Public Opinion:• poorly understood• used to state where the American people stand on issues• used most often by politicians to say “the“the people”people” want or don’t want something• American views are diverse… no undivided, singular view in the whole population.
Different PublicsDifferent Publics:• Many, many “publics” in US• Every public is made up of people that hold
a particular view on a public issue:• Pro- life group• Pro-choice group• Like President Bush’s leadership• Do not like President Bush leadership• Support ending the estate tax• Oppose ending the estate tax
• Note that issues capture the attention of some, but others may have no interest
• BIG POINT: Public opinion only refers to issues relating to PUBLIC AFFAIRSPUBLIC AFFAIRS! (politics, public issues, public policies, etc.)
• What is NOTNOT “public opinion”?• Red Sox or Yankees?• Snickers or Three Musketeers?• Boxers or Briefs?• Blondes or Brunettes?
• In a proper sense, only on public matters!
Public OpinionPublic Opinion: the attitudes held by a significant number of people on matters of government and politics.• there must be an expressed view and it is therefore made up of expressed group attitudes• Expressed opinions can be
• written• oral• electronic (email)• demonstration• film• billboard• voting
Thoughts are expressed PUBLICLY
1. The FamilyThe Family: • Children first see politics from inside the family• they listen to parents opinions, formed by values• watch TV with family• Listen t the stories and ideas of older siblings• In the family, most get FUNDAMENTALFUNDAMENTAL attitudes which influence future opinions
• rules of behavior• property• neighbors• race• religion
• These basic influences mold their later view of politics• If one is raised by Democrats… they too will likely become Democrats. If Republicans, they will likely be Republicans.
2. The Schools:• One of the purposes of school is to
indoctrinate• Basic American values are taught
• Pledge of Allegiance • Loyalty to the USA• Patriotic songs• National heroes (G. Washington,
A. Lincoln, ML King, etc.)• Requirement to take Civics and
Government classes• Children often have profound
learning experiences in school • They just don’t hear from parents,
but they witness new ideas, relationships, belief systems, etc.
Other factors: occupation, race,
socioeconomic class
3. 3. Mass MediaMass Media: Known as the “new
Parent” of socialization.TV, radio, the internet,
newspapers, magazines, etc… all influence public
opinion.
There is at least 1 television in 98% of all
homes in the US… most are on for
7 hours per day!
4. Peer GroupsPeer Groups: Includes our friends, classmates, co-workers, neighbors, etc.
• Most peer groups reinforce beliefs• We trust views of peers• Birds of a feather… (we
often share experiences and values
• Most want to be liked, and do not stray far from what peers think and how they behave
5. Opinion Leaders: These are people who have an unusually strong influence on the views of others (minority of people)
• Reporters • Editors• Celebrities• Business and Professional leaders• Members of the clergy• heads of state • Local political leaders• Radio talk show hosts
6. Historical Events Historical Events: Events we experience mold us greatly!• Great Depression• World War II• Vietnam War• Women’s Lib
(Sexual Revolution)• Civil Rights
Movement• Watergate• September 11, 2001
Public opinion can be found in a variety of venues: books,
letters to the editor, editorials, articles, radio and television,
etc. (sec 1, #3)
But, the things above tell us little about the size of the
group that hold those opinions. Therefore, we have
made efforts to measure public opinion.
Elections: • Democracies express opinions through ballot box• They are taken as approval of stands of candidates and
parties• Parties claim to have received a “mandate” to carry out ideas.• These claims usually go overboard-votes often have little
to do with party or candidate positions (which are often vague anyway)
• Elections are useful indicators of public opinion…. Should not be taken as clear desire of national feeling.
The Incredible Shrinking Sound BiteThe Incredible Shrinking Sound Bite
Interest Groups: • private organizations whose
members share a view and work to shape public policy
• the chief means by which public opinion is made known
• they present views (exert pressure) through lobbyists, phone calls, letters, political campaigns, etc.
• Public officials must weight two things when dealing with interest groups
1. How many people does group represent?
2. How strongly do those in the group hold those issues?
The Media: The media can be a gauge in assessing public opinion• described as “mirrors” and “molders” of opinion• expressed through newspaper editorials. Columns, news magazines, TV commentaries.• but generally, they are not mirrors of opinion… just reflect views of a vocal minority.
•Personal Contacts: Public officials try to be the “voice of the people”. • Members of Congress get hundreds of letters, emails, and phone calls each day• many go back to their district to speak about their concerns and listen to their constituents• Governors, State Legislators, mayors, etc. listen to people in their offices, during public meetings, and social gatherings• Often politicians only hear what they want to hear
Public Opinion is best measured by public opinion polls (particularly when they are based on scientific polling techniques:
Straw Votes:• not scientific• asking the same question of large numbers of people• still common (newspapers run mail-in polls, TV and radio show hosts ask viewers to vote on their website or phone• nothing ensures those that are asked will represent cross-section of total population (quantity, not quality is emphasized).
Most famous example:• Literary Digest 1936, sent postcard ballots to 10 million homes and got back 2,376,000• Confidently predict Alfred Landon would beat FDR…• Roosevelt got 60% of vote and won all but 2 states• Literary Digest relied on auto registration and phone directories• This left out LOTS of people in 1936
Scientific Polling: Efforts have been made since the 1930’s to
make polls more accurate. Much work began with George Gallup
and Elmo Roper
Now are 1,000 polling agencies in the US.
Most deal with commercial work… about 200 also poll
political preferences.
Two of the best known are the Gallup Organization and Harris
and Associates
Scientific Poll Requirements (five in all):
1. Define the Universe- Whose opinions do you want? All Americans, voters over 65, college age Catholic women, Democrats in Texas, gun owners, Voters in Ohio…etc.
1. Construct a sample- Because not every person can be polled, researchers design samples (representative slice of the total universe). Most draw random samples (probability sample) or a sample of a group in which each member of the universe and mathematical area within it have a mathematically equal chance of being included. Most good national polls include 1,500 people… but the law of probability makes their positions an accurate representation within a margin of error (e.g. ±3… a spread of 6 percentage points) To get to ±1%, researchers would need to survey 9,500 peopleThere are also quota samples, constructed to reflect major characteristics of a given universe. (If 25.3% of a universe was African-American, and 42.8% was white, the percentages must match the universe in the poll).
3. Preparing a valid sample- The questions cannot be loadedloaded (looking for an answer using emotionally charged words… know as a “push pollpush poll”). They have to straight-forward and clear! (e.g. “Do you believe that people suffering from painful illnesses should be denied the right to use marijuana to alleviate their pain?”… or “Do you believe that doctor’s should be able to prescribe marijuana for pain when other drugs are not effective?”)
4. Interviewing- Most polls are taken face-to-face.. But increasing numbers have been done by phone. There is some criticism of both methods. Interviewers appearance, dress, attitude, and tone of voice can influence responses. If questions are not worded correctly, respondents can give emotional replies. Others may give answers they think the interviewer wants to hear. Therefore, interviewers must be properly trained!
5. Analyze and Report Finding- Organizations collect huge amounts of data and have to use computers and electronic hardware. Pollsters use these to tabulate and interpret data, draw conclusions, and publish findings
Evaluating Polls:• The Majority of national polls are
reliable, but not perfect• Efforts still continue to refine the
polling process• Pollsters have always had difficulty
measuring 3 things:1.1. IntensityIntensity: the strength of
feeling which opinion is held2.2. Stability (fluidity)Stability (fluidity):: permanence
and changeableness of opinion3.3. RelevanceRelevance: how important is
the opinion to the person• Critics suggest polls can themselves
influence opinion through “bandwagon” effect
• If polls show someone ahead, some people will side with candidate to be part of the “winning side”
• Regardless of criticism, scientific polls are the best way to gear public opinion
Strong Dem (44)
Weak Dem (4)
Barely Dem (2)
Exactly tied (1)
Barely GOP (1)
Weak GOP (0)
Strong GOP (48)
No Senate race
Lord Bryce described the US Government as “government by public opinion”. He was suggesting that public opinion was the major influence on public policy… but not the only one! It’s force can be tempered by things like public interest groups.
Our system of government is not designed to give unfettered power to majority opinions… it also protect minority views and actions. Lord Bryce
Presidential Election Turnout Rates by Age, 1972-2004Presidential Election Turnout Rates by Age, 1972-2004
Turnout Increases With AgeTurnout Increases With Age
The Decline of Turnout: 1892-2004The Decline of Turnout: 1892-2004
The Decline of Turnout: 1892-2004The Decline of Turnout: 1892-2004
The Mass Media’s Role:• Acts as a medium- transmits
information (Media is plural)• Impact
1. TV2. Newspaper3. Radio4. Magazines
• Internet, books, films play lesser role
• Important political force, but that’s not their purpose
• People get most of their political and governmental matter from the media
TV and Politics:• Have gone hand and hand since TV was invented• Intro to TV was at 1939 World Fair with FDR giving
a short speech• WWII interrupted TV’s progress, but by the late
1940’s they were regularly available• First transcontinental broadcast was when
Truman spoke from Washington, DC to San Francisco in 1951
• Today, more people have TV’s than indoor plumbing
• TV replaced newspapers as chief news source in 1960’s and is the principle source of news for 80% of people
• CBS, NBC, and ABC are the 3 network giants and furnish 90% of programming for 700 stations.
• Three things are changing “Big Three” dominance:1. Independent Broadcasting Groups (Fox, etc)2. Cable Broadcasts: (CNN, MSNBC, FOX News,
TNT, FX, HBO)3. Public Broadcasting System (350 local stations)
Newspapers in America:• First regularly published newspaper began in 1704 (Boston News-Letter)• By 1775 there were 37 weekly papers in the colonies• The first daily paper was the Pennsylvania Evening Post and daily Advertiser (1783)• They became carriers of important police information, and many published the text of the Declaration of Independence• In 1791, the Bill of Rights guaranteed Freedom of the Press• Today there are 10,000 (1500 dailies, 7200 weeklies, 550 semi-weeklies)• Numbers of newspapers have declined (2000 in 1920- 1745 in 1980- less than 1500 today)• Radio, internet, and TV have caused downfall• There are also fewer competing newspapers in cities with less than 50• Newspapers give greater detail than TV and provide opinions• Most papers are local• Many papers like the NY Times, Washington Post, USA Today are available on day of print around the US
Radio in America:• Existed since 1920 when KDKA in Pittsburg, PA gave presidential election returns … then became popular• By 1927, there were 733 commercial stations and Americans owned 7 million radio sets• NBC (1926) and CBS (1927) were founded along with others and ran advertisements and programming• By the 1930’s, people planned days around their favorite programs and national events were learned about immediately• FDR was the first president to use the radio with his fireside chats• Radio has survived despite TV due to its convenience• Most radio programming is local, but often affiliate with networks• There are 700 public radio stations (NPR)
Magazines in America:• Several magazines published in colonial days including Ben Franklins General Magazine in 1741• Up to the 1900’s most were literary or discussed social graces• Harper’s Weekly and Atlantic Monthly were political appearing in mid-1800’s• The progressive reform period in the early 1900’s spawned journals of opinion• 12,000 magazines in the US from trade publications (Veterinary Forum, Automotive Executive) special interests (Vogue, Golf Digest, Seventeen, American Riflemen, Playboy). •Highest sellers are Modern Maturity, TV Guide, and Readers Digest.• Time, Newsweek, and US News & World Report are top news magazines• Vehicles of opinion are The Nation, The National Review, The New Republic, and the Weekly Standard
• The Media shapesshapes the public agenda by reporting on issues that they believe are worthy of attention• people talk about what they see and hear… and if it is important enough to them, public policy makers hear about it• They emphasize some things, and downplay others• The big TV, newspaper, and magazines all form an “inner ring” in Washington, DC• Presidents receives daily dose of news reports each day
• Television has made candidates far less reliant on political parties• Most for own campaign with loose relationship with parties• The media is so important, politicians spend a great deal of time working on their public “image”• They plan event that will attract media attention and even consider technical issues such as timing, location, lighting, camera angles, etc.• Good campaign managers know (1) take no more than 2 minutes of air time (2) show people something interesting and exciting• Newscasts are usually short and focus on “sound bites” (30-40 second reports).
The Media’s Impact:• A number of built in factors limit the media’s impact
1. Few people follow international, national, or local politics closely. Only 10% of electorate is politics closely. Only 10% of electorate is informed, and 15% of those who do voteinformed, and 15% of those who do vote. So, only a very few take into account what the media says
2. Most who care about politics listen to those sources they agree with. They ignore the campaign ads and newspaper articles about other candidates
• Also, most networks do not focus on public policy/ political programming.
• Advertisers pay for programming that is watched… sitcoms, dramas, etc.
• Exceptions are 60 minutes, 20/20, The O’Reilly Factor, Dateline NBC…
• Newspapers have a similar obsession with advertising, but still cover more public affairs
• Sports, entertainment, and travel sections often more appealing to readers than public policy stories
• Therefore, being an informed voter takes work!
Political Party: A group of persons who seek to control government the winning of elections. 1,
There are two major parties in American politics today: Democrats & Republicans
Another definition of “political party” is a group of persons, joined together on the basis of common principles, who seek to control the government in order to affect certain public policies and programs. 1.
Some argue this does not fit the American version… the Democrats and Republicans are election oriented, not principle/issue oriented.
Party Coalitions TodayParty Coalitions Today
Why are Political Parties important? The are the major mechanisms behind broad policies and leadership choices.
2. They act as a “the voice of the the voice of the governedgoverned” and some argue that parties are how the will of the people are best expressed.
Political parties bring conflicting groups together to find “common ground”. The soften extremist views and seek compromise and unity.
Nominating Candidates: 4• The major function of a political party is to nominate, or name, candidates for public office… and then they help them win their elections.
• Parties are the mechanism for recruiting and choosing candidates and for gathering support for them.
Informing and Activating Supporters:• Parties inform the people, spark their interest, inspire them, and get them to participate in public affairs. • Voters are inspired to campaign for candidates, take stands on issues, and criticize opponents. • Parties create campaign materials (buttons, posters, bumper stickers) and propaganda materials (pamphlets, TV, internet, newspaper and radio commercials, speeches, and rallies) to show their issues in the best light.
Nominating Candidates: 4• The major function of a political party is to nominate, or name, candidates for public office… and then they help them win their elections.
• Parties are the mechanism for recruiting and choosing candidates and for gathering support for them.
Informing and Activating Supporters:• Parties inform the people, spark their interest, inspire them, and get them to participate in public affairs. • Voters are inspired to campaign for candidates, take stands on issues, and criticize opponents. • Parties create campaign materials (buttons, posters, bumper stickers) and propaganda materials (pamphlets, TV, internet, newspaper and radio commercials, speeches, and rallies) to show their issues in the best light.
The Bonding Agent Function: The party works like an insurance agreement ensuring losses against 3rd parties… so a party acts like a bonding agent, ensuring that candidates perform well in elections. It tries to ensure that candidates are qualified, and are of good character.
Governing: Government in the US is GOVERNMENT BY PARTY! • Officeholders are chosen by on party basis• Legislatures are arranged by party and are generally very partisan.• Most appointments to executive offices are made with party considerations• Parties provide channels for legislatures to work together
The Bonding Agent Function: The party works like an insurance agreement ensuring losses against 3rd parties… so a party acts like a bonding agent, ensuring that candidates perform well in elections. It tries to ensure that candidates are qualified, and are of good character.
Governing: Government in the US is GOVERNMENT BY PARTY! • Officeholders are chosen by on party basis• Legislatures are arranged by party and are generally very partisan.• Most appointments to executive offices are made with party considerations• Parties provide channels for legislatures to work together
Acting as Watchdog: Parties act as watchdogs over the publics business. The party out of power usually takes this role by criticizing the party and behavior of the party in power (in the executive branch).
The party out of power tries to convince voters that they should “throw the rascals out”. The party out of power tried to become “the voice of the people” by expressing their concerns. They become “the loyal opposition”---- opposed to the party in power but loyal to the people!
Acting as Watchdog: Parties act as watchdogs over the publics business. The party out of power usually takes this role by criticizing the party and behavior of the party in power (in the executive branch).
The party out of power tries to convince voters that they should “throw the rascals out”. The party out of power tried to become “the voice of the people” by expressing their concerns. They become “the loyal opposition”---- opposed to the party in power but loyal to the people!
• The US has had a two major political parties and has for some time.• In many states and local governments, one party is dominant.MA: DemocratsTX: RepublicansAustin, TX: DemocratsExeter, RI: Republican
• There are several reasons why the 2 party system has flourished 7
• The US has had a two major political parties and has for some time.• In many states and local governments, one party is dominant.MA: DemocratsTX: RepublicansAustin, TX: DemocratsExeter, RI: Republican
• There are several reasons why the 2 party system has flourished 7
1. Historical basis
• Rooted in the beginning of the nation- it started as a 2-party system– Federalists – Anti-Federalists
• Framers didn’t intentionally do this, they didn’t want parties b.c. they wanted a unified country
2. Force of Tradition
• Most Americans accept the idea of the 2-party system b.c. there has always been one
• Challenges to the system by 3rd parties have little success
3. Electoral system• Having smaller political parties doesn’t work
well w. our electoral process• The election process discourages minor
parties:• Single-member district (1E)= contests in
which only one candidate is elected to each office on the ballot, most districts in US are like this
• Bipartisan (1G)= 2 major parties find common ground here & they make laws that make it harder for minor parties to win
4. American Ideological Consensus
• Americans are homogenous = share the same ideals, basic principals, & patterns of belief
• Broad Consensus (1H)- general agreement among various groups on matters of importance
• We have not experienced serious political divisions
Democratic donkey was first associated with Democrat Andrew Jackson's 1828 presidential campaign. His opponents called him a jackass (a donkey), and Jackson decided to use the image of the strong-willed animal on his campaign posters. Later, cartoonist Thomas Nast used the Democratic donkey in newspaper cartoons and made the symbol famous.
Nast invented another famous symbol—the Republican elephant. In a cartoon that appeared in Harper's Weekly in 1874, Nast drew a donkey clothed in lion's skin, scaring away all the animals at the zoo. One of those animals, the elephant, was labeled “The Republican Vote.” That's all it took for the elephant to become associated with the Republican Party.Democrats today say the donkey is smart and brave, while Republicans say the elephant is strong and dignified.
Democratic donkey was first associated with Democrat Andrew Jackson's 1828 presidential campaign. His opponents called him a jackass (a donkey), and Jackson decided to use the image of the strong-willed animal on his campaign posters. Later, cartoonist Thomas Nast used the Democratic donkey in newspaper cartoons and made the symbol famous.
Nast invented another famous symbol—the Republican elephant. In a cartoon that appeared in Harper's Weekly in 1874, Nast drew a donkey clothed in lion's skin, scaring away all the animals at the zoo. One of those animals, the elephant, was labeled “The Republican Vote.” That's all it took for the elephant to become associated with the Republican Party.Democrats today say the donkey is smart and brave, while Republicans say the elephant is strong and dignified.
Four types of minor parties:
1. Ideological PartiesIdeological Parties: Based on set of beliefs (social, economic, political)
• Based on some kind of Marxist thought (not not all)• e.g. socialist, socialist labor, socialist, socialist labor,
socialist worker, communistsocialist worker, communist
• Libertarians PartyLibertarians Party is non-socialist example• Men Want to do away with
most governmental functions• Don’t win many votes, but have
been long lived.
Four types of minor parties:
1. Ideological PartiesIdeological Parties: Based on set of beliefs (social, economic, political)
• Based on some kind of Marxist thought (not not all)• e.g. socialist, socialist labor, socialist, socialist labor,
socialist worker, communistsocialist worker, communist
• Libertarians PartyLibertarians Party is non-socialist example• Men Want to do away with
most governmental functions• Don’t win many votes, but have
been long lived.
2. Single-Issue PartiesSingle-Issue Parties: Concentrate on one public policy matter (usually short lived)
• Names indicate primary concern:• Free Soil PartyFree Soil Party-- end expansion
of slavery• Know Nothing Party (American Know Nothing Party (American
Party)Party) - opposed immigration, particularly of Irish Catholics
• Right to Life PartyRight to Life Party-- opposes abortion
2. Single-Issue PartiesSingle-Issue Parties: Concentrate on one public policy matter (usually short lived)
• Names indicate primary concern:• Free Soil PartyFree Soil Party-- end expansion
of slavery• Know Nothing Party (American Know Nothing Party (American
Party)Party) - opposed immigration, particularly of Irish Catholics
• Right to Life PartyRight to Life Party-- opposes abortion
3. Economic Protest Parties: No clear cut ideological base, unlike socialists which focus on economic issues
• Focus on their “enemies” such as:• Monetary system, Wall Street
Bankers, railroad, foreign imports• Examples of Parties:
• Greenback Party: (1876-1884) appealed to farmers- free silver, federal regulation of railroads, income tax, labor legislation
• Populist Party: (1890’s) public ownership of railroad, telephone, and telephone. Wanted lower tariffs, adoption of initiative and referendum
• These parties often form in times of economic turmoil- also short lived
3. Economic Protest Parties: No clear cut ideological base, unlike socialists which focus on economic issues
• Focus on their “enemies” such as:• Monetary system, Wall Street
Bankers, railroad, foreign imports• Examples of Parties:
• Greenback Party: (1876-1884) appealed to farmers- free silver, federal regulation of railroads, income tax, labor legislation
• Populist Party: (1890’s) public ownership of railroad, telephone, and telephone. Wanted lower tariffs, adoption of initiative and referendum
• These parties often form in times of economic turmoil- also short lived
4. Splinter Parties: Break away from major parties (usually short lived)
“Republican Splinters”:• “Bull Moose” Progressive Party: (1912)• Theodore Roosevelt challenged Howard
Taft’s Republican nomination • called for women's suffrage• recall of judicial decisions• easier amending the U.S. Constitution
social welfare legislation for women and children, workers' compensation
• limited injunctions in strikes• farm relief• required health insurance in industry• new inheritance taxes and income taxes• improvement of inland waterways• limitation of naval armaments
4. Splinter Parties: Break away from major parties (usually short lived)
“Republican Splinters”:• “Bull Moose” Progressive Party: (1912)• Theodore Roosevelt challenged Howard
Taft’s Republican nomination • called for women's suffrage• recall of judicial decisions• easier amending the U.S. Constitution
social welfare legislation for women and children, workers' compensation
• limited injunctions in strikes• farm relief• required health insurance in industry• new inheritance taxes and income taxes• improvement of inland waterways• limitation of naval armaments
“Republican Splinters”:• Progressive Party: (1924)
Candidate Robert La Follette called for
• government ownership of the railroads and electric utilities,
• cheap credit for farmers • outlawing child labor• stronger laws to help labor
unions• more protection of civil liberties• end to US imperialism in Latin
America• a plebiscite before any president
could lead the nation into war.
“Republican Splinters”:• Progressive Party: (1924)
Candidate Robert La Follette called for
• government ownership of the railroads and electric utilities,
• cheap credit for farmers • outlawing child labor• stronger laws to help labor
unions• more protection of civil liberties• end to US imperialism in Latin
America• a plebiscite before any president
could lead the nation into war.
• “Democratic Splinters”:• Populist Party: (1890’s)
advocated• public ownership of railroad
telephone, and telephone• lower tariffs• adoption of initiative and
referendum
• Progressive Party: (1948) led by former FDR VP Henry Wallace who disagreed with Harry Truman’s anti-Soviet policies. advocated
• end to segregation• full voting rights for blacks• universal government health
insurance.
• “Democratic Splinters”:• Populist Party: (1890’s)
advocated• public ownership of railroad
telephone, and telephone• lower tariffs• adoption of initiative and
referendum
• Progressive Party: (1948) led by former FDR VP Henry Wallace who disagreed with Harry Truman’s anti-Soviet policies. advocated
• end to segregation• full voting rights for blacks• universal government health
insurance.
• “Democratic Splinters”:• States’ Rights “Dixiecrat”
Party: (1948) Led by Strom Thurmond advocated
• retention of Jim Crow laws• racial segregation.
• American Independent Party (1968) led by former Alabama Governor George Wallace who advocated
• A reversal of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
• opposed to federal government welfare programs.
• “Democratic Splinters”:• States’ Rights “Dixiecrat”
Party: (1948) Led by Strom Thurmond advocated
• retention of Jim Crow laws• racial segregation.
• American Independent Party (1968) led by former Alabama Governor George Wallace who advocated
• A reversal of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
• opposed to federal government welfare programs.
One Party that does not fit into any category is the Green Party USA (founded 1984).
Began as single issue party, but…
In 2000, Ralph Nadar accepted their endorsement as President and adopted a variety of issues:• environmental protection• universal health care• gay rights• restraints on corporate power• campaign finance reform• opposition to global free trade• more…
One Party that does not fit into any category is the Green Party USA (founded 1984).
Began as single issue party, but…
In 2000, Ralph Nadar accepted their endorsement as President and adopted a variety of issues:• environmental protection• universal health care• gay rights• restraints on corporate power• campaign finance reform• opposition to global free trade• more…
Most Americans do not support third parties, but they do have an impact.
Examples: (sec 3, #4)
1. They set precedentsset precedents-- The Anti-Masons had the first national conventions… ever since, major parties have used this as their primary way of picking their presidential candidate.
2. Third parties have a “spoiler rolespoiler role” on occasion (Green Party in 2000, Reform Party 1992, Bull Moose in 1912).
3. They are critic and innovatorscritic and innovators and take clear cut stands on issues and have drawn attention to matters majors parties ignored. • When their issues gain support, major
parties often adopt them (income tax, women’s suffrage, old age pension, railroad regulation…)
Most Americans do not support third parties, but they do have an impact.
Examples: (sec 3, #4)
1. They set precedentsset precedents-- The Anti-Masons had the first national conventions… ever since, major parties have used this as their primary way of picking their presidential candidate.
2. Third parties have a “spoiler rolespoiler role” on occasion (Green Party in 2000, Reform Party 1992, Bull Moose in 1912).
3. They are critic and innovatorscritic and innovators and take clear cut stands on issues and have drawn attention to matters majors parties ignored. • When their issues gain support, major
parties often adopt them (income tax, women’s suffrage, old age pension, railroad regulation…)
Both the Republican and Democratic Party are
decentralized, fragmented, disjointed, and beset by
factions and internal squabbling. (sec 3, 6)
• Neither party has a chain of command• Parties are only loosely tied to the national party• Local parties are often independent of state parties• Parties have different wings (liberal, moderate, conservative)• Local, State, and National parties usually cooperate, but not always
Both the Republican and Democratic Party are
decentralized, fragmented, disjointed, and beset by
factions and internal squabbling. (sec 3, 6)
• Neither party has a chain of command• Parties are only loosely tied to the national party• Local parties are often independent of state parties• Parties have different wings (liberal, moderate, conservative)• Local, State, and National parties usually cooperate, but not always
R-RIR-RI
R-AZR-AZ
R-MSR-MS
D-MAD-MA
D-CTD-CT
D-GAD-GA
(sec 3, 7) The President’s Party is usually more solidly united and better organized than the opposing party.
The president is an automatic party leader who has instant access to the media, and the more popular he is, the more power he has. The president
can use his power to dispense favors.
The opposition party finds it difficult to find a party leader,
and personalities regularly compete for the honor.
(sec 3, 7) The President’s Party is usually more solidly united and better organized than the opposing party.
The president is an automatic party leader who has instant access to the media, and the more popular he is, the more power he has. The president
can use his power to dispense favors.
The opposition party finds it difficult to find a party leader,
and personalities regularly compete for the honor.
The Parties are decentralized because of Federalism. Offices are won and lost on the state and national levels… and therefore the parties have to be share power in the same way the federal and governments do. (secd 3, 8)
The Parties are decentralized because of Federalism. Offices are won and lost on the state and national levels… and therefore the parties have to be share power in the same way the federal and governments do. (secd 3, 8)
Candidate selection is an intraparty process. Nominations are made within the party and this can cause great divisiveness. It pits Republicans against Republicans and Democrats against Democrats.
So… the prime function of the parties (nominating candidates) also can fragment it (sec 3, 9)
Candidate selection is an intraparty process. Nominations are made within the party and this can cause great divisiveness. It pits Republicans against Republicans and Democrats against Democrats.
So… the prime function of the parties (nominating candidates) also can fragment it (sec 3, 9)
Both parties have 4 basic elements: (sec 4, 10)1. The National Convention2. The National Committee3. The National Chairpersonship4. The Congressional Campaign
1. TThe he National ConventionNational Convention• Considered “parties” national
voice• Meets summer of presidential
elections to pick Presidential and VP candidates.
• Adopts party rules and party platform
Both parties have 4 basic elements: (sec 4, 10)1. The National Convention2. The National Committee3. The National Chairpersonship4. The Congressional Campaign
1. TThe he National ConventionNational Convention• Considered “parties” national
voice• Meets summer of presidential
elections to pick Presidential and VP candidates.
• Adopts party rules and party platform
2. The National CommitteeThe National CommitteeAt one time, party national committees, where the
parties affairs are handled, consisted of a national committeewoman and committeeman from each state. In recent years, both parties
have increased their membership.
The RNCRNC also seats the state chairs as well as the chairs from DC, Guam, American Samoa,
Guam, and the Virgin Islands. It also seats leaders from related groups like the National
Federation of Republican Women.
The DNC also seats the state and territorial chairs as well as state vice chairs. It also includes
members from the party organization of larger states and 75 at-large members. The DNC also
includes congressmen, governors, mayors, and Young Democrats.
Most of its work centers on planning and staging the national convention.
2. The National CommitteeThe National CommitteeAt one time, party national committees, where the
parties affairs are handled, consisted of a national committeewoman and committeeman from each state. In recent years, both parties
have increased their membership.
The RNCRNC also seats the state chairs as well as the chairs from DC, Guam, American Samoa,
Guam, and the Virgin Islands. It also seats leaders from related groups like the National
Federation of Republican Women.
The DNC also seats the state and territorial chairs as well as state vice chairs. It also includes
members from the party organization of larger states and 75 at-large members. The DNC also
includes congressmen, governors, mayors, and Young Democrats.
Most of its work centers on planning and staging the national convention.
3.3. The National ChairpersonshipThe National ChairpersonshipThe National Chairperson is selected
immediately after the national convention for a four year term. The choice is made by the nominated presidential candidate and approved by the national committee.
The national chairperson directs the work of the party headquarters and its staff in
Washington, DC.
They spend most of their time (non presidential election years) promoting party unity, raising money, recruiting
new voters… preparing for presidential election.
During presidential election years, they are focused on the election!
3.3. The National ChairpersonshipThe National ChairpersonshipThe National Chairperson is selected
immediately after the national convention for a four year term. The choice is made by the nominated presidential candidate and approved by the national committee.
The national chairperson directs the work of the party headquarters and its staff in
Washington, DC.
They spend most of their time (non presidential election years) promoting party unity, raising money, recruiting
new voters… preparing for presidential election.
During presidential election years, they are focused on the election!
4.4.Congressional CampaignCongressional Campaign
Each party also has a campaign committee for both houses of
Congress.
Their job is to reelect incumbents, replace retiring members of
congress, and unseat vulnerable incumbents in the
other party.
The members of the committees are chosen by colleagues
(usually those in “safe seats”) and serve for 2 years.
4.4.Congressional CampaignCongressional Campaign
Each party also has a campaign committee for both houses of
Congress.
Their job is to reelect incumbents, replace retiring members of
congress, and unseat vulnerable incumbents in the
other party.
The members of the committees are chosen by colleagues
(usually those in “safe seats”) and serve for 2 years.
Rep. Tom
ReynoldsNRCC
Rep. Tom
ReynoldsNRCC
Sen. Elizabeth
DoleNRSC
Sen. Elizabeth
DoleNRSC
Sen. Charles
SchumerNDSC
Sen. Charles
SchumerNDSC
Rep. Rahm
EmanuelNDSC
Rep. Rahm
EmanuelNDSC
State organization: Most state party structure is set by state law. (sec 3, # 12)
• Have a State central committee headed by a state chairman• Can be a political figure but usually fronts for major state elected leaders• Work to further party interests in their state• build party unity• find candidates• fund raising
State organization: Most state party structure is set by state law. (sec 3, # 12)
• Have a State central committee headed by a state chairman• Can be a political figure but usually fronts for major state elected leaders• Work to further party interests in their state• build party unity• find candidates• fund raising
Local organizationLocal organization: In most : In most cases, local party structures cases, local party structures follow the electoral map of the follow the electoral map of the State with a party unit in each State with a party unit in each district in which elective district in which elective offices are filled:offices are filled:• Congressional DistrictsCongressional Districts• CountiesCounties• CitiesCities• TownsTowns• wards (a unit into which cities wards (a unit into which cities are often divided to elect city are often divided to elect city council members)council members)• precincts (smallest unit of precincts (smallest unit of election administration: voters election administration: voters report to one polling place)report to one polling place)
Local organizationLocal organization: In most : In most cases, local party structures cases, local party structures follow the electoral map of the follow the electoral map of the State with a party unit in each State with a party unit in each district in which elective district in which elective offices are filled:offices are filled:• Congressional DistrictsCongressional Districts• CountiesCounties• CitiesCities• TownsTowns• wards (a unit into which cities wards (a unit into which cities are often divided to elect city are often divided to elect city council members)council members)• precincts (smallest unit of precincts (smallest unit of election administration: voters election administration: voters report to one polling place)report to one polling place)
Precincts of Harris Cty, TXPrecincts of Harris Cty, TX
1.The Party Organization: leaders, activists, and hangers-on who control and run the party machinery.
2.The Party in the Electorate: party loyalists who vote a straight party ticket
3.The Party in Government: party officeholders at all levels (sec 1, # 3)
1.The Party Organization: leaders, activists, and hangers-on who control and run the party machinery.
2.The Party in the Electorate: party loyalists who vote a straight party ticket
3.The Party in Government: party officeholders at all levels (sec 1, # 3)
The History of political parties
• 4 major eras: (listed here, described on next 4 slides)– (1800-1860) 1st Era of Democrats– (1860-1932) 1st Era of Republicans– (1932-1968) 2nd Era of Democrats– (1960-Present) Era of Divided Government
(1800-1860) 1st Era of Democrats
• 1800- Thomas Jefferson became president
• Andrew Jackson- brought many changes like: (sec 2, #5) – voting for all white males – Huge increase in # of elected offices around
the country– spoils system (1C) (gave gov’t jobs to those
who support the winning party)
1820s (sec 2, #6)
• Democratic- Republicans (had been one party & were unrivaled) but now = split into many factions (competing groups)– National Republicans / Whigs vs. – Jacksonian Democrats
Issues: conflict over public lands, Second Bank of the US, high tariffs, slavery
(1860-1932) Era of Republicans
• 1861- 1st Rep pres- Abe Lincoln
• After Civil War- Republicans in pwr
• Republicans were in pwr for most of this time
• Farmers, laborers, businessmen, newly free African Americans
(1932-1968) 2nd Era of Democrats
• 1932- FDR elected president• Great Depression = role of gov’t shifts-
series of social & economic welfare programs (i.e. New Deal)
• FDR- Dem• Truman- Dem (VP to FDR, took over when he died)• Eisenhower- Rep• JFK- Dem• Lyndon Johnson- Dem (VP for JFK, took over when he
died)
(1968- present) Era of divided gov’t
• Neither party has managed to hold both presidency & majority seat in Congress for very long
• Johnson- Dem• Nixon- Rep• Ford- Rep (took over after Nixon resigned)• Carter- Dem• Reagan- Rep• Bush Sr. - Rep• Clinton- Dem• Bush Jr. - Rep• Obama- Dem
To most Americans, parties are a “necessary evil” which must be watched and controlled.
Parties have been in decline since the 1960’s, and some feel the party system is at a point of collapse.
The weakened state of parties are a result of:1. Sharp decline in voter identification with parties
(many want to be independents)2. Increase in “split-ticket” voting3. Parties have become “open” as result of internal
conflict and disorganization.4. Changes in technology of campaigning (TV, internet,
professional campaign managers, direct-mail. Candidates can now speak directly to the public
5. Growth of single issue organizations with political action committees (PACS)
To most Americans, parties are a “necessary evil” which must be watched and controlled.
Parties have been in decline since the 1960’s, and some feel the party system is at a point of collapse.
The weakened state of parties are a result of:1. Sharp decline in voter identification with parties
(many want to be independents)2. Increase in “split-ticket” voting3. Parties have become “open” as result of internal
conflict and disorganization.4. Changes in technology of campaigning (TV, internet,
professional campaign managers, direct-mail. Candidates can now speak directly to the public
5. Growth of single issue organizations with political action committees (PACS)
• All American have some interests they want represented and this is guaranteed by the Right to “peaceably assemble, and petition the Government for redress of grievances”.
Defining Interest Groups: • Interest group: an organization of people with similar goals who enter the political process to try to achieve those aims.• Interests groups can attack at any level… federal, state, local. And when policies are implemented, they can attacked at the bureaucratic level through the courts.• The multiplicity of policy arenas helps distinguish interest groups from political groups… interest groups support and promote candidates for office… political parties run their own candidates who are supported or opposed by interest groups.• Interest groups do not run their own candidates.• Also, Interest groups are policy specialists; political parties are policy generalists… interests groups can only take on a few specific issues and cannot appeal to everyone.
Why Interest Groups get bad Press:• Lobbyists have a reputation of being dishonest and desiring to win influence over politicians at any cost• Remember… Madison and many other of the Founding Fathers feared interest groups and political parties equally (factions)• This why we try to control special interests through disclosure laws (who are they, whom do they represent, and what is their interest)• Political Action Committees (PACs) must record where they get their more and how they spend it• Congressmen must file records detailing financial transactions to avoid hidden money• Most transactions between lobbyists and politicians are done honestly… but many political scientists and activists now argue that even legal forms of lobbying pose great threats to democracy
Pluralist TheoryPluralist Theory:: A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for
its own preferred policies.
A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened- its an extreme,
perverted, or exaggerated form of pluralism.
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Pluralists theorists offer a group theory of politics, which contains some essential arguments:
1. Groups provide a key link between people and government: All Legitimate interests groups can get a fair hearing if they are well organized
2. Groups Compete: Labor, business, farmers, consumers, environmentalists, and others constantly make competing claims on the government
3. No one group is likely to become more dominant: For every action there is a reaction… when one group strongly asserts its power, another group will organize to counter it.
4. Groups usually play by the “rules of the game”. In the US, groups fight fairly with only a few lying, cheating, stealing, etc…
5. Groups weak in one resource can use another. Business has money, labor has people… Legitimate groups can effect public policy one way or another
Pluralists would never suggest that some groups are no more powerful than others... But, throughout history, groups once oppressed have organized and
influenced policy.
Ultimately, pluralists argue that lobbying is open to all and is therefore not a pluralists argue that lobbying is open to all and is therefore not a problemproblem
• Elites argue that power is held by a few key people, groups, and institutions--- The number of groups does not matter because their The number of groups does not matter because their power is unequal!power is unequal!• They assert that 1/3 of the top institutional positions (corporate boards, foundation boards, university trustees, etc.) are held by people who hold more than one such position
Those who hold the elitist view make he following assertions:• Numerous groups does not make a difference because these groups do not have equal power• Tremendous power is held by the largest organizations• When it comes to big policy decisions, corporate elites always win! Other groups win only minor victories
The holders of the elitist theory contend that even honest lobbying is a even honest lobbying is a problem because it benefits the few at the expense of the manyproblem because it benefits the few at the expense of the many
Hyper-pluralists associate themselves with Theodore Lowi’s ideas about interest group liberalisminterest group liberalism::This is the belief that government appeases the interest of all groups… this causes agencies to proliferate, regulations to expand, programs to multiply, and budgets to skyrocket
EXAMPLE 1EXAMPLE 1: Environmentalists want clean air…government passes clean air rules businesses argue regulations are too expensive… government gives them tax write-offs
EXAMPLE 2EXAMPLE 2:Cancer research show tobacco use causes cancer…government launches anti-smoking campaignsTobacco sales drop…government give greater subsidies to tobacco farmers
Interest group liberalism is promoted by the network of sub-governmentssub-governments (iron iron trianglestriangles) in the American political system that exercise a great deal of power over specific policy areas
IronTriangle
Key interest group leadersGovernment agency in charge of administering policy
Members of congressional committees handling policy
All elements composing subgovernments have one goal: SELF INTERESTSELF INTEREST!1. Key interest group leaders: Tobacco Institute, Retail Tobacco Distributors of America, tobacco growers.2. Government agency in charge of administering policy: Department of Agriculture3. Members of congressional committees handling policy: House Tobacco SubcommitteeTo a hyperpluralist, this group/government relationship is too cozy! It tries to favor every side, and does not make hard choices.
The hyperpluralist position on groups politics is that:• Groups are too powerful and government seeks to appease them all• Interest group liberalism is aggravated by numerous subgovernments• Trying to please all groups leads to contradictory and confusing policiesOne important fact: the number of competing interest groups has made the “cozy relationship” with government harder to sustain.
The Declining Coverage of Conventions on Network TVThe Declining Coverage of Conventions on Network TV
See the “Power 25” Lobbying groups on
page 329.
What matters? The same as other
things in life…
1. Size matters! 2. Intensity3. Financial resources
E.E. Schattschneider wrote, “pressure politics is essentially the politics of small groups
Effective GroupsEffective Groups: Ineffective GroupsIneffective Groups:Doctors PatientsOil Companies Energy Conservationists Tobacco Companies Health Advocates
Potential Groups vs. Actual GroupsPotential Groups vs. Actual Groups:Potential groups: people who might form groups due to a common interest Actual groups: those in potential groups who actually get involved (join the group)
ExampleExample:Consumer groups are tiny in number compared to the number of consumer groupsBut some groups organize their potential groups well… National Beer Wholesalers Association, Tobacco Institute, Air Transport Association… these groups are tightly organized, unlike consumers
Why become part of a group? The Logic of Collective Action explain it. There are power in numbers and groups (unlike individuals) seek to provide common common goodsgoods (something of value like money, a tax write-off, prestige, clean air, etc)
When unions fight for a higher minimum wage, all low wage earners benefit… so why don’t people just sit back and let others do the hard work for which they benefit (no dues, no strikes, etc)? Answer? They do--- this is known as the freeloader freeloader problemproblem
Olson’s law of large groupsOlson’s law of large groups says that the larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good… and the larger the group, the more free-riders!
In small groups members share s of the collective goods; in large groups, members only get a tiny share of the policy gain… so the larger the group, the more likely one is to say “let somebody else do it”.
EXAMPLEEXAMPLE: Consumer group sues airline industry for price fixing asking a return of $10 million to consumers (through air fare reductions)… they win and 60 airlines pay $165,000 each… this amounts to 4¢ per American--- Obviously, limited number of carriers makes it easier to organize
Olson’s law of large groupsOlson’s law of large groups shows why groups with few members are most effective
Elite theorist want us to think that it is all about money… because there are a limited number multinational corporations have an easier time organizing themselves
The way to overcome Olson’s law of large Olson’s law of large groupsgroups is to attract people with selective benefits (goods- such as publications, travel discounts, insurance, etc.) that a group can restrict. The AARP is a good example.
• Politicians realize that intense feelings by both large and small groups are psychologically advantageous… and votes can be won or lost on single issues • A single issue group: narrow interest, dislike compromise, single-mindedly pursues goal (e.g. Anti-Iraq war activists, opponents of gun control, abortion, nuclear power, etc)• The Anti-war crowd is a good example… their tactics include vandalism, protesting people who oppose them and only generally (but not completely) support them…• The abortion issue has mobilized both sides with pro-lifers blocking entrances to clinics… pro-choicers have mobilized “escorts” to walk patients through the protest lines (much of the pro-choice activity has come as a result of Webster v. Reproductive Health Services• Both groups have clear positions, not subject to compromise, and are regular voters• candidates for office will take heat from one side or the other!
Money matters… money is regularly funneled into campaigns for the purpose of promoting political interests (e.g. Charles Keating)
But, the power of the dollar does not always guarantee success for special interests… Tax Reform Act of 1986. A key sponsor was Bob Packwood, who was one of the top recipients who turned on his special interest supporters. He argue that getting rid of tax loop holes would have to be done “cold turkey”, eliminated all but a few. The success of the bill proved money interests did not always win out in Congress
Reagan signing Tax Reform Act of 1986
• Between 1959 and 1995, interest groups skyrocketed from 5,843 to 23,298 (as well as the diversity of groups)• 80% originated from occupational, industrial, or professional memberships.• In 1960, 66% of the groups were located in Washington, DC… today, over 90% are located in DC• The explosion of interest groups are greatly due to the rise in technology (computerized lists of names and phone numbers, easily arranged in data bases by state and district… address labels can be printed out and people can be called by automated systems• Lobbyists also send thousands of faxes and emails to members of congress• Technology has made the process of lobbying easier
There are 4 basic strategies employed by interest groups:
1. Lobbying2. Electioneering3. Litigation4. Appealing to the Public
• There term “lobbyist” was coined because they were forced to wait for Congressmen in the lobbies of the hotels they once stayed (before they had offices)
• Lobbying is best defined (Lester Milbrath) as a “communication, bys someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decisionmaker with the hope of influencing a decision.
Two Types of Lobbyists:1. Regular paid employees of a
corporation, union or association2. Hired on a temporary basis
Washington, DC is full of “Lobbyists for hire”
Richard Berman, top DC lobbyist
Disgraced lobbyist Jack Abramoff
There are 4 important ways lobbyists help members of Congress:1.1. Important source of informationImportant source of information: lobbyists can
be allies because info is power!2.2. The can hap politicians with political strategy for The can hap politicians with political strategy for
getting legislation throughgetting legislation through: The President and Congress regularly work with lobbyists as part of strategy teams
3.3. They can help formulate campaign strategy and They can help formulate campaign strategy and get group members behind reelection get group members behind reelection campaignscampaigns: Labor unions often get people out in force for candidates
4.4. They are a source of ideas and innovationThey are a source of ideas and innovation: Lobbyists can’t introduce bills, but are often eager to sign on t their ideas
Experts disagree on the effectiveness of lobbying. Some say lobbyists are too disorganized to be effective and are best at providing information… the other side argues that there are scores of examples of lobbyists helping to overturn legislation passed only a year prior
ElectioneeringElectioneering: Groups support candidates financially and through gaining member support for the candidate
This is done for obvious reasons--- the more candidates in office who solidly support your ideas, the easier passage of (or prevention of) legislation will be.
Political Action Committees (PACs)Political Action Committees (PACs):: Political funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms. PACs can be created by corporations, unions, or other interest groups, but they must register with the Federal Election Commission which monitors their expenditures
PACs have grown from 608 in 1974 to 3,855 in 2000.
PACs generally give their money to incumbents realizing they will get the best return on their investment
Interest groups have common traits and functions and have the common goal of attracting a membership that is interested in affecting public policymaking.
• Interest groups have utilized the courts when they fail in Congress or when laws are vague and ineffective• Environmentalists have hundreds of suits against governments for failure to enforce the Clear Air Act… the environmentalists may not always win but government agencies will be more inclined to consider environmental issues• The 1950’s saw interests groups win huge victories in courts on issues such as school desegregation, equal housing, and labor market equality.• As a result of more suits, the number of lawyers licensed to practice in DC has risen from 11,000 in 1972 to 63,000 in 1994• One tactic used by group lawyers is the writing of amicus curiaeamicus curiae (friend of the court) briefs in which they will express the views and arguments of their interest group• In Regents of University of California v. Bakke, 100 groups filed amicus briefs• A more direct strategy is the filing of class action class action lawsuitlawsuit and has become “the most effective way to remedy mass wrongs” which permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated
• Even the wealthiest of groups seek to cultivate a positive public opinion of their organization:• The American Bankers Associationcontacted its customers asking them to write Congress to protest a tax on savings account tax with-holdings… after receiving 22 million postcards, Congress capitulated!• Reputation means everything!
• The Teamsters want to be know as a group of hardworking men and women… not a group influenced by the mafia• The Christian Coalition wants to be known as a group of traditional conservatives of faith… not a group of right-wing intolerant theocrats• The National Education Association would like to be seen as an advocate for children and teachers… not a left-wing organization which gives massive amounts of money to liberal causes
• Interests groups have always spent money on political matters
• AT&T spent money to convince people its monopoly was necessary; The American Medical Association paid millions to convince Americans that Truman’s socialized medicine was proposal was bad for the country
• Running effective PR campaigns are now an essential part of many groups!
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Political Scientists have loosely categorized the types of groups that exist:
1. Economic Issues:• Deal with wages, prices, and profits• There are 3 types of interests:
• Labor• Agriculture• Business
2. Environmental Interests:• Promote pollution control, energy
conservation, nature conservation3. Equality Interests:• Groups representing interests of
minorities and women have made great gains in society
• They fought for voting, housing, employment, educational interests, etc.
4. Consumer and Public Interest Lobbies:
• Public interest lobbies seek a “collective good” which benefits all, not just members
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