’t) work. You/they will not (won’t) work.

Q: Shall/will I/we work? Will he/she/it work? Will you/they work?

1-to talk about future actions: I’ll call you tomorrow. Mary will get a present next month.

2-to predict the future (with probably, I expect..., I'm sure..., (I) think..., don't think, I wonder..., perhaps) I think it will rain tomorrow. Perhaps she'll be late.I don't think the exam will be very difficult.

3- to express intention at the moment of decision:Do you like these shoes? - Yes, I'll buy them.

4-in the 1st type of conditional sentences If the weather is fine, we’ll go to the country.

tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, one of thesedays, next week/month/ year etc., soon,in the near future, some day, in two days/five minutes/a month etc.

FUTURE CONTINUOUSFORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I/we shall*/will be working. He/she/it will be working. You/they will be working.

N: I/we shall not (shan’t) *be working. will not (won’t) be working.

He/she/it will not (won’t) be working. You/they will not (won’t) be working.

Q: Shall/will I/we be working? Will he/she/it be working? Will you/they be working?

1- to talk about an action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment: I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. This time on Sunday I'll be bathing in the sea. When you arrive, he will be waiting for you.

at 5 o’clock tomorrow, this time on Sunday, when I come

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

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*NOTE!!! Shall is used mostly in the questions shall I…?/shall we…? In spoken English we normally use I’ll and we’ll.

*NOTE!!! Shall is used mostly in the questions shall I…?/shall we…? In spoken English we normally use I’ll and we’ll.

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I/we/you/they have worked/gone. He/she/it has worked/gone.

N: I/we/you/they have not (haven’t) worked/gone. He/she/it has not (hasn’t) worked/gone.

Q: Have I/we/you/they worked/gone? Has he/she/it worked/gone?

It is always connected with the present and the only thing which matters here is the result: the time when the action took place is of no importance: I have lost my keys. I can’t open the door.1-to talk about a completed action connected with the present: I have seen this film and I can discuss it with you now.2-questions in the Present Perfect never start with when: When did you see this film?3-with this morning/evening, today this week, this year (when the time periods are not finished at the time of speaking):Have you called you mother today?

already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up to now , of late, lately, recently; with for and since; with This is the first time … this morning/ evening, today, this week, this year

PAST PERFECT SIMPLEFORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I/you/we/they had worked/gone. He/she/it had worked/gone.

N: I/we/you/we/they had not (hadn’t) worked/gone. He/she it had not (hadn’t) worked/gone.

Q: Had I/you/we/they worked/gone? Had he/she/it worked/gone?

1-denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past; it is not used to denote a succession of actions (Past Simple): She had already finished her work when he came.But: When I wrote the letter, I posted it.(Past Simple – succession of actions)By the time the police arrived ,he had already disappeared.2-with the conjunctions(hardly/scarcely/ nearly/barely + when…) I had hardly done it when they came.No sooner had they arrived than it started to rain.

when I entered, by 5 o’clock yesterday, (with the same adverbs as Present Perfect but in the past context); no sooner…than…

FUTURE PERFECT

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have/has +participle II - regular verbs +ed worked, asked -irregular verbs-III column gone, eaten

had +participle II - regular verbs +ed : worked, asked -irregular verbs-III column: gone, eaten

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I/we shall*/will have worked/gone. He/she/it will have worked/gone. You/they will have worked/gone.

N: I/we shall not (shan’t) * have worked/gone. will not (won’t)

He/she/it will not (won’t) You/they will not (won’t) have worked/gone.

Q: Shall/will I/we have worked/gone? Will he/she/it have worked/gone? Will you/they have worked/gone?

1-denotes an action completed before a definite moment in the future: She will have finished this work by 2 o’clock tomorrow.The film will have already started by the time we come .Hurry up!

by this time tomorrow, by 2 o’clock tomorrow, when you come back

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I/we shall/will * have been working. He/she/it will have been working. You/they will have been working.

N: I/we shall not (shan’t)* have been working. will not (won’t)

He/she/it will not (won’t) have been working. You/they will not (won’t) have been working.

Q: Shall/will I/we have been working? Will he/she/it have been working? Will you/they have been working?

1-denotes an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to the moment and will be going on at that moment: You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives.In the fall I will have been studying here for 2 years.He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24 hours.

for

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shall/will + have + been+ verb + -ing

shall/will + have +participle II

*NOTE!!! Shall is used mostly in the questions shall I…?/shall we…? In spoken English we normally use I’ll and we’ll.

*NOTE!!! Shall is used mostly in the questions shall I…?/shall we…? In spoken English we normally use I’ll and we’ll.

UNIT 1PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORMS USE TIME PHRASES

A: I we/you/they have been working. He/she/it has been working.

N: I/we/you/they have not (haven’t) been working. He/she/it has not (hasn’t) been working.

Q: Have I/we/you/they been working? Has he/she/it been working?

1-to say how long things have been continuing up to now: I’ve been learning English for six years. It’s been raining all day.

2-to say how we have been filling our time (up to now)-Your hands are dirty. -I’ve been painting the walls.

for, since; How long…?

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUSFORMS USE TIME

PHRASES

A: I /we/you/they had been working. He/she/it had been working.

N: I/we/you/they had not (hadn’t) been working. He/she/it had not (hadn’t) been working.

Q: Had I/we/you/they been working? Had he/she/it been working?

1-denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at the moment: We could not go out because it had been raining for two hours.2-denotes an action which was no longer going on at a definite moment in the past, but which had been in progress not long before: The baby’s face was red and wet. He had been crying.

since, for

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had + been + verb + -ing

have/has + been + verb + -ing

NOTE!!! We don’t use Present Perfect Cont. with be, know , have and other non-progressive verbs: How long have you had your car? (Present Perfect)

NOUN SUFFIXESNouns from adjectives-ness is one of a number of noun suffixes. It is used to make nouns from adjectives.:happy sad weak good ready tidy forgetful

-ity is another noun suffix that is formed from adjectives. possible probable responsible complex hilarious scarce

Nouns from verbs-tion, or, less frequently -sion (both pronounced with a 'sh' sound on the initial letter) are noun suffixes that are used to make nouns from verbs. admit alter inform decide describe multiply

Note that adjustments that are necessary to the spelling in each case:AdmissionAlteration

InformationDecision

Descriptionmultiplication

-er /-or (person who does the action of the verb)sail work paint run teach lawNouns from verbs and adjectives-ment is another suffix that is used to make nouns from verbs and occasionally from adjectives:enjoy replace appoint arrange merry

-ance and -ence are suffixes that are used to make nouns from adjectives and sometimes from verbs:absent silent independent important admit appear exist

More restrictive noun suffixes (nouns from nouns)-ship (abstract nouns denoting different kinds of relationships)Relationshi friendship partnership membership

-hood (abstract nouns denoting different kinds of 'families')childhood motherhood neighbourhood priesthood

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES-ous: danger, fame -al: music, politics, economics, industry-y: cloud, fog, sun, dirt -ive: attract, createNote: Sometimes there is a spelling change. Here are common examples:double the consonant,

sun/sunny, fog/foggy

leave out the final ‘e’, create/creative, fame/famous

leave out the final’s’ before ‘al’, politics/political; economics/economical

change ‘y’ to ‘i’ before ‘al’, industry/industrial

-able This suffix (also -ible in some words . Quite often, -able (and -ible) has the meaning ‘can be done’.Enjoy confort knowledge suit wash drinkWords ending -able quite often express the opposite meaning by adding the prefix un-, words ending -ible add the prefix in-.-ful often means ‘full of + th.e meaning of the adjective: Care helpful pain thought-less means ‘without’ + the meaning of the adjective:Care pain use thought job home-ate means full or showing a particular quality:Consider affection for

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UNIT 2CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

There are three types of the if-clauses.FormType if clause main clause 1st (condition possible to fulfill) Simple Present  will-future (or Modal + infinitive) 2nd (condition improbable to fulfill) Past simple would + infinitive * 3rd (condition impossible to fulfil) Past Perfect would + have + past participle *

Examples: 1st : If you buy the cake, I will bring the sandwiches. 2nd: If Sam read the book, he would like it 3rd: If the museum had opened the exhibition, we would have visited it today.

The sentence containing “if” can be the first or the second.If I study, I will pass the exam. / I will pass the exam if I study.If I were there by six o’clock, I would drive you to the airport.I would drive you to the airport if I were there by six.

* We can substitute would  for  could or might  (should, may or must are sometimes possible, too).

So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. Depending on the context other tenses different to the ones mentioned above can be used.

Conditional Sentences Type I (likely)Condition refers to:

IF Clause Main Clause

future action Simple PresentIf the book is interesting, …

Future I …I will buy it.

Imperative …buy it.

Modal Auxiliary

…you can buy it.

action going on now

Present Progressive

If he is snoring, …

Future I …I will wake him up.

Imperative …wake him up.

Modal Auxiliary

…you can wake him up.

finished action Present PerfectIf he has moved into his

new flat, …

Future I …we will visit him.

Imperative …visit him.

Modal Auxiliary

…we can visit him.

improbable action

should + Infinitive

If she should win this race, …

Future I…I will congratulate

her.

Imperative …congratulate her.

Modal Auxiliary

…we can congratulate her.

present facts Simple Present If he gets what he wants, …

Simple Present

…he is very nice.

Conditional Sentences Type II (unlikely)

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Condition refers to: IF Clause Main Clause

present / future event

Simple Past

If I had a lot of money, …

Conditional I …I would travel around the world.

consequence in the past

Simple Past If I knew him, …

Conditional II …I would have said hello.

Conditional Sentences Type III (impossible)Condition refers

to:IF Clause Main Clause

presentPast

PerfectIf I had known it, … Conditional I …I would not be here

now.

pastPast

PerfectIf he had learned for the

test, …Conditional

II…he would not have

failed it.

INVERSION IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCESInversion in conditions is possible, in this case, they are more formal than the usual constructions.In the first conditional, inversion can be applied using should:

If you feel hungry,.If you should feel hungry,. (should form of the condition clause)Should you feel hungry, you can eat what you want.(inverted form)

In the second conditional, inversion is possible in the case where the verb is were:If she were here, everything would be easier. (usual condition clause)Were she here, everything would be easier. (inverted form)

In the third conditional, the condition clause formed with the auxiliary had can be inverted:If he had listened the message,. (usual condition clause)Had he listened the message, he would have arrived on time. (inverted form)

WISHThere are three distinct types of  I wish / if only  sentences:

1. Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the simple past.If only I knew how to use a computer.Use: To express a wish in the present or in the future.

The simple past here is an unreal past. When you use the verb to be the form is “were”. 

Example: I wish I were a millionaire!2. Regret with the past perfect.

I wish I had woken up early. (I didn't wake up early and I missed my bus.)Use: To express a regret.

The action is past.3. Complaints with would + verb.

I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because you always come late and I want you to arrive on time)Use: To complain about a behavior that you disapprove.

Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action.

TIME CLAUSESTime clauses referring to the future are formed like the first conditional (present simple in the subordinate clause and future simple in the main clause). What we change are the conjunctions. as long asby the time

the moment (that) as soon as

until when

before

Examples: I will phone you when I arrive By the time she arrives, we will order the food.

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UNIT 3THE PASSIVE

Passive voice is used when the important information is on the action and not on the person who does it.

THE VERB: FROM ACTIVE TO PASSIVESIMPLE TENSES ACTIVE PASSIVE

Present Bill buys the dinner. The dimmer is bought by Bill.Past Bill bought the dinner. The dinner was bought by Bill

Future Bill will buy the dinner. The dinner will be bought by Bill.Present Perfect Bill has bought the dinner. The dinner has been bought by Bill.

Past Perfect Bill had bought the dinner. The dinner had been bought by Bill.

CONTINUOUS TENSES

ACTIVE PASSIVE

Present Bill is buying the dinner. The dimmer is being bought by Bill.Past Bill was buying the dinner. The dinner was being bought by Bill.

Future Bill will be buying the dinner. The dinner will be being bought by Bill.Present Perfect Bill has been buying the dinner. The dinner has been being bought by Bill.

Past Perfect Bill had been buying the dinner. The dinner had been being bought by Bill.

MODAL ACTIVE PASSIVECan The boy can open the box. The box can be opened by the boy.

Could The boy could open the box. The box could be opened by the boy.Might The boy might open the box. The box might be opened by the boy.May The boy may open the box. The box may be opened by the boy.

Have to The boy has to open the box. The box has to be opened by the boy.Must The boy must open the box. The box must be opened by the boy.

Should The boy should open the box. The box should be opened by the boy.Ought to The boy ought to open the box. The box ought to be opened by the boy.

MODAL PERFECT

ACTIVE PASSIVE

Can The boy can have opened the box. The box can have been opened by the boy.Could The boy could have opened the box. The box could have been opened by the boy.Might The boy might have opened the box. The box might have been opened by the boy.May The boy may have opened the box. The box may have been opened by the boy.Must The boy must have opened the box. The box must have been opened by the boy.

Should The boy should have opened the box. The box should have been opened by the boy.Ought to The boy ought to have opened the box. The box ought to have been opened by the boy.

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How to transform a sentence into the passive?Active form: subject + verb + object + complements

Passive form: subject + passive verb + complements + by + agentHow to turn a verb into the passive?

Active: the verb is written in the right verbal tensePassive:‘to be’ (verbal tense of the active verb + past participle.

Example: The students finished the project on time.

VERBS WITH PREPOSION IN PASSIVEWhen a verb is followed by a preposition in the active, the preposition is put right behind the verb in the passive.

PASSIVE WITH TWO OBJECTSIf there are two objects (direct and indirect) in the active sentence, each of them can be the subject of the passive voice. An indirect object is usually a person and the direct object a thing.

Michael sent Paula a message yesterday. Michael sent a message to Paula

IMPERSONAL PASSIVEIntransitive verbs (verbs without an object) cannot usually form a passive sentence as there is no object to be the subject, so if we want to do a passive construction, we need an impersonal structure. This kind of sentence doesn’t exist in other languages (Spanish, German, etc)

THE CAUSATIVE (have / get something done)It is a common structure in English which is linked to the passive voice because the main information offered is not the person who carries out the action. It is used when one thing or person CAUSES another thing or person to do something.

SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE VERB + OBJECT + ACTION VERB + “by” + AGENT (only when we know by whom)I had/got my hair cut by the hairdresser.I had/ got the car fixed

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Passive using indirect object as subject: Paula was sent a message by Michael.

(It is called personal passive)

Passive using direct object as subject: A message was sent to Paula by Michael. (The indirect object is preceded by ‘to’)

NOTE: when the indirect object (Paula) follows the direct one (a message), the personal object is preceded by ‘to’

Martin looked after the children yesterday.The children were looked after yesterday by Martin.

A burglar has brought into the house.The house has been broken into by a burglar.

SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBSSAYBELIEVETHINKCONSIDEREXPECTKNOW

STRUCTURE: There are two structures to make this kind of passive:1. It + to be + past participle of the intransitive verb + by + agent + that + subordinate clause.2. Subject of the subordinate clause + to be + past participle of the intransitive verb + to +

infinitive clause+ by + the teacher

LET’S SEE SOME EXAMPLES:Active: 1.They say that Mary was in Rome.

2. The teacher considered Peter the smartest. 3. They knew that the picture had been stolen.Passive: 1. It is said that Mary was in Rome. Mary is said to be in Rome.

2. It was considered by the teacher that Peter was the smartest. Peter was considered to be the most intelligent by the teacher.

3. It was known that the picture had been stolen. The picture was known to have been stolen.

UNIT 4MODAL VERBS

What are modal verbs? Modals are special verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are used to indicate modality and give additional information about the function of the main

verb that always follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions such as:

1. Permission2. Ability3. Obligation

4. Prohibition5. Lack of necessity6. Advice

7. Possibility8. probability

Remember: Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "toExceptions: ought to, have to, need to

A list of modalsModal Verb Meaning Expressing Example

must internal oligation

to be very probable

100 % internal obligation

logical conclusion (deduction)

I must stop when the traffic lights turn red.He must be very tired after such enormous work

must not not to be allowed to prohibition You must not smoke in the hospital.

canto be able toto be allowed toit is possible

abilitypermissionpossibility

I can swimCan I use your phone please?Smoking can cause cancer !

could

to be able to

to be allowed to

it is possible

ability in the past

more polite permission

possibility

When I was younger I could stay up all night and not get tired..Excuse me, could I just say something?It could rain tomorrow!

mayto be allowed toit is possible, probable

permissionpossibility, probability

May I use your phone please? It may rain tomorrow!

mightit is possible, probable

weak possibility, probability

I might come and visit you in America next year, if I can save enough money.

have toneed to

necessary necessity Do I have to say more?

don’t have toneed not

not necessary lack of necessity/absence of obligation

I need not buy any tomatoes. There are plenty in the fridge.

should/ought to

used to say or ask what is the correct or best thing to do.to suggest an action or to show that it is necessaryto be very probable

50 % obligation

Advice

logical conclusion (deduction)

I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.

You should / ought to revise your lessons

He should / ought to be very tired after such enormous work

had betterto suggest an action or to show that it is necessary

advice You 'd better revise your lessons

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MODAL PERFECTAll modal perfect auxiliary verbs refer to the past.

FORM: MODAL+ HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE1. must have done = we are almost sure something happened in the past

Jane wasn't feeling well yesterday. She must have caught a cold. Bill didn't answer the phone when I called him. He must have fallen asleep.

2. can't have done = we are almost sure something did not happen in the past She can't have forgotten to send you an invitation. I gave her your address. They can't have gone to bed late. They were very tired.

3. may / might / could have done = it is possible that something happened in the past but we aren't sure.

Laura hasn't arrived yet. She may/might/could have missed the bus. I didn't see Paul at work. He may/might/could have been ill.

4. could have done = we had the ability to do something in the past but did not do it. You could have told us about the new project! She could have called me when she arrived but she forgot.

5. should have / ought to have done = (a) it was the right thing to do but we didn't do it. (b) we expected something to happen but it didn't.

You should have told him the truth. They ought to have received the cheque by now.

6. would have done = we wanted to do something but we didn't do it in the end. They would have emailed you but the Internet was down yesterday. I would have bought that DVD but I didn't have enough money.

7. needn't have done = it wasn't necessary to do something but we did it. You needn't have gone to the supermarket. I've already done the shopping. The weather was warm and sunny. I needn't have taken an umbrella.

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UNIT 5REPORTED SPEECH

When we want to quote somebody's words, we can use the REPORTED SPEECH, in which we talk about the idea that was expressed without quoting the exact words that were used.REPORTED STATEMENTS

If the reporting verb is in the Simple Present, Present Perfect or Future, there is no change of tense in the words reported.

However, when the reporting verb is in the Simple Past or Past Perfect a number of changes typically occur.

REPORTED QUESTIONS The same changes of reported statements; The interrogative form changes to the affirmative; The auxiliary verb to do is not used (do,does,did); The question mark is eliminated ( ? ); The introductory verbs are asked, wondered, enquired and wanted to know…

Direct Speech Reported Speech

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Direct Speech Reported Speech"I can explain the fact.” He says he can explain the fact.

CHANGE OF THE VERB TENSESDirect Speech Reported Speech

SIMPLE PRESENT“ I like oranges.

SIMPLE PASTHe said (that) he liked oranges.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS“She is eating a cake.”

PAST CONTINUOUSHe said she was eating a cake.

PRESENT PERFECT/SIMPLE PAST“She has worked hard.”“She went to London.”

PAST PERFECT. He said she had worked hard.He said she had gone to London

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS /PAST CONTINUOUS

“ I have been writing.”“ I was joking.”

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUSHe said he had been writing.He said he had been joking.

FUTURE – SHALL / WILL“ We will be late.”

CONDITIONAL – SHOULD / WOULDHe said he would be late.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS“ I will be using the car.”

CONDITIONAL CONTINUOUSHe said he would be using the car.

CAN / MAY / MUST“ I can swim.”“ It may rain.”“ I must go.”

COULD / MIGHT / HAD TOShe said she could swim.

He said it might rain.She said she had to go.

CHANGE OF TIME EXPRESSION

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Today That day/the same dayYesterday The day before/the previous dayThe day before yesterday

Two days before

Tomorrow The following day/the next day/the day after

Ago BeforeNow Then/at that timeLast week/year… The previous week / The week/year

beforeNext week/month… The following week/month

CHANGE OFPRONOUNS /

DETERMINERS

Direct Speech

Reported Speech

I / You He / She

We They

My / your His / Her / Our

Our Their

This / These

That / Those

“ Where does he live?”“ Where is the station?”“ Why is my mother driving so fast?”

She wanted to know where he lived.He enquired where the station was.He asked why his mother was driving so fast.

If there is no question word, IF or WHETHER is placed after the introductory verb.

Direct Speech Reported Speech“ Is anyone her?”, he asked.“ Can I help you?”, she asked.“ Did you buy this book?”

He asked if anyone was there.She asked whether she could help me.She enquired if I had bought that book.

REPORTED COMMANDS AND REQUESTS The introductory verb expresses command or request: tell, order, command, ask… The introductory verb must be followed by the person addressed and the infinitive. The auxiliary verb to do is not used.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

“ Be quiet!”, the teacher told the students.“ Get your coat, Tom.”, he ordered.“ Close the door, please!”“ Don’t do it!”, his mother said.“ Don’t eat that chocolate”, she said.

The teacher told the students to be quiet.He ordered Tom to get his coat.His mother asked him to close the door.His mother ordered him not to do it.She told him not to eat that chocolate.

SUGGESTIONSWe can use the following reporting verbs: suggest, recommend, advise or invite, depending on the speaker’s intentions. The structures used are:

A clause formed by that + subject + verb in the base form:“Let’s watch the new film” Mathew suggestedMathew suggested that we watch the new film.

A gerund with no specified subject:“Buy the food in the new shop around the corner” Molly recommendedMolly recommended buying the food in the new shop around the corner.

REPORTING VERBSStatements: admit, announce, answer, apologize, boast, claim, complain, declare, explain, inform, insist, mention, offer, remind, reply, state.Questions: enquire, request, want to know, wonder.Orders: demand, order, shout, warn.Request: beg, askSuggestions: admire, invite, suggest, recommend

UNIT 6RELATIVE CLAUSES

We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words.

How to Form Relative Clauses 

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Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say:

A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing  – you want to know who the girl is.

Do you know the girl …As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information  – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is:

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS relative pronoun

use example

who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who lives next door.

which subject or object pronoun for animals and things Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?

which referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t read which surprised me.

whose possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

whom object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)

I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.

that subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms, who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used.

The apple which is lying on the table

If the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun, the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.

The apple (which) George lay on the table

RELATIVE ADVERBS A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.

This is the shop in which I bought my bike. → This is the shop where I bought my bike.

relative adverb

meaning use example

when in/on which refers to a time expression the day when we met him

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where in/at which refers to a place the place where we met him

why for which refers to a reason the reason why we met him

Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.

Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?The relative clause is necessary to identify the girl, other way it is not possible to know which girl we are referring to.Defining relative clauses are also used in definitions.

A seaman is someone who works on a ship.Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped.

The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.

Do you know Sarah, who won the first price in the competition?In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.

Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.How to Shorten Relative Clauses? Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a –ing form. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.

I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?

Formal / Informal Relative ClausesWhen the relative pronoun is accompanied by a preposition, we can still use which if the antecedent is refers to a thing; but if it refers to a person, we can use whom instead of who. This use is very formal, so the preposition usually comes at the end of the sentence and the pronoun can be omitted.

This is the house in which I lived. → This is the house (which) I lived in.The student to whom I talked was very mature. → The student (who) I talked to was very mature.

BOTH…AND / EITHER…OR / NEITHER …NORWe use both…and in order to express to possibilities.

Both your mother and I agree on this matter.We use either… or to talk about two alternatives when no other alternative is possible.

Either I get a rise or I resign.We use neither…nor in order to associate two elements and show that both of them are excluded or impossible.

I am neither prepared nor willing.

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